Unit 2 Human Anatomy

Describe the general functions of the facial bones

-Give shape to the face -Form part of the orbital and nasal cavities -Support teeth -Serve as attachment sites for muscles of expression and chewing

Name the three primary muscles of respiration and explain their functions

1. External intercostals: elevates ribs during inhalation 2. Internal intercostals: depresses ribs during forced exhalation 3. Diaphragm: enlarges thoracic cavity during inhalation

List the 30 bones (per side) of the lower limbs and describe their relative positions

1. Femur 2. Patella 3. Tibia 4. Fibula 5-11. Tarsals 12-16. Metatarsals 17-30. Phalanges

List the 30 bones (per side of the body) that make up the upper limb

1. Humerus 2.Radius 3. Ulna 4-11. Carpal bones 12-16. Metacarpals 17-30. Phalanges

Identify and describe six types of bone fractures

1.Comminuted-bone breaks into small fragments 2.Compression-bone is crushed 3.Spiral-caused by excessive twisting 4.Epiphyseal-epiphysis separates from the diaphysis along the epiphyseal plate 5.Depressed -bone portion is pressed inward 6.Greenstick-bone doesn't break completely

Classify the four primary types of bones based on shape and provide examples of each

1.Long bones-Greater length than width (femur) 2.Short bones-Nearly equal length and width-Sesamoid bones (tarsals) 3.Flat bones-Thin surfaces (skull) 4.Irregular bones-Complex shapes (vertebrae)

Define common bone marking terms that describe the surface features of bones

Angles - Sharp bony angulations which may serve as bony or soft tissue attachments but often are used for precise anatomical description. Examples include the superior, inferior, and acromial angles of the scapula and the superior, inferior, lateral angles of the occiput. Body - Usually refers to the largest most prominent segment of bone. Examples include the diaphysis or shaft of long bones like the femur and humerus. Condyle - Refers to a large prominence which often provides structural support to the overlying hyaline cartilage. It bares the brunt of the force exerted from the joint. Examples include the knee joint (hinge joint), formed by the femoral lateral and medial condyles, and the tibial lateral and medial condyles. Additionally, the occiput has an occipital condyle which articulates with atlas(C1) and accounts for approximately 25 degrees of cervical flexion and extension. Crest - A raised or prominent part of the edge of a bone. Crests are often the sites where connective tissue attaches muscle to bone. The iliac crest is found on the ilium. Diaphysis - Refers to the main part or the shaft of a long bone. Long bones including the femur, humerus, and tibia all have a shaft. Epicondyle - A prominence that sits atop of a condyle. The epicondyle attaches muscle and connective tissue to bone, providing support to this musculoskeletal system. Examples include the femoral medial and lateral epicondyles, and humeral medial and lateral epicondyles. Epiphysis - The articulating segment of a bone, usually at the proximal and distal poles of the bone. It usually has a larger diameter than the shaft (diaphysis). The epiphysis is critical for the growth of bone because it sits adjacent to the physeal line, also known as the growth plate. Facet - A smooth, flat surface that forms a joint with another flat bone or another facet, together forming a gliding joint. Examples can be seen in the facet joints of the vertebrae, which allow for flexion and extension of the spine. Fissure - An open slit in a bone that usually houses nerves and blood vessels. Examples include superior and inferior orbital fissure. Foramen - A hole through which nerves and blood vessels pass. Examples include supraorbital foramen, infraorbital foramen, and mental foramen on the cranium. Fossa - A shallow depression in the bone surface. Here it may receive another articulating bone, or act to support brain structures. Examples include trochlear fossa, posterior, middle, and anterior cranial fossa. Groove - A furrow in the bone surface which runs along the length of a vessel or nerve, providing space to avoid compression by adjacent muscle or external forces. Examples include a radial groove and the groove for the transverse sinus. Head - A rounded, prominent extension of bone that forms part of a joint. It is separated from the shaft of the bone by the neck. The head is usually covered in hyaline cartilage inside of a synovial capsule, as it is the main articulating surface with the adjacent bone, together forming a "ball-and-socket" joint. Margin - The edge of any flat bone. It can be used to accurately define a bone's borders. For example, the edge of the temporal bone articulating with the occipital bone is called the occipital margin of the temporal bone. And vice versa, the edge of the occipital bone articulating with the temporal bone is called the temporal margin of the occipital bone. Meatus - A tube-like channel that extends within the bone, which may provide passage and protection to nerves, vessels, and even sound. Examples include external acoustic meatus and internal auditory meatus. Neck - The segment between the head and the shaft of a bone. It is often demarcated from the head by the presence of the physeal line in pediatric patients and the physeal scar (physeal line remnant) in adults. It is often separated into the surgical neck and anatomical neck. The anatomical neck, which may represent the old epiphyseal plate, is often demarcated by its attachment to capsular ligaments. The surgical neck is often more distal and is demarcated by the site on the neck that is most commonly fractured. For example, in the humerus, the anatomical neck runs obliquely from the greater tuberosity to just inferior to the humeral head. The surgical neck runs horizontally and a few centimeters distal to the humeral tuberosities. Notch - A depression in a bone which often, but not always, provides stabilization to an adjacent articulating bone. The articulating bone will slide into and out of the notch, guiding the range of motion of the joint. Examples include the trochlear notch on the ulna, radial notch of the ulna, suprasternal notch, and the mandibular notch. Ramus - The curved part of a bone that gives structural support to the rest of the bone. Examples include the superior/inferior pubic ramus and ramus of the mandible. Sinus - A cavity within any organ or tissue. Examples include paranasal sinuses and dural venous sinuses. Spinous Process - A raised, sharp elevation of bone where muscles and connective tissue attach. It is different than a normal process in that a spinous process is more pronounced. Trochanter - A large prominence on the side of the bone. Some of the largest muscle groups and most dense connective tissues attach to the trochanter. The most notable examples are the greater and lesser trochanters of the femur. Tuberosity - A moderate prominence where muscles and connective tissues attach. Its function is similar to that of a trochanter. Examples include the tibial tuberosity, deltoid tuberosity, and ischial tuberosity. Tubercle - A small, rounded prominence where connective tissues attach. Examples include the greater and lesser tubercle of the humerus.

Propose modifiable (e.g., lifestyle choices) and non-modifiable factors that influence bone health, both positively and negatively

Calcium and Vitamin D supplementation, exercise, and hormone replacement

Describe the locations of the 7 tarsal bones

Distal to proximal: -Cuboid -Cuneiforms (wedges: Medial, Intermediate, Lateral -Navicular -Talus: superiormost; weight-bearing; articulates with tibia -Calcaneus: largest; forms the heel

Explain the changes in bones that occur due to aging

During aging, bone changes in two ways: 1.Loses ability to produce organic matrix (mainly collagen) 2.Loses calcium and other minerals (bone mineral density). Osteopenia: insufficient ossification

Describe common scapular movements

Elevates and retracts, protracts and depresses

Name the fourteen facial bones

Facial 1. Vomer 2. Mandible 3-4. maxillae 5-6. Nasal 7-8. Lacrimal 9-10. Zygomatic 11-12. Palatine 13-14. Inferior nasal conchae bones

Explain how the digits are numbered

Named by Roman numerals I-V -I is the base of the thumb - V is the base of the little finger

Describe the anatomical arrangement of the metacarpal and phalangeal (proximal, middle, distal) bones that comprise the foot

Phalanges: -14 bones per foot -Digits I-V (like metatarsals) -Three phalanges for toes 2-5 (Proximal, Middle, Distal) -Great toe (hallux) has only two phalanges (Proximal and Distal)

Distinguish bones of the axial vs. appendicular skeleton

The appendicular skeleton includes bones of the limbs and the girdles of bones that attach limbs to axial skeleton

Identify the 2 bones that make up the pelvic girdle, and compare with the structures of the bony pelvis

The pelvic girdle consists of the right and left ossacoxae -With sacrum and coccyx= the bony pelvis

Differentiate between the use of the terms proximal, distal, superior, inferior, proximal, and distal when referring to muscle attachments on the skeleton, giving examples of when it is appropriate to use each

What were formerly called origins and insertions will be called proximal and distal attachments for appendicular muscles

Recognize "hallux" is the term associated with structures of the great toe

Yup...

Identify the bony landmarks associated with the facial bones that were described within this lecture

Zygomatic: •Frontal Process •Orbital Surface •Maxillary Surface •Temporal process Vomer: •Ala •Vertical Plate Palatine: •Orbital process •Perpendicular Plate •Horizontal plate Maxillae: •Palatine process •Inferior orbital fissure •Infraorbital foramen Mandible: •Body •Ramus •Angle •Coronoid process •Condylar process •Head •Mandibular notch •Mental protuberance •Mandibular foramen •Mental foramen Paranasal Sinuses: •Frontal •Ethmoidal •Sphenoidal •Maxillary sinuses •Sella turcica Orbital Complex: •Sphenoid bone •Frontal bone •Maxilla, lacrimal bone •ethmoid bone •zygomatic bone •paletine

Differentiate between interstitial growth and appositional growth processes in long bones

interstitial growth - A long bone's growth in length -Occurs in epiphyseal plate appositional growth -Growth in a bone's diameter -Occurs in the periosteum

List the three types of muscle tissue

skeletal, cardiac, smooth

Identify the actions that muscles can play during movement: agonist, antagonist, synergist

•Agonist: contraction produces the movement •Antagonist: a muscle whose action opposes that of an agonist •Synergist: a muscle that assists the agonist in performing its action

Intervertebral joints: -its structural and functional classification -articulating structures -characteristic features, ligaments, etc.

•Amphiarthroses between vertebral bodies -Vertebral bodies separated by intervertebral discs : Anulusfibrosus(fibrous cartilage), Nucleus pulposus •Diarthroses between articular processes •Ligaments: -Anterior longitudinal ligament-Posterior longitudinal ligament -Interspinousligaments -Supraspinous ligament : Ligamentum nuchae -Ligamentum flavum

Name the bones of the pectoral girdle and describe their functions

•Articulates with the trunk and supports the upper limbs •Consists of clavicles(2) and scapulae (2)

Describe the tissue characteristics of bones and identify general functions

•Bones of the skeleton are complex organs containing all four tissue types •Extracellular matrix is sturdy and rigid due to deposition of minerals (calcification)

Identify the bony landmarks associated with the scapula that were described within this lecture

•Borders -Superior -Medial -Lateral •Angles -Lateral -Superior -Inferior •Subscapular fossa •Coracoid process •Acromion (process) •Spine •Supraspinous fossa •Infraspinousfossa •Acromion (process) •Coracoid process •Glenoid cavity

Compare and contrast the structures and locations of compact bone versus spongy bone

•Compact bone -Relatively dense -External surfaces of long and flat bones •Spongy bone -Open lattice of narrow plates called trabeculae -Internal surface of bones

Glenohumeral: -its structural and functional classification -articulating structures -characteristic features, ligaments, etc.

•Diarthrotic ball-and-socket joint between the head of humerus and the glenoid cavity of scapula •Features: -Fibrocartilaginous glenoid labrum -Tendon of biceps brachii -Rotator cuff muscles -Bursae: subacromial, subcoracoid, subdeltoid, and subscapular •Ligaments: -coracoacromial -coracohumeral -glenohumeral

Talocrural: -its structural and functional classification -articulating structures -characteristic features, ligaments, etc.

•Diarthrotic hinge joint composed of two articulations: 1.Between distal end of tibia and the talus 2.Between distal end of fibula and the lateral aspect of the talus •Ligaments: -Deltoid ligament -Lateral ligament -Anterior tibiofibular ligament -Posterior tibiofibular ligament

Hip: -its structural and functional classification -articulating structures -characteristic features, ligaments, etc.

•Diarthroticball-and-socket joint •Articulating bones: head of femur, acetabulum of oscoxae •Features: -Acetabular labrum of fibrocartilage -Articular capsule with retinacularfibers around neck of femur •Ligaments: -Iliofemoral -Ischiofemoral -Pubofemoral -Ligament of head of femur

Radiocarpal joints: -its structural and functional classification -articulating structures -characteristic features, ligaments, etc.

•Diarthroticcondylar joint -Fibrocartilaginous articular disc separates joint from ulna •Articulating bones: -Distal articular surface of radius -Three proximal carpal bones: Scaphoid, Lunate, Triquetrum

Sternoclavicular: -its structural and functional classification -articulating structures -characteristic features, ligaments, etc.

•Diarthroticsaddle joint between manubrium (sternum) and sternal end of the clavicle •Articular disc separates two joint cavities •Wide range of movement •Supporting ligaments: -Anterior and posterior sternoclavicular ligaments -Costoclavicular ligament -Interclavicular ligament

Explain how the name of a muscle can help identify its action, appearance, location, or other special features

•Muscles are named according to several criteria: 1.Muscle action 2.Specific body regions 3.Muscle attachments 4.Orientation of muscle fibers 5.Muscle shape and size 6.Muscle heads/tendons of origin

List and describe the different types of bone cells (osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts) with respect to location and function

•Osteoprogenitor cells: mesenchymal stem cells in endosteum and periosteum •Osteoblasts: secrete osteoid, forming bone matrix •Osteocytes: maintain matrix, detect mechanical stress on a bone •Osteoclasts: large, multinuclear cells that dissolve bone matrix, releasing Ca2+(bone resorption)

List the 4 muscles of the rotator cuff and explain how they affect the stability of the glenohumeraljoint

•Subscapularis: Medially rotates arm •Supraspinatus: Abducts arm •Infraspinatus: Adducts and laterally rotates arm •Teresminor: adducts and laterally rotates arm

List the five regions and 26 vertebrae that comprise the vertebral column

1.Cervical curvature (1-7) 2.Thoracic curvature(8-19) 3.Lumbar curvature (20-24) 4.Sacral curvature (25) 5. Coccyx(26)

For the anterior compartment of the forearm, describe 4 superficial, 1 intermediate, and 3 deep muscles and the actions elicited by each muscle group

•Superficial layer 1.Pronator teres: Pronates forearm 2.Flexor carpi radialis: Flexeswrist and abducts hand 3.Palmaris longus: Weak wrist flexor 4.Flexor carpi ulnaris : Flexes wrist and adducts hand •Intermediate layer 5.Flexor digitorumsuperficialis: Flexes wrist, 2nd-5th MP joints, and PIP joints •Deep layer 6.Flexor pollicislongus: FlexesMP joint of thumb, IP joint of thumb; Weakly flexeswrist 7.Flexor digitorumprofundus: Flexeswrist, 2nd-5th MP joints, PIP joints, and DIP joints 8.Pronator quadratus: Pronates forearm

Describe how the ox coxae articulate with surrounding bones

-Anteriorly at pubic symphysis -Posteriorly with the sacrum -Laterally with femur at acetabulum: All three bones of oscoxa contribute to its acetabulum (socket)

Identify the major structural components of a typical synovial joint

-Articular capsule -Joint cavity -Synovial fluid -Articular cartilage -Ligaments -Nerves and blood vessels

Describe the 9 arm muscles that have proximal attachments of the scapula, the 2 arm muscles that attach to the torso, and their general actions at the glenohumeraljoint

-Biceps brachii -Triceps brachii -Deltoid -Coracobrachialis -Teresmajor Rotator cuff muscles: •Subscapularis •Supraspinatus •Infraspinatus •Teresminor -Latissimus dorsi -Pectoralis major

Describe the general blood supply and innervation of bones

-Bone is highly vascularized -Four major sets of blood vessels: 1.Nutrient artery /vein: supply diaphysis of a long bone. Usually single nutrient artery and vein per bone 2.Metaphyseal arteries / veins: Supply diaphysealside of epiphyseal plate 3.Epiphyseal arteries / veins: Supply the epiphyses 4.Periosteal arteries / veins: Supply blood to the external circumferential lamellae and superficial osteons -Nerves accompany blood vessels through the nutrient foramen -Innervate bone tissue, periosteum -Primarily sensory nerves

Explain how knowledge of pelvic girdle anatomy can be used to deduce male versus female skeletons

-Female is less massive, has less prominent markings -Female ilia laterally flared = wider pelvis -Female pelvic inlet = wide oval; male's = heart-shaped -Female subpubic angle is wider: Greater than 100º compared to less than 90º in males

Describe the anatomical classification of joints based on structure (fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial joints)

-Fibrous: Bones joined by dense regular CT -Cartilaginous: Bones joined by cartilage - Synovial: Articulating bones separated by a joint cavity

Compare the three classes of levers found in the human body with regard to tension generation

-First-class levers (fulcrum in middle) : tilitng head back -Second-class levers (Resistance in middle): leaning off of foot -Third-class levers (effort in middle): bicep curl

Use appropriate terminology when describing attachments of axial muscles to the axial skeleton

-Formerly: "origin and insertion" -Currently: "superior and inferior attachments" or "proximal and distal attachments"

Describe the anatomical structures associated with a typical long bone

-Greater length than width •Diaphysis-Elongated, cylindrical shaft •Epiphysis-Regions at each end: proximal, distal-Attachment site for tendons and ligaments •Metaphysis-Region between diaphysis and epiphysis-Contains epiphyseal (growth) plate

Generally know the following for all muscles described in this lecture: -location in the body, including compartments when applicable -articulating bones (review bone markings) -joint movements resulting from muscle contraction

-Iliacus: Flexes thigh -Psoas Major: Flexes thigh -Sartorius: Flexes thigh and rotates thigh laterally. Flexes leg and rotates leg medially -Rectus femoris Flexes thigh, extends leg -Adductor longus: Adducts thigh, flexes thigh -Pectineus: Adducts thigh, flexes thigh -Adductor brevis: Adducts thigh, flexes thigh -Gracilis: Adducts and flexes thigh, flexes leg -Adductor magnus: Adducts thigh. Adductor part of muscle flexes thigh. Hamstring part of muscle extends and laterally rotates thigh -Obturator externus: Laterally rotates thigh -Tensor fasciae latae: Abducts thigh. Medially rotates thigh -Gluteus maximus: Extends thigh, laterally rotates thigh -Gluteus medius: Abducts thigh, medially rotates -Gluteus minimus: Abducts thigh, medially rotates -Piriformis: Laterally rotate thigh -Superior gemellus: Laterally rotate thigh -Inferior gemellus: Laterally rotate thigh -Obturator internus: Laterally rotate thigh -Quadratus femoris: Laterally rotate thigh -Biceps femoris: Extends thigh (long head only), flexes leg (both long head and short head); Laterally rotates leg -Semimembranosus: Extends thigh and flexes leg, medially rotates leg -Semitendinosus: Extends thigh and flexes leg, medially rotates leg -Rectus femoris: Extends leg, flexes thigh -Vastus lateralis: Extends leg -Vastus medialis: Extends leg -Vastus intermedius: Extends leg -Extensor digitorum longus: Extends toes II-V; dorsiflexes foot -Extensor hallucislongus: Extends great toe; dorsiflexes foot -Tibialis anterior: Dorsiflexes foot; inverts foot -Fibularis tertius: Dorsiflexes and weakly everts foot -Fibularis longus: Everts foot; weak plantar flexor -Fibularis brevis: Everts foot; weak plantar flexor -Gastrocnemius: Flexes leg; plantar flexes foot -Soleus: Plantar foot flexes -Plantaris: weak leg flexor and plantar foot -Flexor digitorum longus: Plater flexes foot; flexes MP,PIP, and DIP joints of toes II-V -Flexor hallucis longus: Plantar flexes foot; flexes MP and IP joints of great toe -Tibialis posterior: Plantar flexes foot; inverts foot -Popliteus: Flexes leg; medially rotates tibia to unlock the knee

List the three arches of the foot and describe their relative locations

-Medial longitudinal arch: heel to hallux; highest arch -Lateral longitudinal arch: heel to fifth toe; lowest arch -Transverse arch: perpendicular to other arches; along distal row of tarsals

Generally know the following for all muscles described in this lecture: -location in the body, including compartments when applicable -articulating bones (review bone markings) -joint movements resulting from muscle contraction

-Pectoralis minor: Protracts and depresses scapula -Serratus anterior: Agonist in scapula protraction; superiorly rotates scapula (so glenoid cavity moves superiorly); stabilizes scapula -Subclavius: Stabilizes and depresses clavicle -Trapezius: Superior fibers: Elevate and superiorly rotate scapula. Middle fibers: Retract scapula. Inferior fibers: Depress scapula -Levator scapulae: Elevates scapula. Inferiorly rotates scapula (pulls glenoid cavity inferiorly) -Rhomboid minor: Elevates and retracts (adducts) scapula; Inferiorly rotates scapula -Rhomboid major:Elevates and retracts (adducts) scapula; Inferiorly rotates scapula -Biceps brachii: Flexes arm -Triceps brachii: Extends and adducts arm -Deltoid: Anterior fibers: Flex and medially rotate arm. Middle fibers: Agonist of arm abduction. Posterior fibers:Extend and laterally rotate arm -Coracobrachialis: Adducts and flexes arm -Teres major: Extends, addicts, and medially rotates arm -Rotator cuff muscles: •Subscapularis: Medially rotates arm •Supraspinatus: Abducts arm •Infraspinatus: Adducts and laterally rotates arm •Teresminor: adducts and laterally rotates arm -Latissimus dorsi: Agonist of arm extension;Also adducts and medially rotates arm ("swimmer's muscle") -Pectoralis major: Agonist of arm flexion; Also adducts and medially rotates arm -Biceps brachii: Flexesforearm, powerful supinator of forearm. Long head flexes arm -Brachialis: Primary flexor of forearm -Brachioradialis: Flexes forearm -Triceps brachii: Primary extensor of forearmLong head of triceps also extends and adducts arm -Anconeus: Extends forearm -Pronator teres: Pronates forearm -Pronator quadratus: Pronates forearm -Supinator: Supinates forearm -Flexor carpi radialis: Flexeswrist and abducts hand -Palmaris longus: Weak wrist flexor -Flexor carpi ulnaris : Flexes wrist and adducts hand -Flexor digitorumsuperficialis: Flexes wrist, 2nd-5th MP joints, and PIP joints -Flexor pollicislongus: FlexesMP joint of thumb, IP joint of thumb; Weakly flexeswrist -Flexor digitorumprofundus: Flexeswrist, 2nd-5th MP joints, PIP joints, and DIP joints -Pronator quadratus: Pronates forearm -Extensor carpi radialislongus: Extendswrist, abducts hand -Extensor carpi radialisbrevis: Extendswrist, abducts hand -Extensor digitorum: Extendswrist, II-V MP joints, PIP joints, and DIP joints -Extensor digitiminimi: Extends wrist, MP, and PIP joints of finger V -Extensor carpi ulnaris: Extendswrist, adducts hand -Abductor pollicislongus: Abducts thumb, extends wrist (weakly) -Extensor pollicisbrevis: Extends MP joints of thumb, extends wrist (weakly) -Extensor pollicislongus: Extends MP and IP joints of thumb, extends wrist (weakly) -Extensor indicis: Extends MP, PIP, and DIP joints of finger 2, extends wrist (weakly) -Abductor pollicis brevis: Abducts thumb -Flexor pollicis brevis: Flexes thumb -Opponens pollicis: Opposition of thumb -Lumbricals: Flexes II-V MP joints. Extends II-V PIP and DIP joints -Dorsal interossei: Abducts fingers 2-5. Flexes MP joints 2-5. Extends PIP and DIP joints -Palmer interossei: Abducts fingers 2-5. Flexes MP joints 2-5. Extends PIP and DIP joints -Adductor pollicis: Adducts thumb -Flexor digiti minimi brevis: Flexes finger V -Abductor digiti minimi: Abducts finger V -Opponens digiti minimi: Opposition of finger V

Identify the (4) muscles of the anterior compartment of the thigh that extend the knee joint/thigh

-Rectus femoris: Extends leg, flexes thigh -Vastus lateralis: Extends leg -Vastus medialis: Extends leg -Vastus intermedius: Extends leg

Describe the components within a skeletal muscle fiber including the sarcolemma, sarcoplasm, transverse tubules, sarcoplasmic reticulum, terminal cisternae, triads, myofibrils, and myofilaments

-Sarcolemma: plasma membrane -Sarcoplasm: cytoplasm -T-tubules: deep invaginations of the sarcolemma that extend into the sarcoplasm -Sarcoplasmic reticulum: internal membrane complex (stored calcium) - Terminal cisternae: adjacent to T-tubules - Triad= two terminal cisternae + one T-tubule - Myofibrils: Cylindrical structures within muscle fibers that run the length of the cell - Myofilaments: Thick filaments: 100s of bundled myosinmolecules. Thin filaments: composed mainly of two strands of filamentous actin (F-actin) twisted around each other

List the structures that form the neuromuscular junction

-Synaptic knob: expanded tip of neuron axon-Synaptic vesicles: membrane sacs in synaptic knob, filled with acetylcholine (ACh) -Synaptic cleft: narrow space separating synaptic knob and motor end plate -Motor end plate: region of sarcolemma with many folds (increased surface area) under the synaptic knob -ACh receptors: proteins that bind Ach on the motor end plate -Acetylcholinesterase (AChE):enzyme in synaptic cleft that breaks down Ach (prevents continuous stimulation of muscle)

Name the primary muscles of mastication, and outline how each affects mandibular movement: temporalis, masseter

-Temporalis •Elevates and retracts mandible -Masseter •Elevates and protracts mandible

Describe the four main functions of the vertebral column

-Vertical support of body -Stable support for appendicular skeleton -Protect spinal cord -Passageway for spinal nerves

1.list the 62 bones associated with the lower extremities

1-2 Os Coxae 3-4. Femur 5-6. Patella 7-8. Tibia 9-10. Fibula 11-23. Tarsals 24-33. Metatarsals 38-62. Phalanges

Outline the sequence of events associated with bone repair following a fracture

1. A fracture hematoma forms 2. A fibrocartilagenous (soft) callus forms 3. A hard (bony) callus forms 4. The bone is remodeled

Match the major muscles of facial expression to their effects upon the surface anatomy of the face

1. epicranius: - frontal belly: Moves scalp, eyebrows - occipital belly: Retracts scalp 2. buccinator: Compresses cheek; holds food between teeth during chewing ("trumpet-blowing" muscle) 3. mentalis: Protrudes lower lip ("pout");wrinkles chin 4. orbicularis oris: Compresses and purses lips ("kiss" muscle) 5. zygomaticus major/major : Elevates corner of themouth ("smile" muscle) 6. orbicularis oculi: Closes eye; produces winking, blinking, squinting ("blink" muscle) 7. platysma: Pulls lower lip inferiorly; tenses skin of neck

Identify the major muscles involved in facial expression, their general locations, and their actions: epicranius(frontal belly, occipital belly), buccinator, mentalis, orbicularis oris, zygomaticus major / minor, orbicularis oculi, platysma

1. epicranius: - frontal belly: near frontal lobe - occipital belly: near occipital lobe 2. buccinator: near cheek 3. mentalis: near chin 4. orbicularis oris: near lips 5. zygomaticus major/major : between cheek and lips 6. orbicularis oculi: near eye 7. platysma: near front of neck

Describe the function and distribution of hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage

1. Hyaline cartilage -Most common -Surrounded by perichondrium -Smooth surface ("glassy" appearance) -Irregularly spaced lacunae -Functions: Model for bone growth, Covers ends of long bones, Flexible support: nose, trachea, costal cartilage 2. Fibrocartilage -Irregularly arranged fiber bundles between large chondrocytes -Chondrocytes may be arranged in parallel rows -Sparse ground substance -Function: durability and resistance to compression, Intervertebral discs, Pubic symphysis, Menisci 3. Elastic cartilage -Numerous elastic fibers in extracellular matrix -Closely packed lacunae -Function: resilient flexibility that resists deformation, Epiglottis, Ears

Describe the general locations of the quadratus lumborum, multifidus, and semispinalis muscle group

1. Quadratus lumborum: Bilateral action: Extends vertebral column. Unilateral action: Laterally flexes vertebral column 2. Multifidus: Bilateral action: Extends vertebral column. Unilateral action: Rotates vertebral column toward opposite side 3. Semispinalis group: Bilateral action: Extends vertebral column and head. Unilateral action: Laterally flexes vertebral column and head

Identify the characteristics of the three types of skeletal muscle fibers (i.e., muscle fiber type), specifically with regard to energy use, fatigability, and muscle fiber size

1. Slow oxidative (SO) fibers, Type I:Small, aerobic, fatigue resistant 2. Fast oxidative (FO) fibers, Type IIa: Intermediate 3. Fast glycolytic (FG) fibers, Type IIb: Large, anaerobic, only contract for short burst

List the intrinsic muscles of the hand by group: thenar (3), hypothenar (3), and midpalmar(4) muscles and describe their general actions

1. Thenar group muscles affect the motion of the thumb and include the following: -Abductor pollicis brevis: Abducts thumb -Flexor pollicis brevis: Flexes thumb -Opponens pollicis: Opposition of thumb 2. Midpalmar group muscles affect the motion of all fingers and the thumb, and include the following: -Lumbricals: Flexes II-V MP joints. Extends II-V PIP and DIP joints -Dorsal interossei: Abducts fingers 2-5. Flexes MP joints 2-5. Extends PIP and DIP joints -Palmer interossei: Abducts fingers 2-5. Flexes MP joints 2-5. Extends PIP and DIP joints -Adductor pollicis: Adducts thumb 3. Hypothenar group muscles affect the motion of finger V and include the following: -Flexor digiti minimi brevis: Flexes finger V -Abductor digiti minimi: Abducts finger V -Opponens digiti minimi: Opposition of finger V

Describe the structure and composition of the following microscopic skeletal muscle components: sarcomere, thick filaments, thin filaments, A-band, I-band, H-zone, Z-disc, and M-line

1. Thick filaments: 100s of bundled myosinmolecules -Each myosin: 2 intertwined tails, each with a head -Myosin heads form cross-bridges with thin filaments during contraction 2. Thin filaments: composed mainly of two strands of filamentous actin (F-actin) twisted around each other -Each actin strand is made of 100s of globular actin (G-actin) molecules -Two regulatory proteins are also part of the thin filament: 1.Tropomyosin: threadlike protein covering part of actin 2.Troponin: attaches to actin and tropomyosin and can bind calcium 3. A-band: contains thick filaments (appears dark), does not shorten during contraction, but it's H zone does 4. I-band: contains thin filaments but not thick filaments, bisected by Z disc, shortens during contraction 5. H-zone: center of A band, contains thick but not thin filaments 6. Z-disc: span of one scarcomere, move closer together so sarcomeres shorten 7. M-line: transverse protein structure in center of H zone that attaches and aligns thick filaments 8. Sarcomeres: structural and functional units within a myofibril

Identify the major muscles that move the head and neck, their general locations, and their actions: sternocleidomastoid, scalene muscles, splenius capitis and cervisis, longissimus capitis, semispinalis capitis, levatorscapulae

1. sternocleidomastoid: Unilateral action: Lateral flexion, rotation of head to opposite side. Bilateral action: Flexes neck 2. scalene muscles: Flex neck (when 1st rib is fixed); elevate 1st and 2nd ribs during forced inhalation when neck is fixed 3. splenius capitis and cervisis: Unilateral action: Turns head to same side. Bilateral action: Extends head/neck 4. longissimus capitis: Unilateral action: Turns (rotates) head toward same sideBilateral action: Extends head/neck 5. semispinalis capitis 6. levatorscapulae

Explain how muscles contract, beginning with excitation by somatic motor neurons and ending with the intracellular events causing muscle relaxation

1.A nerve impulse causes acetylcholine (Ach) release into the synaptic cleft 2.Spread of the impulse down T-tubules causes calcium to leak out of terminal cisternae and into the sarcoplasm 3.Calcium ions bind to troponin, and troponin changes shape 4.Myosin pulls actin toward center of sarcomere 5.When the impulse stops: -Calcium ions are actively transported into the sarcoplasmic reticulum -Tropomyosin re-covers active sites -Filaments passively slide back to their relaxed state

Identify the 3 compartments of the leg

1.Anterior 2.Lateral 3.Posterior

Define "fossa" and identify the locations of the three cranial fossae

1.Anterior cranial fossa 2.Middle cranial fossa 3.Posterior cranial fossa

Identify the general structures that make up the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton

1.Axial skeleton: Skull, Vertebral column, Thoracic cage 2.Appendicular skeleton: Bones of the upper and lower extremities, Shoulder and hip bones

List and describe the four structural components that make up the skeletal system

1.Bones 2.Cartilage 3.Ligaments 4.Other supportive connective tissues

Define the four spinal curvatures normally present in adults

1.Cervical curvature 2.Thoracic curvature 3.Lumbar curvature 4.Sacral curvature

Describe 5 properties common to all types of muscle tissue

1.Excitability: ability to respond to stimuli 2.Conductivity: ability to transmit electrical events along the cell membrane 3.Contractility: ability to generate tension and shorten cell length. Sliding of contractile proteins in muscle cells leads to body movements and other muscle functions 4.Extensibility: ability to be stretched beyond resting length 5.Elasticity:ability to return to resting length after shortening or lengthening

List the four pairs of muscles that form the abdominal wall

1.External oblique superficial, lateral muscle; fibers directed inferomedially 2.Internal oblique: deep to external oblique; fibers directed superomedially 3.Transverse abdominis: deepest of lateral muscles; fibers directed horizontally 4.Rectus abdominis: long, anterior muscle connecting sternum to pubic bone; divided into four muscle segments

Categorize the four general types of motions that may occur at synovial joints (gliding, angular, rotation, special movements)

1.Gliding motion •Occurs primarily in plane joints •No change in joint angles •Instead, bones slide slightly back-and-forth or side-to-side •Limited motion 2.Angular motion •Increases or decreases angles between two bones 3.Rotational motion • pivoting along a plane while the proximal end stays in place 4.Special movements • Lateral or horizontal movement uniaxially

Identify the three groups of muscles that comprise the erector spinae and explain how they work together to determine posture and vertebral movement

1.Iliocostalis: most lateral group; composed of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar parts. Bilateral action: Extends vertebral column; maintains posture. Unilateral action: Laterally flexes vertebral column 2.Longissimus: composed of capitis, cervical, and thoracic parts. Bilateral action: Extends vertebral column and rotates head; maintains posture. Unilateral action: Rotates head and laterally flexes vertebral column 3.Spinalis: most medial group; attach to spinous processes of vertebrae; composed of cervical and thoracic parts. Bilateral action: Extends vertebral column; maintains posture. Unilateral action: Laterally flexes vertebral column

Differentiate between isometric muscle contractions and isotonic muscle contractions, and concentric contractions and eccentric contractions; provide examples for each

1.Isometric contraction:muscle length is constant; tension is changing (biceps during a deal lift) 2.Isotonic contraction:muscle tension is constant; length is changing (bicep curls) -Concentric contraction:muscle is shortening (hamstrings during a lunge) -Eccentric contraction:muscle is lengthening (quads during lunges)

List the three regions of the sternum

1.Manubrium - Suprasternal / jugular notch - Clavicular notches 2.Body 3.Xiphoid process

Identify the four major fontanelles associated with the infant skull

1.Mastoid fontanelle 2.Sphenoidal fontanelle 3.Posterior fontanelle 4.Anterior fontanelle

For each of the six structural types of synovial joints: describe its anatomical structure, identify its location in the body, and predict the kinds of movements that each joint allows

1.Plane joints: uniaxial; side to side movement 2.Hinge joints: uniaxial; like hinge of a door 3.Pivot joints: uniaxial; one bone rotates on its longitudinal axis 4.Condylar joints: biaxial; oval or concave surface of one bone, convex of the other 5.Saddle joints: biaxial; joint surfaces resemble saddle shape 6.Ball-and-socket joints: multiaxial; spherical head into cuplike socket

Locate and name the four sutures between cranial bones

1.Sagittal suture: parietal/parietal 2.Coronal suture: frontal/parietal 3.Lambdoid suture: occipital/parietal 4.Squamous suture:

List four primary functions of axial muscles

1.Support the head and spinal column 2.Used in facial expression, chewing, and swallowing 3.Aid in breathing 4.Support and protect abdominal and pelvic organs

Describe the functional classification of joints based on degree of movement allowed (synarthroses, amphiarthroses, diarthroses) and provide examples of each

1.Synarthrosis: immobile joint (gomphoses, sutures, synchondroses) 2.Amphiarthrosis: slightly mobile joint (syndesmoses, symphyses) .Diarthrosis: freely moveable joint (bones separated by a joint cavity: knee, wrist, elbow)

Define the term "articulation" and explain the relationship between joint mobility and joint stability

An articulation, or joint, is a point of contact between one bone and another bone, cartilage, or teeth

Describe the muscles in each group with respect to their location, articulations, and function

Anterior: -Extensor digitorum longus: Extends toes II-V; dorsiflexes foot -Extensor hallucislongus: Extends great toe; dorsiflexes foot -Tibialis anterior: Dorsiflexes foot; inverts foot -Fibularis tertius: Dorsiflexes and weakly everts foot Lateral: -Fibularis longus: Everts foot; weak plantar flexor -Fibularis brevis: Everts foot; weak plantar flexor Posterior: -Gastrocnemius: Flexes leg; plantar flexes foot -Soleus: Plantar foot flexes -Plantaris: weak leg flexor and plantar foot -Flexor digitorum longus: Plater flexes foot; flexes MP,PIP, and DIP joints of toes II-V -Flexor hallucis longus: Plantar flexes foot; flexes MP and IP joints of great toe -Tibialis posterior: Plantar flexes foot; inverts foot -Popliteus: Flexes leg; medially rotates tibia to unlock the knee

Identify the (4) muscles of the anterior compartment of the hip joint/thigh, the (6) muscles of the medial compartment, the (1) muscle of the lateral compartment, the gluteal group (8), and the (3) muscles of the posterior group

Anterior: -Iliacus: Flexes thigh -Psoas Major: Flexes thigh -Sartorius: Flexes thigh and rotates thigh laterally. Flexes leg and rotates leg medially -Rectus femoris Flexes thigh, extends leg Medial: -Adductor longus: Adducts thigh, flexes thigh -Pectineus: Adducts thigh, flexes thigh -Adductor brevis: Adducts thigh, flexes thigh -Gracilis: Adducts and flexes thigh, flexes leg -Adductor magnus: Adducts thigh. Adductor part of muscle flexes thigh. Hamstring part of muscle extends and laterally rotates thigh -Obturator externus: Laterally rotates thigh Lateral: -Tensor fasciae latae: Abducts thigh. Medially rotates thigh Gluteal Group: -Gluteus maximus: Extends thigh, laterally rotates thigh -Gluteus medius: Abducts thigh, medially rotates -Gluteus minimus: Abducts thigh, medially rotates -Piriformis: Laterally rotate thigh -Superior gemellus: Laterally rotate thigh -Inferior gemellus: Laterally rotate thigh -Obturator internus: Laterally rotate thigh -Quadratus femoris: Laterally rotate thigh Posterior: -Biceps femoris: Extends thigh (long head only), flexes leg (both long head and short head); Laterally rotates leg -Semimembranosus: Extends thigh and flexes leg, medially rotates leg -Semitendinosus: Extends thigh and flexes leg, medially rotates leg

Identify the 3 anterior and 4 posterior muscles that have actions/create movement in the pectoral girdle

Anterior: -Pectoralis minor -Serratus anterior -Subclavius Posterior: -Trapezius -Levatorscapulae -Rhomboid minor -Rhomboid major

Describe the locations of the sternal end, acromial end, and conoid tubercle of the clavicle

Articulates ... •medially with manubrium (sternum) -Sternal end •laterally with acromion (scapula) -Acromial end •Conoid tubercle on inferior surface

Explain structural differences for the atlas, axis, and vertebral characteristics from different regions of the vertebral column

Atlas: •No body and no spinous process-Posterior tubercle •Has deep superior articular facetsthat articulate with the occipital condyles of the occipital bone Axis: •Dens / odontoid process projects superiorly from the body - allows head to rotate C3-C7: •Transverse foramina •Articular facets lie in a roughly oblique/horizontal plane -Superior articular facets face superoposteriorly -Inferior articular facets face inferioanteriorly T1-T12: •Articulate with the ribs -Costal facets (superior and inferior) on vertebral body and transverse processes •Spinous processes are long and point inferiorly •Articular facets lie in a frontal plane -Superior articular facets face posteriorly -Inferior articular facets face anteriorly L1-L5: •Substantially larger than the other two levels •Spinous processes are large, blunt, and point directly posteriorly •Articular facets lie in a sagittal plane -Superior articular facets face medially -Inferior articular facets face laterally

Identify the three auditory ossicles and the hyoid bones as bones associated with the skull; explain how they are different than other bones of the skull

Auditory ossicles: three tiny bones in petrous part of each temporal bone are for hearing 1.Malleus 2.Incus 3.Stapes •Hyoid bone: Located between the mandible and larynx -Does not articulate with another bone

Compare and contrast the general microscopic characteristics of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle

Cardiac (heart wall) muscle cells: -One or two nuclei, many mitochondria (aerobic) -Striated: thick / thin myofilaments form Y-shaped branches -Join adjacent cardiac muscle cells at intercalated discs -Autorhythmic: able to generate electrical impulses without nerve stimulation -Involuntary control: autonomic nervous system influences rate and strength of contraction Smooth muscle is found in walls of viscera and blood vessels: -Short fusiform cells (wide in the middle, tapered at each end) -One centrally located nucleus -No striations -Generate slow, efficient, fatigue-resistant contractions

Compare and contrast circular, parallel, convergent, and pennate (unipennate, bipennate, and multipennate)arrangements of muscle fibers within whole muscle

CircularFibers: arranged concentrically around an opening. Functions as a sphincter to close a passageway or opening (e.g., orbits, mouth, anus) Parallel: Fascicles are parallel to the long axis of the muscle. Body of muscle increases in diameter with contraction High endurance, not very strong Convergent: Triangular muscle with common attachment site. Direction of pull of muscle can be changed. Does not pull as hard as equal-sized parallel muscle Pennate: Muscle body has one or more tendons. Fascicles at oblique angle to tendon. Pulls harder than a parallel muscle of equal size -Unipennate: All muscle fibers on the same side of the tendon -Bipennate: Muscle fibers on both sides of the tendon -Multipennate: Tendon branches within the muscle

Identify the cranial bones and the facial bones of the skull

Cranial: 1. Ethmoid 2. Fronta 3. Occipital 4. Sphenoid 5-6. Parietal 7-8. Temporal Facial 9. Vomer 10. Mandible 11-12. maxillae 13-14. Nasal 15-16. Lacrimal 17-18. Zygomatic 19-20. Palatine 21-22. Inferior nasal conchae bones

Identify the dorsal (2) and plantar (10) attachments of the foot

Dorsal: -Extensor hallucis brevis: Extends MP joint of great toe -Extensor digitorum brevis: Extends MP, PIP, and DIP joints of toes 2-4 Plantar: (Superficial) -Flexor digitorum brevis: Flexes MP and PIP joints of toes 2-5 -Abductor hallucis: Abducts great toe -Abductor digiti minimi: Abducts toe 5 (Deep) -Lumbricals: Flexes MP joints and extends PIP and DIP joints of toes 2-5 -Quadratus plantae: Pulls on flexor digitorum longus tendons to flex toes 2-5 (Deeper) -Adductor hallucis: Adducts great toe (1) -Flexor hallucis brevis: Flexes MP joint of great toe (1) -Flexor digiti minimi brevis: Flexes MP joint of toe 5 -Dorsal interossei: Abducts toes -Plantar interossei: Adducts toes

Describe the location of the bony landmarks associated with the femur, patella, tibia, and fibula

Femur: •Neck •Greater trochanter •Intertrochanteric line •Patellar surface •Head-Fovea (capitis) •Lesser trochanter •Intertrochanteric crest •Gluteal tuberosity •Linea aspera •Popliteal surface •Adductor tubercle •Medial epicondyle •Medial condyle •Lateral epicondyle •Lateral condyle •Intercondylar fossa Patella: -Triangular with broad superior baseand inferiorly pointed apex -Articulates with patellar surface of femur Tibia: •Intercondylar eminence •Lateral condyle •Anterior border/margin/crest •Medial condyle •Tibial tuberosity •Medial malleolus Fibula: •Head •Neck •Lateral malleolus

Provide examples of different types of fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints located in the human body

Fibrous: 1.Gomphoses: joints between teeth and maxilla and mandible 2.Sutures: joints between skull bones 3.Syndesmoses: joints between radius and ulna, tibia and fibula Cartilaginous: 1.Synchondroses: Bones joined by hyaline cartilage 2.Symphyses: Bones joined by pad of fibrocartilage Synovial: 1. Knee 2. Elbow 3. Wrist 4. Ankle

Explain the sliding filament theory of skeletal muscle contraction

For sarcomeres to shorten, thick filaments attach to thin filaments and pull them toward the centers of the sarcomeres. During contraction, thin filaments slide past thick filaments. Lengths of filaments never change whether muscle is contracted or relaxed; only their relative positions change

Identify the bony landmarks associated with the cranial bones that were described within this lecture

Frontal Bone: •Supraorbital margin •Supraorbital foramen •Glabella Parietal Bone: • Parietal foramen • Parietal Eminence • Superior temporal line • Inferior temporal line • Lambdoid suture Temporal Bone: •Zygomatic process •External acoustic meatus •Mastoid process •Styloid process •Petrous portion Occipital Bone: •External occipital protuberance •Superior nuchal line •Inferior nuchal line •Foramen magnum •Occipital condyles •Hypoglossal canal •Jugular foramen (with temporal bone) Sphenoid Bone: •Greater wing •Lesser wing •Optic canal •Sella turcica •Anterior clinoid process •Posterior clinoid process •Foramen rotundum •Foramen ovale •Foramen spinosum •Foramen lacerum(with temporal, occipital bones) •Medial pterygoid plate •Lateral pterygoid plate Ethmoid Bone: •Cribriform plate •Crista galli •Perpendicular plate •Superior nasal conchae •Middle nasal conchae

Describe the location of the bony landmarks associated with the os coxae

Fusion of ilium, ischium, and pubis Ilium: -Iliac crest -Posterior superior iliac spine -Posterior inferior iliac spine -Iliac fossa -Anterior superior iliac spine -Anterior inferior iliac spine -Arcuate line Ischium: -Iliac fossa -Anterior superior iliac spine -Anterior inferior iliac spine -Arcuate line-Posterior gluteal line -Greater sciatic notch -Iliac crest -Posterior superior iliac spine -Posterior inferior iliac spine -Anterior gluteal line -Inferior gluteal line -Ischial spine -Lesser sciatic notch -Ischial tuberosity -Ischial ramus Pubis: -Superior ramus -Inferior ramus -Pubic crest -Pubic tubercle -Pubic symphysis -Obturator foramen

Explain how the digits are numbered

Identified by Roman numerals I-V from medial to lateral

Compare the relative locations of the ileum, ischium, and pubis on the os coxae

Ilium - top half Ischium - inferior to ilium medial to pubis Pubis - inferior to ilium and lateral to ischium

Identify structural characteristics associated with most vertebrae: intervertebral discs, body, vertebral arch, vertebral foramen, pedicles, laminae, intervertebral foramina, spinous process, transverse processes, superior / inferior articular processes

Intervertebral Discs: Pads in-between vertebrae help absorb compressive forces, allow vertebral column to bend 1.Body: weight bearing region 2.Vertebral arch: attaches to body to form vertebral foramen 3. Pedicles: feet of the arch 4. Laminae: posterior extensions of the arch 5.Intervertebral foramina4.Jutting processes: Spinous process projects posteriorly, Transverse process projects laterally 6. Superior articular process -joins with vertebra above 7. Inferior articular process -joins with vertebra below

Compare and contrast intramembranous and endochondral bone formation; provide examples of bones that form through each process

Intramembramous Formation: -Produces flat bones of the skull, some facial bones, mandible, and central portion of clavicle•Bones develop from mesenchyme membrane 1. Ossification centers form within thickened regions of the mesenchyme 2. Osteoid undergoes ossification 3. Woven bone and surrounding periosteum form 4. Lamellar bone replaces woven bone, as compact and spongy bone form. - Diploë: two layers of compact bone, with spongy bone sandwiched between EndochonfrialFormation: •Formation of most bones of skeleton: upper / lower limbs, pelvis, vertebrae, ends of clavicles. Bones develop from hyaline cartilage model 1.The fetal hyaline cartilage model develops 2.Cartilage calcifies, and a periosteal bone collar forms 3.The primary ossification center forms in the diaphysis 4.Secondary ossification centers form in the epiphyses 5.Bone replaces cartilage, except the articular cartilage and epiphyseal plates 6.Epiphyseal plates ossify and form epiphyseal lines

Describe the major functions of the skeletal system

Major functions of the skeletal system 1.Framework for the body 2.Support body weight 3.Attachment for muscles: movement 4.Storage reservoir: Ca2+ and Phosphorus

Describe the anatomical arrangement of the metacarpal and phalangeal (proximal, middle, distal) bones that comprise the hand

Named by Roman numerals I-V -I is the base of the thumb - V is the base of the little finger Fourteen phalangesper hand -Digits I-V (like metacarpals) -Three phalanges per finger: Proximal, Middle, Distal -But only two in the thumb (pollex):Proximal and Distal

Compare osteopenia and osteoporosis

Osteopenia can result in a decrease in bone mass called osteoporosis. -Bone tissue deteriorates at a faster rate than it is produced -Compact bone becomes thinner, spongy bone has fewer trabeculae -Causes bones to become porous, light, and weak

Describe the general structures and functions of the paranasal sinuses

Paranasal sinuses: air-filled spaces in skull bones around nasal cavity -Mucous lining humidifies and warms inhaled air -Lightens skull Frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal, and maxillary sinuses and sella turcica

Identify the bony landmarks for the humerus, radius, and ulna that were described within this lecture

Radius: •Head •Neck •Radial tuberosity •Styloid process •Ulnar notch Ulna: •Radial notch •Olecranon •Trochlear/ semilunar notch •Head •Styloid process

Identify the bony landmarks located on the sacrum and coccyx described within the lecture materials

Sacrum: •Triangular bone (5 fused vertebrae) forming posterior wall of pelvic cavity -Sacral canal -Median sacral crest -Lateral sacral crest -Posterior sacral foramina -Sacral hiatus Coccyx: •3-5 fused vertebrae

List the 80 bones that make up the axial skeleton by category: skull (22 bones), associated bones of the skull (7), vertebral column (26), thoracic cage (25)

Skull: 1. Ethmoid 2. Fronta 3. Occipital 4. Sphenoid 5-6. Parietal 7-8. Temporal 9. Vomer 10. Mandible 11-12. maxillae 13-14. Nasal 15-16. Lacrimal 17-18. Zygomatic 19-20. Palatine 21-22. Inferior nasal conchae bones Assiociated Bones: 23-24. Malleus 25-26. Incus 27-28. Stapes 29. Hyoid Bone Vertebral Column: 30-37. Cervical curvature 38-49. .Thoracic curvature 50-54. Lumbar curvature 55. Sacral curvature 56. Coccyx Thoracic Cage: 57-79. Ribs 80. Sternum

Describe the structural organization of osteons, and identify osteon locations and functions in bones

The basic unit of compact bone is the osteon -Also known as a Haversian system -Cylindrical structures -Run parallel to the diaphysis •Central canal -Carries blood vessels, nerves in center of osteon •Concentric lamellae -Rings of bone around central canal •Osteocytes: housed in lacunae between lamellae •Canaliculi -Tiny, interconnecting channels that extend between lacunae -Allow osteocytes to connect and communicate •Perforating canals -Run perpendicular to and help connect multiple central canals -Passageways for blood vessels and nerves •Circumferential lamellae -Rings of bone immediately internal to the periosteum or internal to the endosteum -Run the entire circumference of the bone •Interstitial lamellae -Leftover parts of osteons that have been partially resorbed

Identify the general location of the epiphyseal plates in long bones and outline the sequence of events associated with long bone growth in these regions

The epiphyseal plate is a layer of hyaline cartilage at the boundary of the epiphysis and diaphysis •Zone of resting cartilage: farthest from medullary cavity and nearest epiphysis; small chondrocytes in hyaline cartilage •Zone of proliferating cartilage: larger chondrocytes undergoing rapid mitotic cell division •Zone of hypertrophic cartilage: chondrocytes cease dividing and become enlarged •Zone of calcified cartilage: deposited minerals kill the chondrocytes •Zone of ossification: walls between lacunae break down, forming channels that become invaded with capillaries and osteoprogenitorcells

Illustrate the structural organization and functions of the muscles of the abdominal wall

Too poor.......

Describe briefly the development of the limbs

Upper limb develops a few days ahead of lower limb during weeks 4-8

Recognize "pollex" is the term associated with structures of the thumb

Yup..........

Demonstrate movements that may occur at joints, including: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction, inversion, eversion, protraction, retraction, and opposition

flexion - moving your arm closer to you when doing a bicep curl extension - straightening out your leg abduction - moving your leg away from the midline of the body adduction - bringing your arm closer to the midline of your body rotation - turning the head left and right circumduction - rotating your arm in a circular motion while leaving the glenohumeral joint stationary inversion - turning the arch of the foot medially eversion - turning the arch of the foot laterally protraction - Pushing out the mental bone retraction - pulling in the mental bone from the prone position opposition - touching the distal phalange V with the pollux

Describe the tissue characteristics of cartilage

• Semirigid extracellular matrix -Weaker than bone, but more flexible and resilient •Cells -Chondroblasts: produce extracellular matrix -Chondrocytes: maintain matrix. Occupy small spaces called lacunae •Mature cartilage is avascular-Nutrient diffusion

Explain how the ribs articulate with the sternum and the vertebral column, naming the articulating structures

•12 pairs -Articulate posteriorly with thoracic vertebrae •True ribs: ribs 1-7 -Articulate anteriorly with the sternum via costal cartilages •False ribs: ribs 8-12 -Costal cartilages do not attach directly to the sternum •Floating ribs: ribs 11-12 -Do not articulate with the sternum

List the carpal bones and describe their relative locations in the proximal or distal rows of the wrist

•8 "wrist" bones called carpals •Two rows of four •Distal row (lateral to medial) -Trapezium -Trapezoid -Capitate -Hamate •Proximal row (lateral to medial) -Scaphoid -Lunate -Triquetrum -Pisiform

List 5 functions of skeletal muscle in the body

•Body movement •Maintenance of posture •Protection and support •Regulating elimination of materials-Sphinctersat orifices •Heat production

Describe the structural components of the thoracic cage and its general functions

•Bony frame around chest composed of: -Thoracic vertebrae posteriorly -Ribs laterally -Sternum anteriorly •Functions: -Protects heart, lungs, trachea, esophagus, and other thoracic organs -Muscle attachments -pectoral girdles, others

Acromioclavicular: -its structural and functional classification -articulating structures -characteristic features, ligaments, etc.

•Diarthrotic plane joint •Articulating structures: -Acromial end of clavicle -Acromion of scapula •Articular disc within joint cavity •Supporting ligaments: -Acromioclavicular ligament -Coracoclavicular ligament

Temporomandibular: -its structural and functional classification -articulating structures -characteristic features, ligaments, etc.

•Diarthrotic, synovial hinge joint •Articulating structures: -Head of mandible -Articular tubercle of temporal bone (anteriorly) -Mandibular fossa of temporal bone (posteriorly) •Features: -Articular disc -Ligaments

Elbow: -its structural and functional classification -articulating structures -characteristic features, ligaments, etc.

•Diarthrotichinge joint composed of humeroulnar and humeroradial joints -Trochlea of humerus with trochlear notch of ulna -Capitulum of humerus with head of radius -Both joints enclosed in single articular capsule •Supporting ligaments: -Radial (lateral) collateral ligament -Ulnar (medial) collateral ligament -Anular ligament

Knee: -its structural and functional classification -articulating structures -characteristic features, ligaments, etc.

•Diarthrotichinge joint containing two articulations 1.Tibiofemoral joint: between tibial condyles and femoral condyles 2.Patellofemoral joint: between patella and patellar surface of femur •Largest and most complex diarthrosis of body •Supporting structures: fibrocartilage pads on tibialcondyles -Medial meniscus -Lateral meniscus -Quadriceps tendon continuous with patellar ligament -Fibular (lateral) collateral ligament -Tibial(medial) collateral ligament -Anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments (ACL and PCL)

Name 5 types of connective tissue associated with skeletal muscle and describe their locations and / or functions

•Endomysium: surrounds and electrically insulates each muscle fiber -Areolar CT with reticular fibers •Perimysium: surrounds fascicles -Dense irregular CT with blood vessels and nerves •Epimysium: surrounds entire muscle -Dense irregular CT •Deep fascia: large sheet external to epimysium -Surrounds each muscle, binds muscles with similar functions -Dense irregular CT with vessels and nerves •Superficial fascia: separates muscle from skin -Areolar and adipose CT

Foot: -its structural and functional classification -articulating structures -characteristic features, ligaments, etc.

•Four types of synovial diarthroses in foot: 1.Intertarsal: plane joint between tarsals 2.Tarsometatarsal: plane joint between distal tarsal bones and metatarsals 3.Metatarsophalangeal (MP): condylar joint between metatarsal and proximal phalanges 4.Interphalangeal (IP): hinge joint between phalanges

Review anatomical position and explain how it relates to the bones of the antebrachium

•In anatomical position, radius and ulna are parallel -Radius lateral to ulna -Supination •Pronation involves the radius crossing over the ulna -Palm faces posteriorly

Provide a general overview of development of the axial skeleton

•Most bones form from cartilage (endochondral ossification) •Flat skull bones develop from mesenchyme (intramembranous ossification) •Sternum develops from cartilaginous sternal bars that fuse medially •Ribs and vertebrae develop from sclerotomes of somites

Define the term "motor unit" and its role in control of muscle function

•Motor unit: a single motor neuron and the muscle fibers it controls •A motor unit contains only some of the muscle fibers in an entire muscle •When a motor unit is stimulated, all muscle fibers within it contract

Describe the changes in muscle architecture associated with muscle hypertrophy and muscle atrophy

•Muscle hypertrophy: an increase in muscle fiber size -Building muscle increases fiber size but not number of fibers: Number of myofibrils per fiber increases; More mitochondria and more glycogen stored in the cells -Results from repetitive, exhaustive stimulation of muscle •Muscle atrophy: a wasting of muscle that reduces fiber size -Reduced stimulation results in reduced muscle size, tone, and power

List the bones that comprise the orbital complex

•Orbits: bony cavities in skull that hold and protect the eyes -Consist of multiple bones (Sphenoid bone, Frontal bone, Maxilla, lacrimal bone, ethmoid bone, zygomatic bone, and paletine)

For the posterior compartment of the forearm, describe 5 superficial and 5 deep muscles and the actions elicited by each muscle group

•Superficial layer 1.Extensor carpi radialislongus: Extendswrist, abducts hand 2.Extensor carpi radialisbrevis: Extendswrist, abducts hand 3.Extensor digitorum: Extendswrist, II-V MP joints, PIP joints, and DIP joints 4.Extensor digitiminimi: Extends wrist, MP, and PIP joints of finger V 5.Extensor carpi ulnaris: Extendswrist, adducts hand •Deep layer 6.Abductor pollicislongus: Abducts thumb, extends wrist (weakly) 7.Extensor pollicisbrevis: Extends MP joints of thumb, extends wrist (weakly) 8.Extensor pollicislongus: Extends MP and IP joints of thumb, extends wrist (weakly) 9.Extensor indicis: Extends MP, PIP, and DIP joints of finger 2, extends wrist (weakly) 10.Supinator: Supinates forearm

Describe the structures associated with the carpal tunnel

•Tendons of anterior compartment muscles pass over anterior surface of carpal bones -Along with median nerve, they are held in place by flexor retinaculum -Carpal tunnel = space between carpal bones and flexor retinaculum

Name 3 muscles in the anterior compartment and 2 muscles in the posterior compartment of the arm and their primary actions at the elbow

•The anterior compartmentcontains elbow flexors: -Biceps brachii: Flexesforearm, powerful supinator of forearm. Long head flexes arm -Brachialis: Primary flexor of forearm -Brachioradialis: Flexes forearm •The posterior compartment contains elbow extensors: -Triceps brachii: Primary extensor of forearmLong head of triceps also extends and adducts arm -Anconeus: Extends forearm

Differentiate between the true pelvis and false pelvis

•True pelvis: bony basin inferior to pelvic brim containing pelvic organs •False pelvis: superior to pelvic brim bound by ilia laterally and abdominal wall anteriorly

Compare and contrast true, false, and floating ribs

•True ribs: ribs 1-7 -Articulate anteriorly with the sternum via costal cartilages •False ribs: ribs 8-12 -Costal cartilages do not attach directly to the sternum •Floating ribs: ribs 11-12 -Do not articulate with the sternum

Identify the general locations of 2 muscles causing pronation and 1 muscle causing supination (antebrachium)

•Two muscles on the anterior forearm that pronatethe forearm are: -Pronator teres: Pronates forearm -Pronator quadratus: Pronates forearm •The muscle on the posterior forearm that supinatesthe forearm is: -Supinator: Supinates forearm

Describe the structural hierarchy of whole muscle

•Whole muscle •Muscle fascicle •Muscle fiber •Myofibrils •Myofilaments