5.03 The Scientific Revolution

Ptolemy

-Ancient philosopher and astronomer born in Egypt during the Roman Empire -Developed the geocentric theory of the universe

Newton

-English mathematician and physicist -First to develop theories about the laws of force and motion -Developed ideas in calculus to help him further explore and explain his ideas -Discovered gravity, the force that pulls objects towards each other -All heavenly bodies have gravity, the strongest of which is the sun that holds the planets in orbit -His book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy demonstrated how the new scientific thinking could apply mathematics to just about every aspect of science and nature.

Bacon

-English philosopher, author, statesman, and scientist -Promoted and popularized inductive reasoning (in contrast, during the Middle Ages, scientists used deductive reasoning) -Rather than first coming up with a conclusion and trying to prove it, began all processes by observing, then creating an idea. -This shift in thought was one of the most important breakthroughs of the scientific revolution

Descartes

-French mathematician, philosopher, and writer -"Father of Analytical Geometry" -Inductive reasoning would be even more effective if math was added -Believed both nature and philosophy could be studied using mathematical analysis -Everything in the world except for God and the human soul could be analyzed as a machine -Believed that the best way to begin studying any subject was to doubt everything

Kepler

-German astronomer -Along with Tycho Brahe , observed "new stars" so bright they could be seen during the day -During his lifetime, could not explain this; we know today that they were supernovas -Took detailed measurements of movements of heavenly bodies -Determined that planets moved in oval paths rather than circles (Law 1 of planetary motion) -Discovered that planets move faster as they approach the sun and slower when they move away (Law 2 of planetary motion) -Calculated the distance of planets from the sun based on how long it took to go around the sun (Law 3 of planetary motion)

Galileo

-Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher -Used primitive telescope technology to develop his own more powerful telescope -Ability to follow individual stars, the moon, moons of Jupiter, and sunspots -Observed evidence that supported Copernicus' heliocentric theory -Tried by the Church and found guilty of heresy -Placed under house arrest for the remainder of his life

Coperncus

-Polish astronomer -Questioned the Renaissance view of science, ideas led to the Scientific Revolution -Theorized that the Earth orbited the Sun (heliocentric system)

Andreas Vesaliu:

16th century Flemish medical doctor considered to be the father of modern anatomy

Ptolemy:

2nd century Greek astronomer and mathematician who based his astronomy belief that all heavenly bodies revolved around Earth

Tycho Brahe:

Danish astronomer whose observations of the planets provided the basis for Kepler's laws of planetary motion

When Did Europeans Really Start to Seriously Consider Science?

During the Middle Ages in Europe, the emphasis in life was not on the individual, but a group- the Church was the most important thing. People viewed the natural world around them simply as the work of God, and were taught by their feudal lords and church leaders that the most important thing in life is to know your place in that world and to fulfill your duties. In that way, you would secure your place in heaven. Life was really all about the next world, not this one. So, if a person had an idea that ran against tradition-that the earth was a rotating ball, for example-pre-humanist culture would discourage him from throwing the idea out there. There was little to be gained through innovation. Gradually, with the spread of the Renaissance, the most important thinkers of the time began to see that the individual could make discoveries, even those that went against tradition. Marco Polo wrote about mysterious things he saw in China, Christopher Columbus discovered two new huge landmasses, and Martin Luther questioned tradition in the most respected field of knowledge at the time, religion. During this same time, the Church was unable to provide a satisfactory explanation for significant natural disasters like the Great Famine and Black Death. Europeans began to observe the natural world around them more closely and tried to think of explanations for why things were the way they were. Because the Renaissance had brought with it the rediscovery of the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations, most of the Renaissance thinkers were following the writings of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Galen. Likewise, Renaissance thinkers were influenced by the Islamic scholars tha t kept learning alive during the so-called Dark Ages of Europe. Scientists in the 1500s and 1600s began to realize that they needed to test out their ideas and perform experiments to see if they were correct. The Scientific Revolution would be a result of this shift from simply thinking about how something should work according to logic, to coming up with an idea and then testing it out with experiments and measurement. There were risks to approaching science in a new way. The Catholic Church, whose authority had already been diminishing during the Renaissance, did not want scientists questioning things that had previously been accepted as consensus within the Catholic Church. They knew that if the Church was no longer seen as the expert on everything in the natural world, then perhaps the Church's authority would lose its control over people. But the Scientific Revolution would bring with it a whole new way of looking at the world. Instead of unproven ideas, science would become the new way of finding order in the world around us.

Margaret Cavendish:

English aristocrat, writer, and scientist known for her work in natural philosophy

William Harvey:

English physician and scientist who described the circulation of the blood

Antoine Lavoisier:

French chemist famous for proving that air is composed of several gases

Blaise Pascal:

French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer, and philosopher; best known for his work in geometry and probability

Maria Winkelmann Kirch:

German astronomer known for being the first woman to discover a comet

Were There Women Scientists During the Scientific Revolution?

It's easy to think that the shift in scientific thinking was all due to the work of men like Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler. But there were also women who were fascinated by the natural world, new scientific discoveries, and new ways of thinking. Some of these women even conducted experiments and published their findings. However, many of them had no formal education in the sciences and were forced to read and study on their own. Some women made small but important discoveries, such as Ana de Osorio. The Spanish noblewoman had used the plant quinine in Peru to cure her malaria and introduced it as a medicine to Europe. This was considered a major breakthrough in medicine. Margaret Cavendish was a British writer, scientist, and aristocrat who lived in the 17th century. One might consider her a "Renaissance Woman," although her male contemporaries might not have thought of her as such. What made Cavendish unique was the fact that she published under her own name, which was unusual for women of the era. Because of this, she was criticized by many male philosophers and scientists of the time. Not only did she write about science, she also wrote poetry, plays, and essays on philosophy. She also served as an assistant for Queen Maria Henrietta, wife to King Charles I of England and Scotland, while they were living in exile in France. German scientist Maria Winkelmann Kirch made great advances in astronomy. She worked together with her husband Gottfried, making astronomical observations, studying weather, and producing calendars. She is credited with discovering a comet; however, it was Gottfried who was originally given credit for this discovery, as he was a member of the elite Berlin Academy of Sciences. Due to her gender she was denied access; however, she continued to research and published privately until her death. During her lifetime, she took a lot of criticism from the male-dominated scientific world. Women found new opportunities and roles during the Scientific Revolution.

Three Laws of Planetary Motion:

Look Under "Kepler"

How Did the Scientific Revolution Begin?

People in earlier eras made the same observations. They watched the movement of the stars, the planets, and the sun, and they came to the logical conclusion that these heavenly bodies were moving. Their religious beliefs further reinforced these ideas. For over a thousand years, much of the world had accepted the principles developed by the astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy). He saw the earth as the center of the universe, and he determined that all the others stars and planets rotated around it in fixed orbits. This was called the geocentric theory of the universe. It seemed like a simple way to explain the universe. And more importantly, it reinforced the religious view that God had made human beings special and put them at the center of the universe. In the 16th and 17th centuries, however, this long-accepted system was being questioned. This process would put science in conflict with the Church. But it would also result in the Scientific Revolution that would change the way we understand the world around us.

Ana de Osorio:

Spanish countees and vice-queen of Peru; known for using the planet quinine to cure malaria

How Technology Changes to Meet the Needs of a Changing Society

The Scientific Revolution marked the beginning of science and technology in the everyday lives of Europeans. It also began the process that is so familiar to us today: new inventions quickly made obsolete and replaced by newer and better inventions. A good example of this is the development of the typewriter and then the computer. View the following slides to see how the technology for putting words on a page has quickly developed and changed. Peter Mitterhofer, a carpenter from Austria, developed several prototypes for the typewriter between 1864 and 1867. By 1867, he had a fully functioning, working model. The Hansen Writing Ball, which went on sale in 1870, was the first commercially-sold typewriter. The metal letter keys were placed on top of pistons that went directly through the ball and onto a piece of paper. The inventor experimented with the placement of the keys for the greatest possible speed in typing. It was the first machine that could create letters much faster than writing by hand. Once it was developed in the late 1800s, the mechanical typewriter remained unchanged for almost a century. The black metal machine on the left was developed in 1873. The white machine with black keys on the right is similar to those found in some offices in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s, before electric typewriters replaced them. These days a word processor is merely an application on a computer. However, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, a word processor was the entire machine. It looked like a typewriter with a small digital screen and a slot at the bottom for a floppy disk. Most people didn't have a computer in their home, and typewriters were becoming less common. Word processors were a stepping stone between the electric typewriter and the use of a computer for all writing needs. The Apple II was one of the first true personal computers. It was the first to have color graphics, a QWERTY keyboard, and storage capabilities. It was released in 1977, and the Apple Company sold more than four million before it stopped manufacturing it in 1993. The first commercially-sold portable computer was the Osborne 1, released in 1981. It was the size of a sewing machine, very heavy, and did not have the capacity to run on batteries. But this was the first time that people were able to carry a computer with them. These days people don't even need a computer to compose digital text. Many people compose text messages and emails on their smart phones. However, things may not have changed that much. Take a look at the touch screen keyboard. It has same format as the typewriter designed in 1873.

What Was the Greatest Contribution of the Scientific Revolution?

The Scientific Revolution was a revolution because it brought about a major change in how people saw the world. Along with the Renaissance, it marked the beginning of the modern world. Scientists began thinking of the world in terms of science. They began using accurate observations and measurements in their work, something that was not previously being done in Europe. This led to a more accurate view of the natural world, from the stars and planets to nature around them on earth. As Europeans uncovered the truth of Scriptures, could it be that God opened their minds to other truths in the natural world? There were even more discoveries than just those in astronomy and mathematics, however. A French scientist, Antoine Lavoisier, discovered the properties of fire. He learned that fire depended on oxygen to burn. He also came to the important chemical discovery that matter cannot be created or destroyed, only changed chemically. Blaise Pascal was a French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher. Perhaps you have heard his name in a math course? He was considered a child prodigy for his genius mind. He is credited with inventing the modern mechanical calculator while he was still a teen. His major research was in the areas of geometry and probability, and his work has had a profound impact in both economics and the social sciences. Later in his life, he had a religious conversion experience and abandoned his study of science to study philosophy and religion. Sick for much of his life, he died at only thirty-nine years of age. There were also discoveries in life sciences and medicine. Using the new scientific tool of the microscope, scientist could examine blood cells, bacteria, and other parts of life that were too small to see with the naked eye. Andreas Vesaliu, a 16th century Flemish medical doctor, wrote one of the most influential works on anatomy entitled On the Structure of the Human Body. He is considered to be the "Father of Modern Human Anatomy." His research drawn from dissecting the bodies of deceased criminals allowed for him to clear up some previous medical misconceptions. Without the invention of the printing press and the technical advancements of the Renaissance, his work would not have had nearly as large an impact. Another great physician of 17th century England, William Harvey, discovered the heart was the starting point of circulation in the body and that the same blood passes through the veins and the arteries as it passes through the body. His observations of blood circulation paved the way for modern physiology. The new methods of these early scientists made it possible for all branches of science to expand. It also made it possible for scientific knowledge to grow at an amazing rate. Some of the theories of these early scientists have now been disproved. But the way that modern science works and the discoveries still made every day could only have taken place because of the new scientific thinking that people like Galileo, Newton, Cavendish, Vesalius, and others developed.

physiology:

a branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of living organisms and their parts

quinine:

a compound derived from certain cinchona barks that is used in medicine to treat malaria

supernova:

a star that suddenly grows brighter because it has experienced an explosion

A heliocentric universe revolves around the earth.

false

Aristotle was a Renaissance thinker.

false

The Church supported the idea that earth and humanity were not the center of the universe.

false

There were no women scientists during the Scientific Revolution.

false

geocentric:

having or representing the earth as the center

heliocentric:

having or representing the sun as the center

inductive reasoning:

reasoning from detailed facts to general principles

deductive reasoning:

reasoning from the general to the particular (or from cause to effect)

heresy:

the willful and persistent rejection of any article of faith by a baptized member of the church

Galileo used the telescope to prove Copernicus' theory about the universe.

true

Isaac Newton used mathematics to help him analyze the natural world and discover gravity.

true

Ptolemy believed that the sun and planets in the universe all revolved around the earth.

true

The Renaissance was a time when people began to value themselves as individuals.

true

The Scientific Revolution changed the role of science in everyday life.

true

The Scientific Revolution marked a change in how people thought about their world.

true