speech final

fallacy

an error in reasoning

target audience

the portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade

reasoning

the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of the evidence

generic "he"

the us of "he" to refer to both women and men

use language clearly (use familiar words)

turning big bloated and confusing words into more common generic ones easier for audience to understand

invalid analogy

An analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike.

simile

An explicit comparison, introduced with the word "like" or "as," between things that are essentially different yet have something in common

metaphor

An implicit comparison, not introduced with the word "like" or "as," between two things that are essentially different yet have something in common.

how listeners process persuasive messages

In fact, persuasion is something a speaker does with an audience.Instead, they engage in a mental give-and-take with the speaker. While they listen, they assess the speaker's credibility, delivery, supporting materials, language, reasoning, and emotional appeals. They may respond positively at one point, negatively at another. At times they may argue, inside their own minds, with the speaker. This mental give-and-take is especially vigorous when listeners are highly involved with the topic and believe it has a direct bearing on their lives.

bar graph

a graph that uses vertical or horizontal bars to show comparisons among two or more items

question of fact

a question about the truth or falsity of an assertion

question of value

a question about the worth, rightness, morality, and so forth of an idea or action

question of policy

a question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken

chart

a visual aid that summarizes a large block of information, usually in list form

graph

a visual aid used to show statistical trends and patterns

pie graph

a graph that highlights segments of a circle to show simple distribution patterns

line graph

a graph that uses one or more lines to show changes in statistics over time or space

cliche

A trite or overused expression.

Monroe's Motivated sequence

-1930s by Alan Monroe, a professor of speech at Purdue University, the motivated sequence is tailor-made for policy speeches that seek immediate action. 5 steps(psychology of persuasion): attention,need, satisfaction,visualization,action. -it is more detailed than problem-solution order. follows the process of human thinking & leads the listener step by step to the desired action. One indication of effectiveness =widely used by people who make their living by persuasion—especially advertisers. -use when you want to spur listeners to action

guidelines for presenting visual aids

-display visual aids where listeners can see them -avoid passing visual aids among the audience -display visual aids only while discussing them -explain visual aids clearly and concisely -talk to your audience, not to your visual aid -practice with your visual aid -check the room and equipment

guidelines for preparing visual aids

-prepare well in advance -keep visual and simple -make sure visual aids are large enough -use a limited amount of text -use fonts effectively -use color effectively -use images strategically

commemorative speeches

1-give info on topic, use examples,stats or visuals, etc. 2- fundamental purpose- not inform but inspire not just facts give essence 3-give emotion its important to you be creative use eloquent language 4-final words are effective end on a good note. 5-success depends on ability to put into language the thoughts and emotions .use language imaginatively to invest the occasion with dignity, meaning, and honest emotion(use Metaphor, simile, parallelism, repetition, antithesis, alliteration) 6- uses several of the language devices to provide the kind of formal tone(use of repetition, parallelism, and vivid language).

reasoning

2major concerns with respect to reasoning 1-make sure your own reasoning is sound. 2- must try to get listeners to agree with your reasoning. REASONING FROM SPECIFIC INSTANCES: No matter how many specific instances you give it is always possible that an exception exists.make sure the instances you present are fair, unbiased, and representative. reinforce your argument with statistics or testimony. REASONING FROM PRINCIPLE:You begin with a general statement then move to a minor premise and end with a specific conclusion. CAUSUAL REASONING:(the fact that one event happens after another does not mean that the first is the cause of the second.) -beware of assuming that events have only one cause.be wary of the temptation to attribute complex events to single causes. ANALOGICAL REASONING: used for question of policy most times/more likely to persuade audience if the analogy shows a truly parallel situation.

hasty generalization

A fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence.

fasle cause

A fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second.

ad hominem

A fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute.

either-or

A fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist.

red herring

A fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion.

bandwagon

A fallacy which assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable

appeal to novelty

A fallacy which assumes that something new is automatically better than something old.

appeal to tradition

A fallacy which assumes that something old is automatically better than something new.

slippery slope

A fallacy which assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented.

comparative advantages order

A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker's solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions.

problem-solution order

A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point presents a solution to the problem.

problem-cause- solution order

A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem, the second main point analyzes the causes of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem.

Monroe's motivated sequence

A method of organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action. The five steps of the motivated sequence are attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action.

speech to gain passive agreement

A persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy.

speech to gain immediate action

A persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy.

acceptance speech

A speech that gives thanks for a gift, an award, or some other form of public recognition.

commemorative speech(definition)

A speech that pays tribute to a person, a group of people, an institution, or an idea.

speech of presentation

A speech that presents someone a gift, an award, or some other form of public recognition.

creating common grounds

A technique in which a speaker connects himself or herself with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience.

clutter

Discourse that takes many more words than are necessary to express an idea.

building credibility

FACTORS:ffect a speaker's credibility, including sociability, dynamism, physical attractiveness, and perceived similarity between speaker and audience. main two factors: character and competence TYPES: initial, derived and terminal credibility ENHANCING YOUR CRED: -Explain Your Competence- enhance your credibility by advertising your expertise on the topic. -establish common ground with your audience-important at the start of a persuasive speech.first identify with your listeners. Show that you share their values, attitudes, and experiences. -Deliver Your Speeches Fluently, Expressively, and with Conviction

using language vividly (rhythm)

Language has a rhythm created by the choice and arrangement of words. Speakers, like poets, sometimes seek to exploit the rhythm of language to enhance the impact of their words. -parallelism -repetition -alliteration -antithesis

inclusive language

Language that does not stereotype, demean, or patronize people on the basis of gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or other factors.

using language vividly (imagery)

One sign of a good novelist is the ability to create word pictures that let you "see" the haunted house, or "hear" the birds chirping on a warm spring morning, or "taste" the hot enchiladas at a Mexican restaurant. Speakers can use imagery in much the same way to make their ideas come alive. Three ways to generate imagery are by using concrete words, simile, and metaphor.

analogical reasoning

Reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second.

reasoning from principle

Reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion.

casual reasoning

Reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between cause and effects

repetition

Reiteration of the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences.

alliteration

Repetition of the initial consonant sound of close or adjoining words.

credibility

The audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic. The two major factors influencing a speaker's credibility are competence and character.

need

The first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: Is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from current policy?

antithesis

The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, usually in parallel structure.

Denotative meaning

The literal or dictionary meaning of a word or phrase.

connotative meaning

The meaning suggested by the associations or emotions triggered by a word or phrase.

logos

The name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. The two major elements of logos are evidence and reasoning.

ethos

The name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as credibility.

pathos

The name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as emotional appeal.

burden of proof

The obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is necessary.

rhythm

The pattern of sound in a speech created by the choice and arrangement of words.

persuasion

The process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions.

plan

The second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: If there is a problem with current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem?

parallelism

The similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases, or sentences.

practicality

The third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: Will the speaker's plan solve the problem? Will it create new and more serious problems?

imagery

The use of vivid language to create mental images of objects, actions, or ideas.

persuasive speeches on questions of fact

WHAT: cannot be answered absolutely,No one knows the final answers but doesn't stop from persuading its the best answer. ANALYZING: persuasive speech on a question of fact is partisan. The speaker =advocate.aim=not to be impartial, but to present one view of the facts as persuasively as possible. The speaker may mention other views to shut them down. ORGANIZING: topically,main points in speech will present a reason why someone should agree with you

appealing to emotions

WHAT: pathos/react to question of policy and value most common emotions=fear, compassion,pride,anger,guilt, reverence GENERATING: -use emotional language -develop vivid examples -speak with sincerity and conviction ETHICS: -make sure it is appropriate to the speech topic. -question of policy, emotional appeals are necessary. -do something as a result of your speech= appeal to their hearts as well as to their heads -question of fact.=deal only in specific information and logic. -you should never substitute emotional appeals for evidence and reasoning. You should always build your persuasive speech on a firm foundation of facts and logic.Make sure your goals are ethically sound, that you are honest in what you say, and that you avoid namecalling and other forms of abusive language.

persuasive speeches on question of value

WHAT:demand value judgments — judgments based on a person's beliefs about what is right or wrong, good or bad, moral or immoral, proper or improper, fair or unfair. ANALYZING:questions of value are not simply matters of personal opinion or whim./must justify your claim. The first step is to define what you mean, you must establish your standards then you can show how it measures up against those standards. ORGANIZING:topically, devote 1st main point -establishing the standards for your value judgment 2nd- applying those standards to the subject of your speech.justify your judgment against some identifiable standards.

persuasive speeches on questions of policy

WHAT:they deal with specific courses of action. Questions of policy involve questions of fact and value, But questions of policy go beyond questions of fact or value to decide whether something should or should not be done, questions of policy usually include the word "should," TYPES: speeches to gain passive agreement and to gain immediate action ANALYZING:need, plan and practically /be prepared to show it works ORGANIZING: problem-solution order, problem-cause-solution order, comparative advantages order, and Monroe's motivated sequence.

thesauras

a book of synonyms

font

a complete set of type of the same design

using language clearly (eliminate clutter)

clutter forces listeners to hack through a tangle of words to discover the meaning. When you make a speech, keep your language lean and lively. Beware of using several words where one or two will do. Avoid flabby phrases. Let your ideas emerge sharply and firmly. Above all, watch out for redundant adjectives and adverbs.

use language clearly (choose concrete words)

concrete words refer to tangible objects-ppl, place and things. abstract words refer to general concepts, qualities, or attributes. -abstract words are necessary to express certain kinds of ideas, they are much easier to misinterpret than are concrete words. -concrete words=more likely to claim your listeners' attention.

terminal credibility

cred. of a speaker at end of speech

initial credibility

cred. of a speaker before they speak

derived credibility

cred. of a speaker produced by everything they say and do during the speech

FALLACIES

error is reasoning need to avoid 1. hasty generalization 2.false cause(Latin name , post hoc, ergo propter hoc= "after this, therefore because of this." 3.invalid analogy 4.bandwagon 5.red herring(from old trick used by farmers in England to keep fox hunters and their hounds from galloping through the crops.) 6. ad hominem(latin for "against the man" 7. either-or 8.slippery slope 9.appeal to tradition 10.appeal to novelty

Competence

how an audience regards a speaker's intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject.

Character

how an audience regards a speaker's sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience.

reasoning from specific instances

reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion

speech of introduction

speech that introduces the main speaker to the audience

evidence

supporting materials used to prove or disprove something.

mental dialogue with the audience

the mental give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech

abstract words

words that refer to ideas or concepts

concrete words

words that refer to tangible objects