Unit 5

Debt For Nature Swap

Debt for nature swap is the forgiveness of international debt in exchange for nature protection in developing countries. Example: Since the first swap occurred between Conservation International and Bolivia in 1987, many national governments and conservation organizations have engaged in debt-for-nature swaps. Most swaps occur in tropical countries, which contain many diverse species of flora and fauna.

Double cropping

Double cropping is when people harvest twice a year from the same field. Example: In the Garhwal Himalaya of India, a practice called baranaja involves sowing 12 or more crops on the same plot, including various types of beans, grams, and millets, and harvesting them at different times.

Environmental modifications

Environmental modifications are the changes in the ecosystem resulting from human activities such as the use of pesticides, soil erosion, desertification. Example: The creation of rice paddies in Asia is an example of environmental modifications. This alters the topography of the land and changes how water and runoff collect.

Extensive subsistence agriculture

Extensive subsistence agriculture, also known as extensive farming, is a way of growing crops that uses small inputs of labor, fertilizers, and capital, relative to the land area being farmed. Example: The large-scale growing of wheat, barley and other grain crops in the Murray-Darling Basin is an example of extensive subsistence agriculture because the large-scale growing of wheat, barley and other grain crops in the Murray-Darling Basin uses small inputs of labor, fertilizers, and capital, relative to the land area being farmed.

Extractive industry

Extractive industry are businesses that take mineral resources from the earth. Example: Gas flares in Nigeria, Russia, Middle East, Kazakhstan and other areas of oil extraction burn constantly, emitting thousands of tonnes of toxic emissions. This results in high levels of atmospheric pollution, which damages crops, and causes severe health problems.

Feedlot

Feedlot is a building where livestock are fattened for market. Example: A commercial cattle barn is an example of a feedlot because it is here that the cows are raised until they are large enough to be slaughtered.

Fertilizer

Fertilizers are any substance such as manure or a mixture of nitrates used to make soil more fertile Example: Mined inorganic fertilizers have been used for many centuries, whereas chemically synthesized inorganic fertilizers were only widely developed during the industrial revolution. Increased understanding and use of fertilizers were important parts of the pre-industrial British Agricultural Revolution and the industrial Green Revolution of the 20th century.

Food Chain

Food chain is a series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten. Example: plants get energy from the sun, some animals eat plants, and some animals eat other animals, then we eat the animals.

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)

Genetically modified organisms are organism whose genetic material has been altered through some genetic engineering technology or technique. Example: Salmon have been engineered to grow larger and mature faster, and cattle have been enhanced to exhibit resistance to mad cow disease in the United States.

Green Revolution

Green Revolution is an agricultural revolution that increased production through improved seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation. Example: In 1961 India was on the brink of mass famine.[3] Borlaug was invited to India by the adviser to the Indian minister of agriculture C. Subramaniam. Despite bureaucratic hurdles imposed by India's grain monopolies, the Ford Foundation and Indian government collaborated import wheat seed from CIMMYT.

Herbicides

Herbicides are a type of pesticide that is used to kill weeds Example: The first modern herbicide, 2,4-D, was first discovered and synthesized by W. G. Templeman at Imperial Chemical Industries. In 1940, he showed that "Growth substances applied appropriately would kill certain broad-leaved weeds in cereals without harming the crops." By 1941, his team succeeded in synthesizing the chemical. In the same year, Pokorny in the US achieved this as well.

Horticulture

Horticulture is the cultivation of crops carried out with simple hand tools such as digging sticks or hoes. Example: Halfacre and Barden, Janick and Goldman. Further extended the scope of horticulture when they agreed that the origins of horticulture are intimately associated with the history of humanity and that horticulture encompasses all life and bridges the gap between science, art and human beings.

Commodity Chains

A linked system of processes that gather resources, covert them into goods, package them for distribution, disperse them, and sell them. Example: The poultry industry is an example of a commodity chain because the eggs are hatched, chicks raised, chickens slaughtered, and meat processed in different areas across the country.

Renewable/Non-Renewable resource

A renewable resource is a resource that can regenerate over time. Example: resources such as timber and wind are considered renewable resources, largely because their localized replenishment can occur within timeframes meaningful to humans. A non-renewable resource is a resource id one that can be used up. Example: Metal ores are other examples of non-renewable resources. The metals themselves are present in vast amounts in the earth's crust, and are continually concentrated and replenished over millions of years.

Suitcase farm

A suitcase farm is a farm that has an owner, but the owner is only present during the plowing, seeding, and harvesting seasons. Example: The owner often owns a farm without buildings and does much of the farming by hired custom operators. Suitcase farms can be found in the Central Great Plains of the U.S.

Wattle

A wattle is a material consisting of rods or stakes interlaced with twigs or branches. Wattles are used to make fences, walls, and other things. Example: Wattles are used as fences to enclose livestock in many European countries this is an example of a wattle because the fences that keep the livestock contain in many European countries are made of this material.

Agrarian

Agrarian is something having to do with farms, farmers, or the use of land. Example: Agrarian societies were preceded by hunter-gatherer societies and horticultural societies and transition into industrial societies. This transition, called the Neolithic Revolution, has taken place independently multiple times. Horticulture and agriculture as types of subsistence developed among humans somewhere between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent region of the Middle East.

Agribusiness

Agribusiness is commercial agriculture characterized by integration of different steps in the food-processing industry, usually through ownership by large corporations. Example: Examples of agribusinesses include seed and agrichemical producers like Dow AgroSciences, DuPont, Monsanto, and Syngenta; AB Agri animal feeds, biofuels, and micro-ingredients, ADM, grain transport and processing; John Deere, farm machinery producer; Ocean Spray, farmer's cooperative; and Purina Farms, agritourism farm.

Agriculture

Agriculture is the science or practice of farming. Example:The Fertile Crescent of Western Asia first saw the domestication of animals, starting the Neolithic Revolution. Between 10,000 and 13,000 years ago, the ancestors of modern cattle, sheep, goats and pigs were domesticated in this area. The gradual transition from wild harvesting to deliberate cultivation happened independently in several areas around the globe

Aquaculture

Aquaculture is when someone raises marine and freshwater fish in ponds and underwater cages. Example: The indigenous Gunditjmara people in Victoria, Australia may have raised eels as early as 6000 BC. There is evidence that they developed about 100 square kilometers of volcanic floodplains in the vicinity of Lake Condah into a complex of channels and dams, that they used woven traps to capture eels, and preserve eels to eat all year round.

Biotechnology

Biotechnology is a form of technology that uses living organisms to modify products or to develop other microorganisms for specific purposes. Example: Some of the world's highest yields of potatoes are in Idaho under irrigation, but in 1993 both quality and yield were severely reduced because of cold, wet weather and widespread frost damage during June. Some of the world's best bread wheats and malting barleys are produced in the north-central states, but in 1993 the disease Fusarium caused an estimated $1 billion in damage.

Cadastral system

Cadastral system are the patterns of settlement and land use that delineates property lines. Example: In the United States, Cadastral Survey within the Bureau of Land Management maintains records of all public lands. Such surveys often require detailed investigation of the history of land use, legal accounts, and other documents.

Cereal grains/staple grains

Cereal grains/staple grains are corn, wheat, rice, and other grasses, Grains that can be stored and used throughout the year. Example: Roots and tubers are important staples for over 1 billion people in the developing world; accounting for roughly 40 percent of the food eaten by half the population of sub-Saharan Africa.

Chemical farming

Chemical farming is the increased use of fertilizers with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Example: The prime cause for dead zones is the use of highly soluble synthetic fertilizers, which are overused to obtain maximum yields.

Collective farm

Collective farms are farms or groups of farms run by the government, as in a communist state Example: examples of collective farms are the kolkhozy that dominated Soviet agriculture between 1930 and 1991 and the Israeli kibbutzim. Both are collective farms based on common ownership of resources and on pooling of labor and income in accordance with the theoretical principles of cooperative organizations.

Commercial agriculture

Commercial agriculture is undertaken primarily to generate products for sale off the farm. Example: Large-scale commercial farming, in terms of some of its processes, may be conceptually not very different from large industrial enterprises; United Fruit Company which is now Chiquita Brands International is an example.

Crop rotation

Crop rotation is when farmers plant different crops at different times to avoid nutrient depletion Example: Field trials in Connecticut and Europe indicate that your potato production will quickly fall by 40 percent, mostly due to disease. According to a seven-year study from Ontario, you could expect similar declines if you planted tomatoes in the same place over and over again.

Dairying

Dairying is an agricultural activity involving the raising of livestock, most commonly cows and goats, for dairy products such as milk, cheese, and butter. Example: In Asia, dairying is further extended to include milch buffalo, which make a most important contribution to both rural families and the national economy. In India, about 79 million buffalo produce approximately 55 per cent of the total volume of milk, compared to about 40 per cent from 199 million cattle. Smallholders in South Asia often use both buffalo and cattle together for milk production in order to combine the different butterfat contents.

Intensive agriculture/Extensive agriculture

Intensive agriculture/Extensive is a form of agriculture in which farmers must expend a relatively large amount of effort to produce the maximum feasible yield from a parcel of land. Example: Many large-scale farm operators, especially in such relatively vast and agriculturally advanced nations as Canada and the United States, practice intensive agriculture in areas where land values are relatively low, and at great distances from markets, and farm enormous tracts of land with high yields. Extensive agriculture is distinguished from intensive agriculture in that the latter, employing large amounts of labor and capital, enables one to apply fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides and to plant, cultivate, and often harvest mechanically.

Intensive subsistence agriculture

Intensive subsistence agriculture form of subsistence agriculture in which farmers must expend a relatively large amount of effort to produce the maximum feasible yield from a parcel of land. Example: The growing of wet rice in southeastern China is an example of intensive subsistence agriculture because producing wet rice takes a lot of effort to produce the maximum feasible yield from a parcel of land.

Intertillage

Intertillage is the clearing of rows in the field through the use of hoes, rakes, & other manual equipment Example: In the Amazon rainforest, larger trees protect the smaller ones from heavy rains. This is an example of intertillage because the taller plants shelter more fragile ones from tropical downpours.

Livestock ranching

Livestock ranching is the raising of domesticated animals for the production of meat and products. Example: People who own or operate a ranch are called ranchers, or stockgrowers. Ranching is also a method used to raise less common livestock such as elk, American bison or even ostrich, emu, and alpacas.

Paddy

Paddy is the malay word for wet rice, commonly but incorrectly used to describe a sawah. Example: Paddy fields are the typical feature of rice farming in east, south and southeast Asia. Paddies can be built into steep hillsides as terraces and adjacent to depressed or steeply sloped features such as rivers or marshes.

Pastoralism

Pastorialism is a type of agricultural activity based on nomadic animal husbandry or the raising of livestock to provide food, clothing, and shelter. Example: the Turkana people of northwest Kenya use fire to prevent the invasion of the savanna by woody plant species. Biomass of the domesticated and wild animals was increased by a higher quality of grass.

Pesticides

Pesticides ate the chemicals that kill crop-destroying organisms Example: Most pesticides contain chemicals that can be harmful to people, animals, or the environment. For this reason the Office of Pesticide Programs of the Environmental Protection Agency regulates pesticides in the United States to protect public health and the environment.

Plantation agriculture

Plantation agriculture is the raising a large amount of a "cash crop" for local sale or export Example: The earliest examples of plantations were the latifundia of the Roman Empire, which produced large quantities of wine and olive oil for export. Plantation agriculture grew rapidly with the increase in international trade and the development of a worldwide economy that followed the expansion of European colonial empires.

Boserup, Esther - increase food production to meet demand

Population growth influences the distribution of types of subsistence farming, according to Ester Boserup. According to Boserup, subsistence farmer increase the supply of food through intensification of production that is achieved in two ways: new farming methods are adopted and the land is left fallow for shorter periods. Example: Countries such as India and China growing wet rice, a form of intensive subsistence agriculture. We can expect this because according to Boserup, population growth influences the distribution of types of subsistence farming. Since there is a lot of people in India and China and their climates are right for wet rice, we can expect wet rice farms in these two countries.

Primary economic activity

Primary economic activity is the economic activity concerned with the direct extraction of natural resources from the environment. Example: About 3% of the U.S. labor force is engaged in primary sector activity today, while more than two-thirds of the labor force were primary sector workers in the mid-nineteenth century.

Primogeniture

Primogeniture is the right obtained by the firstborn male child to own the family estate. Example: Most monarchies in Europe have eliminated male preference in succession: Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway and Sweden.

Quaternary economic activity

Quaternary economic activity is the service sector that has industries concerned with the collection, processing, and manipulation of information and capital. Example: The quarternary sector is sometimes included with the tertiary sector, as they are both service sectors. Between them, the tertiary and quarternary sectors are the largest part of the UK economy, employing 76% of the workforce.

Quinary economic activity

Quinary economic activity is the service sector industries that require a high level of specialized knowledge skill. Example: The quinary sector in Australia refers to domestic activities such as those performed by stay-at-home parents or homemakers. These activities are typically not measured by monetary amounts but it is important to recognize these activities in contribution to the economy.

Ridge tillage

Ridge tillage is a system of planting crops on ridge tops in order to reduce farm production costs and promote greater soil conservation. Example: s often grown on ridges for purposes of irrigation. In ridge tillage the ridges are a product of cultivation of the previous crop and are not tilled out after harvest. The planter may remove part of the ridge top, but before planting there is no tillage. This provides potential advantages in soil conservation and weed management.

Subsistence Agriculture

Subsistence agriculture is a form of agriculture that is designed mainly to provide food for direct consumption by the farmer and the farmer's family. Example: Subsistence grain-growing agriculture first emerged during the Neolithic Revolution when humans began to settle in the Nile, Euphrates, and Indus River Valleys.

Sustainable yield

Sustainable yield is the highest rate at which a renewable resource can be used indefinitely without reducing its available supply. Example: the basic natural capital or virgin population, must decrease with extraction. At the same time productivity increases. Hence, sustainable yield would be within the range in which the natural capital together with its production are able to provide satisfactory yield.

Tertiary economic activity

Tertiary economic activity is the economic activity associated with the provision for services. Example: In most developed and developing countries, a growing proportion of workers are devoted to the tertiary sector. In the U.S., more than 80% of the labor force are tertiary workers.

"Tragedy of the commons"

The "tragedy of the commons" is an economics theory by Garrett Hardin that states that some individuals in a group behave contrary to the whole group's long-term best interests by depleting some common resource. Example: The Grand Banks are fishing grounds off the coast of Newfoundland. For centuries, explorers and fishermen described this region as home to an endless supply of cod fish. In the 1960s and 1970s, advances in fishing technology allowed huge catches of cod. Following a few dramatically large seasons, the fish populations dropped, forcing Canadian fishermen to sail farther to maintain large catch sizes each season.

Koppen Climatic Classifications for Agriculture

The Köppen Climatic Classifications for Agriculture was created by Vladimir Köppen. He modified Köppen System divides the world into five main climate regions: Tropical Climates, Dry Climates, Warm Mid-Latitude Climates, Cold Mid-Latitude Climates, and Polar Climates. Example: Based on recent data sets from the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia and the Global Precipitation Climatology Centre at the German Weather Service, we present here a new digital Köppen-Geiger world map on climate classification for the second half of the 20th century.

Truck farm

Truck farm is a commercial gardening and fruit farming, so named because truck was a Middle English word meaning bartering or the exchange of commodities. Example: The major truck-farming areas are in California, Texas, Florida, along the Atlantic Coastal Plain, and in the Great Lakes area. Centers for specific crops vary with the season. Among the most important truck crops are tomatoes, lettuce, melons, beets, broccoli, celery, radishes, onions, cabbage, and strawberries.

Wet rice/dry rice

Wet rice is a way of growing rice that involves planting rice in a nursery on dry land and then the rice is moved to a deliberately flooded field to promote growth. Example: During the twentieth century, paddy field farming became the dominant form of growing rice. Hill tribes of Thailand still cultivate dry-soil varieties called upland rice. Dry rice is rice that is grown without transplanting the seeds into a deliberately flooded field. Example: Dry rice can be found in India and dry rice is grown without transplanting the seeds into a deliberately flooded field.

Spring wheat/winter wheat

Winter wheat is a type of wheat crop that is planted in the autumn and develops a strong root system before growth stops for the winter. Example: The winter wheat belt, which includes Kansas, Colorado, and Oklahoma, is mainly where winter wheat is grown.at is planted in the spring and harvested in the late summer. Spring wheat is a type of crop that is planted in the spring and harvested in the late summer. Example: The spring wheat belt, which includes the Dakotas, Montana, and southern Saskatchewan in Canada, is mainly where spring wheat is grown.

Survey patterns (long lots, metes and bounds, Township and range)

Long lots are a French survey system in which houses built on narrow lots that are close and perpendicular to a river. Example: The feudal elements of this system quickly became irrelevant in the New World, where land was available in abundance for tenants who felt oppressed and wanted to move. Long lots can be found in many parts of Canada, where the French influence is strong, and near Detroit. Metes and Bounds is an English survey system that uses physical features of the local geography, including directions and distances, to define the boundaries of a specific piece of land. Example: The Thirteen Colonies used this survey system. This is an example of this type of survey system because the Thirteen Colonies used the physical features of the land to determine its boundaries Township-and-Range is a survey system was invented. It divided land into six-mile square blocks called townships. Then, townships were then divided into one-mile square blocks called ranges. Ranges were then broken into smaller parcels to be sold or given to people to develop. Example: In the state of Texas, this system applies only to the panhandle region of northwest Texas. The panhandle region of Texas was surveyed under this system, but the remainder of the state was surveyed or boundaries decided on the basis of the Spanish land grant system. All of the midcontinent north of Texas has been surveyed under the township and range system.

Luxury crops

Luxury crops are non-subsistence crops such as tea, cacao, coffee, and tobacco Example: Historically, luxury crops were grown on plantations by European powers. Luxury crops include tea, coffee, tobacco, and cocoa. Tobacco that is grown in North Carolina is an example of a luxury crop because tobacco is not a necessity for human survival.

Market gardening

Market gardening are the small scale production of fruits, vegetables, and flowers as cash crops sold directly to local consumers. Example: A "market garden" was simply a vegetable plot, the produce of which the farmer to sell as opposed to use to feed his or her family. Market gardens are necessarily close to the markets, i.e. cities, that they serve.

Mediterranean agriculture

Mediterranean agriculture is specialized farming that occurs only in areas where the dry-summer Mediterranean climate prevails Example: Citrus fruits, olives and figs, with long, widespread roots, scant foliage and thick skinned fruits are best adapted to the Mediterranean type of climate. Dates are prominent in semi-arid region in North Africa and in scattered areas in south-west Europe, where cultivation of other crops is not viable.

Milkshed

Milkshed is the area surrounding a city from which milk is supplied. Example: the St. Louis milkshed because it is the area around St. Louis that milk can be supplied without spoiling.

Monoculture

Monoculture is the farming strategy in which large fields are planted with a single crop, year after year. Example: Irish Potato Famine. The Irish focused only on one type of potato, so when blight hit, all their resources were gone and the people died or immigrated to other countries such as America.

Organic agriculture

Organic agriculture are crops produced without the use of synthetic or industrially produced pesticides and fertilizers Example: Over 25,000 farmers, ranchers and other businesses get many benefits from USDA organic certification. Many receive premium prices for their products through the growing $35 billion U.S. organic retail market. Most operations that grow, handle, or process organic products-and want to call their products organic-must be certified.

Rural Settlement - Dispersed Settlements /Nucleated settlements

Rural settlements exist today because it is easier to farm on rural land than urban land. Example: Typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements. Agricultural areas are commonly rural, though so are others such as forests. Different countries have varying definitions of "rural" for statistical and administrative purposes. Dispersed rural settlements are rural settlements that have farmers living on separate farms that are isolated from other farmers. Example: an example of a dispersed rural settlement is the American Midwest because it was dominated with farmers lived on separate farms and were isolated from other farmers. Nucleated settlements, also known as clustered settlements, are rural settlements in which many families live close together with fields surrounding the collection of houses and farm buildings. Example: an example of a nucleated settlement is the colonial Americans created rural settlements that had many families that lived close together with fields surrounding the collection of houses and farm buildings.

Secondary economic activity

Secondary economic activity is the economic activity involving the processing of raw materials and their transformation into finished industrial products. Example: These products are then either exported or sold to domestic consumers and to places where they are suitable for use by other businesses. This sector is often divided into light industry and heavy industry. Many of these industries consume large amounts of energy and require factories and machinery to convert the raw materials into goods and products. They also produce waste materials and waste heat that may pose environmental problems or cause pollution.

Shifting Cultivation (Slash and Burn, milpa, swidden)

Shifting Cultivation is a form of subsistence agriculture in which people shift activity from one field to another; each field is used for crops for relatively few years and left fallow for a relatively long period. Example: each field is used for crops for relatively few years and left fallow for a relatively long period. This is the type of agriculture used in 2/3 of the world. Slash-and-burn or swidden is an agricultural technique that involves the cutting and burning of trees and plants in forests or woodlands to create fields. Example: In 2004 it was estimated that, in Brazil alone, 500,000 small farmers each cleared an average of one hectare of forest per year. The milpa cycle calls for 2 years of cultivation and eight years of letting the area lie fallow. Example:In the states of Jalisco, Michoacán, and other areas of central Mexico, the term milpa simply means a single corn plant.

Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is the wearing away of surface soil by water and wind. Example: Industrial agriculture, deforestation, roads, anthropogenic climate change and urban sprawl are among the most significant human activities in regard to their effect on stimulating erosion. However, there are many prevention and remediation practices that can curtail or limit erosion of denuded soils.

Sauer, Carl -Root & Seed Crop Hearths

The contemporary cultural landscape approach in geography - sometimes called the regional studies approach - was initiated in France by Paul Vidal de la Blache and Jean Brunhes. Example: In 1927, Carl Sauer wrote the article "Recent Developments in Cultural Geography," which considered how cultural landscapes are made up of "the forms superimposed on the physical landscape."

Von Thunen, Johann -rings of ag

The von Thünen model is used by geographers to help explain the importance of proximity to market in the choice of crops on commercial farms. Example: The model generated four concentric rings of agricultural activity. Dairying and intensive farming lies closest to the city. Since vegetables, fruit, milk and other dairy products must get to market quickly, they would be produced close to the city.

Malthus, Thomas - Pop & Food supply

Thomas Malthus was an English economist who was one of the first to argue that the world's rate of population increase was far outrunning the development of food supplies. Example:The population growth and the amount of resources differ between sub-Saharan Africa and Europe. Also, the whole world is currently using up resources that take a long time to replace.

Transhumance

Transhuminance is the seasonal migration of livestock between mountains and lowland pastures. Example: In most parts of Wales, farm workers and sometimes the farmer would spend the summer months at a hillside summer house where the livestock would graze. Then during the late autumn they would return down to the valleys with the farm workers staying at the main residence.