UNIT2 LECTURE NOTES

(historical perspectives on motivation) the traditional approach

"scientific management" (Frederick Taylor) assumes that employees are motivated solely by money - fostered the lowest level of motivation

how motivational processes occur:

- Need: anything an individual requires or wants (needs are stronger than wants) - Need deficiency: triggers attempts to satisfy the need - Goal-directed behaviors result from individuals trying to satisfy their need deficiencies - Rewards and punishments are consequences of the goal-directed behavior - Reassessment of need deficiency occurs after the person assesses the extent to which the outcome addressed the original need deficiency

Areas of Employee Involvement

- Personal job-related decisions - Administrative matters (e.g., work schedules) - Product quality decisions

Process-Based Perspectives on Motivation

- Why people choose certain behavioral options to satisfy their needs - How people evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained these goals 1) The Equity Theory of Motivation - The Equity Comparison 2) The Expectancy Theory of Motivation (Vroom) 3) The Porter-Lawler Model

management by objectives (MBO)

- a collaborative goal setting process through which organizational goals cascade down throughout the organization - requires customizing to each organization

Need-Based Theories of Motivation

- assume that need deficiencies cause behavior 1) Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 2) ERG Theory (Alderfer) 3) Herzberg's Two-Factor (Dual-Structure) Theory 4) Acquired Needs Framework (McClelland)

ERG Theory (Alderfer)

- describes existence (E), relatedness (R), and growth (G) needs ASSUMPTIONS: - more than one need may motivate a person at the same time - satisfaction-progression and frustration-regression components imply that a person may not stay at the same level of need in Maslow's Hierarchy NOTE: evolved from Maslow's hierarchy

guidelines for using expectancy theory

- determine the primary outcomes each employee wants - decide what levels/kinds of performance are needed to meet organizational goals - make sure the desired levels of performance are possible - link desired outcomes and desired performance - analyze the situation for conflicting expectancies - make sure the rewards are large enough - make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone

techniques and issues in employee involvement

- empowerment through work teams - decentralization of decision-making and increased delegation

group cohesiveness [FAGP]

- the extent to which a group is committed to staying together results from forces acting on the members: - attraction to the group - resistance to leaving the group - motivation to remain a member of the group

group size [FAGP]

- the number of members in the group - affects resources available to perform the task - affects degree of formalization of interactions, communication, and participation - can increase the degree of social loafing

group norms [FAGP]

- the standards against which the appropriateness of the behaviors of members are judged - determine behavior expected in a certain situation result from: - personality characteristics of members - the situation - the historical traditions of the group purposes of norms: - help the group survive - simplify and increase predictability of expected behaviors of group members - help the group to avoid embarrassing situations - express the group's central values for membership identification and identify the group to others

research has shown that

-Goal difficulty and specificity are closely associated with performance -Goal-setting theory may focus too much on short-run considerations -MBO has the potential to motivate because it helps implement goal-setting theory on a systematic basis throughout the organization -MBO has a tendency to overemphasize quantitative goals to enhance verifiability

Using Theories of Motivation

-No single theory explains motivation—each theory covers only some factors that motivate behavior -More than one theory or method can be used to enhance performance in an organization -Each theory or method must be translated into operational terms (figure out a way to put the theory into practice)

requirements for effective empowerment

-Sincere in its efforts to spread power and autonomy to lower levels of the organization -Committed to maintaining participation and empowerment -Systematic and patient in its efforts to empower workers -Prepared to increase its commitment to training

Purposes of Setting Goals in Organizations

-To provide a useful framework for managing motivation to enhance employee performance -To serve management as a control device for monitoring how well the organization is performing

steps of the General MBO Model

-Top managers establish overall goals for the firm -Managers and employees collaborate to set subsidiary goals -Managers and employees ensure that the employees have the resources needed to reach the goals -Process flows downward as each subordinate manager repeats the steps with her own subordinates -Manager periodically meets with subordinates to check progress and make adjustments as needed

the three dimensions of self-efficacy

1) Magnitude 2) Strength 3) Generality

Learning-Based Perspectives on Motivation

1) Reinforcement Theory and Learning 2) Social Learning in Organizations 3) Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod)

Acquired Needs Framework (McClelland)

1) The Need for Achievement: The desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than was done in the past 2) The Need for Affiliation: The need for human companionship 3) The Need for Power: The desire to control the resources in one's environment

variable work schedules

1) compressed work schedule: employees work a 40-hour week in fewer than 5 days 2) extended work schedule: employees work for relatively long periods of work followed by relatively long periods of paid time off 3) flexible work schedule (flextime): employees gain more control over hours worked daily 4) job sharing: two or more part-time employees share full-time job 5) telecommuting: employees spend all or part of their time working off-site

Factors Affecting Group Performance

1) group composition 2) group size 3) group norms 4) group cohesiveness

Early Alternatives to Job Specialization

1) job rotation: Systematically moving workers from one job to another in an attempt to minimize monotony and boredom 2) job enlargement (horizontal job loading): Giving workers more tasks to perform 3) job enrichment (vertical job loading): Giving workers more tasks to perform and more control over how to perform them

historical perspectives on motivation

1) the traditional approach 2) the human relations approach 3) the human resource approach

Goal Setting Theory (Locke)

Assumes that behavior is a result of conscious goals and intentions, therefore goals influence behavior (performance)

Herzberg's Two-Factor (Dual-Structure) Theory

Assumes that motivation, as a construct, has two separate dimensions: - Motivation factors (which affect satisfaction) - Hygiene factors (which determine dissatisfaction) Assumes motivation occurs through job enrichment once hygiene factors are addressed Criticisms: - may be both method and culture bound - fails to account for individual differences - factors (e.g., pay) may affect both dimensions

Job Characteristics Theory

Critical psychological states of workers: 1) The experienced meaningfulness of the work 2) Experienced responsibility for work outcomes 3) Knowledge of results Motivational properties of tasks: 1) Skill variety 2) Task identity 3) Task significance 4) Autonomy 5) Feedback

The Equity Theory of Motivation

Focuses on the desire to be treated with equity and to avoid perceived inequity

The Porter-Lawler Model

Focuses on the relationship between satisfaction and performance Assumptions: - if rewards are adequate, high levels of performance may lead to satisfaction - satisfaction is determined by the perceived equity of intristic (intangible) and extrinsic (tangible) rewards for performance

Learning / How Learning Occurs

Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential resulting from direct or indirect experience How Learning Occurs - Traditional View: Classical Conditioning A simple form of learning that links a conditioned response with an unconditioned stimulus - Contemporary View: Learning as a Cognitive Process Assumes people are conscious, active participants in how they learn

The Expectancy Theory of Motivation (Vroom)

Motivation depends on how much we want something and how likely we think we are to get it 1) effort-to-performance expectancy - the perceived probability that effort will lead to performance 2) performance-to-outcome expectancy - the perceived probability that performance will lead to certain outcomes 3) outcome - anything that results from performing a behavior 4) valence - the degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness (value) that a particular outcome has for a person

Reinforcement Theory and Learning

Operant Conditioning (Skinner) (closely linked with classical conditioning) - Behavior is a function of its consequences - Reinforcement is the consequence of behavior Types of Reinforcement: 1) positive reinforcement: a reward or other desirable consequence that a person receives after exhibiting behavior 2) negative reinforcement (avoidance): the opportunity to avoid or escape from an unpleasant circumstance after exhibiting behavior 3) extinction: decreases the frequency of behavior by eliminating a reward or desirable consequence that follows the behavior 4) punishment: an unpleasant or aversive consequence that results from behavior

The Equity Theory of Motivation: The Equity Comparison

Outcomes (self)/Inputs (self) compared with Outcomes (other)/Inputs (other)

Extending job design to include:

Participation: Giving employees a voice in making decisions about their own work Empowerment: Enabling workers to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of responsibility and authority

(historical perspectives on motivation) the human relations approach

assumes employees' needs outweigh money and that fostering favorable employee attitudes (the ILLUSION of involvement) results in motivation ie The Big Lie - fostered a mid level of motivation

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

assumes that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance

(historical perspectives on motivation) the human resource approach

assumes that people want to make genuine contributions; managers should encourage their participation by providing the proper working environment conditions - takes employees seriously - fostered the highest level of motivation

Strength

beliefs about how confident the person is that the task can be accomplished ex: (do we believe in ourself?)

Magnitude

beliefs about how difficult a task can be accomplished ex: (how big can the task be before I fail?)

Generality

beliefs about the degree to which similar tasks can be accomplished ex: (if I can do this one big task, I can also do another task that is similar to that one)

Goal Characteristics

goal difficulty -the extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort goal specificity -the clarity and precision of a goal goal measurability** - the ability to measure progress toward the goal **(this is not part of the theory, but it IS important)

the goal-setting process

goal-directed effort is a function of goal attributes: -goal difficulty -goal specificity -goal acceptance -goal commitment

work design in organizations

job design - how organizations define and structure jobs job specialization (Fredrick Taylor) - jobs should be scientifically studied, broken down into small component tasks, and then standardized across all workers doing those jobs - follows Adam Smith's concept of the division of labor - jobs designed for efficiency can become boring and monotonous, resulting in job dissatisfaction

the importance of motivation

job performance (P) depends upon motivation (M), ability (A), and environment (E) P=M+A+E

Social Learning in Organizations

occurs when people observe the behaviors of others, recognize their consequences, and alter their own behavior as a result conditions for social learning: - behavior being observed and imitated must be relatively simple - observed and imitated behavior must be concrete, not intellectual - learner must have the physical ability to imitate the observed behavior

job characteristics theory: research findings

research generally supports the theory, however: - performance seldom found to correlate with job characteristics - measures used to test theory are not always valid and reliable - role of individual differences is not supported - theory is lacking in specific guidelines for implementation

Schedules of Reinforcement

see visual

Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod)

the application of reinforcement theory to people in organizational settings

group composition [FAGP]

the degree of similarity or difference among group members on factors important to the group's work homogeneity - degree to which members are similar in one or several ways that are critical to the group's work - homogeneous groups are more productive when the task is simple, is sequential, requires cooperation, or requires quick action heterogeneity - degree to which members differ in one or more ways that are critical to the group's work - heterogenous groups are more productive when the task is complex, requires collective effort, demands creativity, and emphasizes thoroughness over speed