Adolescent Psychology Chapter 8, Psych 21A - Chapter 8, Chapter 8: Identity

Understand gender role development and the similarities between males and females

- Whether large sex differences in adolescent behavior had existed in the past but have disappeared (certainly a possibility, given the fact that men and women faced different expectations and opportunities in past generations) or whether they were just assumed to be larger than they were isn't known. But differences within groups of males or females are far more substantial than differences between them. Throughout this book, I've noted when studies have found meaningful sex differences in the ways in which adolescents develop or function. If I haven't mentioned them, it's either because they weren't reported or weren't observed. - Apart from differences in strength, adolescent males and females do not differ in their abilities, and although girls are more "people-oriented" and boys are more "things-oriented," the magnitude of sex differences in interests and attitudes is smaller than most people think. The most consistent sex differences are seen in the ways adolescent boys and girls express aggression (males are generally more physically aggressive than females, who tend to use social or verbal aggression) and intimacy (females are more likely to express intimacy verbally, whereas males express it mainly through shared activities), and in the extent to which males and females are prone to low self-esteem and depression (females are more prone to both). There are few, if any, sex differences in patterns of family relationships, performance on achievement tests, or in the correlates of competence, popularity with peers, and healthy psychological development. - Given that pressures to conform with gender-role norms affect both girls and boys during adolescence, why is it that boys suffer greater self-image problems when they deviate from what is viewed as appropriate behavior for their sex? The answer is that although girls may be pressured to adopt (or maintain) certain feminine traits during adolescence, they are not necessarily pressured to relinquish all elements of masculinity. In contrast, boys are socialized from a very early age not to adopt feminine traits and are judged deviant if they show any signs of femininity. Boys are more likely to see themselves as "typical males" than girls are to see themselves as "typical females," more likely to be content to be male than girls are to be female, and more pressured to act in stereotypically male ways than girls are to act in stereotypically female ways - In other words, girls can be highly pressured during adolescence to behave in feminine ways without necessarily being punished or labeled deviant for exhibiting some masculine traits at the same time; thus, for girls, having a mixture of masculine and feminine traits is a viable alternative to exclusive femininity. Girls may feel increasingly pressured to dress nicely and to wear makeup when they reach adolescence, but they are not pressured to give up athletics or other typically masculine interests. Boys, however, from childhood on, are pressured not to behave in feminine ways. Their gender-role socialization does not intensify during adolescence as much as it does for girls because it is so intense to begin with.

In general and according to the textbook, which girl is most likely to become less confident as she becomes an adolescent? A) Ginny, who has developed a strong feminine gender role identity B) Robin, who has always been a "tomboy" C) Alyson, who has become increasingly androgynous D) All of these girls are likely to lose confidence in themselves as they enter adolescence.

A) Ginny, who has developed a strong feminine gender role identity

Rose is transitioning from elementary into junior high school and Sally is transitioning into high school. According to research presented in the textbook, who is more likely to experience disruptions in self-esteem? A) Rose B) Sally C) Rose and Sally are equally likely to experience disruptions in self-esteem D) neither Sally nor Rose is likely to experience disruptions in self-esteem

A) Rose

According to Marcia's research, which identity status is associated with healthy development? A) achievement B) foreclosure C) moratorium D) diffusion

A) achievement

Tabatha's parents are worried that as she enters adolescence, her self-esteem will greatly decrease. During what time should Tabatha's parents expect the most fluctuations in her self-image? A) When she is 8-11 years old. B) When she is 12-14 years old. C) When she is 15-18 years old. D) When she is 19-21 years old.

B) When she is 12-14 years old.

Adolescents increase their ability and tendency to consider the long-term consequences of their decisions, which is one aspect of: A) imagining their possible selves. B) future orientation. C) self-concept. D) identity formation.

B) future orientation.

According to the textbook, having race as a central part of one's identity has the following impact(s) on adolescent development: A) it makes adolescents more sensitive to discrimination B) it allows adolescents to be more able to cope with discrimination C) A and B are both true D) none of the above are true

C) A and B are both true

How much do people's personalities differ before and after adolescence? A) They are much different. B) There are a few major changes. C) They remain about the same. D) It's different for everyone.

C) They remain about the same.

Possessing both highly masculine and highly feminine traits is called: A) marginality. B) virile. C) androgyny. D) code switching.

C) androgyny.

Which dimension of the Five-Factor Model measures how organized someone is? A) Extroversion B) Agreeableness C) Neuroticism D) Conscientiousness

D) Conscientiousness

Researchers are particularly interested in the identity changes that occur in adolescence for all of the following reasons, except: A) this is the first substantial reorganization and restructuring of the sense of self at a time when an individual can fully appreciate the significance of the changes. B) the physical changes of puberty may prompt fluctuations in self-image. C) adolescents are capable of thinking in systematic ways about hypothetical and future events. D) adolescents are now capable of thinking in concrete terms about who they are and where they are going.

D) adolescents are now capable of thinking in concrete terms about who they are and where they are going.

According to the textbook, feeling discriminated against is predictive of all of the following except: A) conduct problems B) depression C) lower achievement in school D) all of the above

D) all of the above

Adolescents whose parents are not both from the same ethnic or racial group are known as ________ adolescents. A) multilingual B) culture brokering C) maternal-race D) biracial

D) biracial

As adolescents develop, their self-conceptions become more: A) negative. B) optimistic. C) disorganized. D) differentiated.

D) differentiated.

Amy, a 16-year-old girl, is shy around boys though she would really like to be more outgoing. This reflects: A) the drive toward positive self-esteem. B) the discrepancy between her ideal and actual selves. C) a false sense of self-concept. D) all of the above

B) the discrepancy between her ideal and actual selves.

Someone who engages in false-self behavior most likely: A) reports less emotional support from parents and peers. B) has low self-esteem. C) is depressed. D) all of the above

D) all of the above

According to the chapter in the textbook, most researchers today believe that adolescents evaluate themselves: A) globally B) along several distinct dimensions C) in constant comparison to their peers and their ideal self D) both A and B are correct

D) both A and B are correct

When the author of the textbook, Laurence Steinberg, says that "Some researchers have argued that the question of whether self-esteem is stable during adolescence is a poor one," what does he mean?

Researchers have argued that asking whether self-esteem is stable is a poor question because group averages often hidesubstantial differences between people

According to the textbook, Black individuals who believe that the public has low regard for their ethnic group typically:

are more sensitive to racial cues

negative identity

the selection of an identity that is obvious undesirable in the eyes of significant others and the broader community

sexual orientation

whether one is sexually attracted to individuals of the same sex, other sex, or both

Describe Erikson's theoretical approach to identity development during adolescence. According to this perspective, identify the major problems associated with adolescent identity development

- Erikson's theory developed out of his clinical and cross-cultural observations of young people at various stages of development. He viewed the developing person as moving through a series of eight psychosocial crises over the course of the life span. Each crisis, although present in one form or another at all ages, takes on special significance at a given period of the life cycle because biological and social forces interact to bring the crisis into prominence. - Erikson believed that the establishment of a coherent sense of identity—what he called the crisis of identity versus identity diffusion—is the chief psychosocial crisis of adolescence. The maturational and social forces that converge at adolescence force young people to reflect on their place in society, on the ways that others view them, and on their options for the future. "Who am I? What am I all about? What am I going to do with my life? What is different about me? How can I make it on my own?" - Erikson was the first to realize how central these questions are to adolescent development Potential problems - identity diffusion: can be starting point of deviant or chronic problem - identity foreclosure - negative identity

Discuss the stability and changes of self-esteem

- The stability of a trait (like intelligence or self-esteem) has nothing to do with the degree to which people change with age, because stability merely refers to the extent to which individuals' relative ranking within a group stays more or less the same over time. Height, for instance, is a stable trait (tall children tend to become tall adults) that nevertheless changes a great deal with age (individuals grow taller between childhood and adulthood). Asking whether self-esteem changes during adolescence (whether people's view of themselves becomes more positive or negative) is not the same as asking whether self-esteem is stable during this period (whether individuals with high self-esteem as children are likely to have high self-esteem as adolescents). - Self-esteem becomes increasingly more stable between childhood and early adulthood, suggesting that adolescents' feelings about themselves gradually consolidate over time, becoming less likely to fluctuate in response to different experiences. Day-to-day fluctuations in mood tend to become smaller between early adolescence and late adolescence. - Studies of changes in self-esteem as individuals move through adolescence have not yielded consistent findings, partly because researchers have focused on different aspects of individuals' self-image. Some studies find that individuals' feelings about themselves become more negative over the course of adolescence, but others find that they become more positive. In general, however, changes in self-perceptions (whether positive or negative) are greater during early adolescence than during middle or late adolescence. From middle adolescence through young adulthood, self-esteem either remains at about the same level or increases. Although there is a general trend for individuals' average mood to become less positive over the course of adolescence (children are usually in a more positive mood than young adolescents, who are generally in a better mood than older adolescents), this trend begins to level off around age 16. Teenagers who experience frequent fluctuations in mood also report higher levels of anxiety and depression. - Although adolescence is not a time of storm and stress, problems in self-image may arise for a brief period during early adolescence. To fully understand why, it is necessary to distinguish among three aspects of adolescents' self-image: their self-esteem (how positively or negatively they feel about themselves), their self-consciousness (how much they worry about their self-image), and their self-image stability (how much their self-image changes from day to day)

Components of self-esteem

- Within broad domains of self-esteem (for example, academics, athletics, or social relationships), adolescents often have quite differentiated views of themselves. For example, adolescents' evaluations of their social competence within the context of their relationships with their parents may be very different from the way they see themselves in the context of their relationships with teachers, which in turn may differ from their evaluations of themselves in the peer group. Even within the realm of peer relationships, adolescents' social self-esteem may vary depending on whether they are thinking about their friendships or their romantic relationships. Therefore, it may be misleading to characterize an adolescent's "social self-esteem" as low or high without specifying the relationship being referred to. The same goes for academic self-esteem: Because students evaluate their abilities in specific subject areas both in comparison to other students ("I am terrible at math compared to everyone else in this class") and relative to their abilities in other subject areas ("I am so much better at math than I am at history"), making sweeping statements about an adolescent's overall academic self-image is often unwise - Do some aspects of self-esteem contribute more to an adolescent's overall self-image than others? Yes, they do. Adolescents' physical self-esteem—how they feel about their appearance—is the most important predictor of overall self-esteem, followed by self-esteem about relationships with peers. Less important are self-esteem about academic ability, athletic ability, or moral conduct. Interestingly, although researchers find that adolescents' physical self-esteem is the best predictor of their overall self-esteem, adolescents, when asked, say that their physical appearance is one of the least important contributors to how they feel about themselves. In other words, adolescents are often unaware of the degree to which their self-worth is based on their feelings about their appearance. Physical self-esteem is a more important influence on overall self-esteem among girls than boys, although both genders' self-esteem is linked to how they feel about their appearance. These findings help to explain why girls are more likely than boys to experience self-image difficulties and depression.

Understand how pubertal, cognitive, and social transitions affect an adolescent's identity development

- adolescence: first time the sense of self is restructured when youth appreciate the significance of these changes 1. puberty and identity development - early adolescence: diffusion foreclosure or moratorium - 3 aspects of the young adolescence important to identity formation --> confidence that they have parental support --> an established sense of industry (agency) and purpose --> ability to take a self-reflective stance toward the future 2. cognitive changes - adolescents become much more able to imagine their possible selves—the various alternative identities that they may adopt. This may be related to the heightened self-consciousness characteristic of early adolescence. Brain-imaging studies find that patterns of brain activity during tasks in which individuals are asked to think about themselves differ significantly between adolescents and adults - Second is an impressive increase in future orientation—the ability and tendency to consider the long-term consequences of one's decisions and imagine what one's life might be like in the years to come 3. social changes in: - self-concept - self-esteem - sense of identity

Describe the four identity states that have emerged from the work of Marcia. Discuss how these states compare to Erikson's theory of identity development

1. identity diffusion (none) 2. identity foreclosure (commitment) 3. identity moratorium (crisis) 4. identity achievement (crisis & commitment) crisis: a period of identity development during which the adolescent is choosing among meaningful alternatives commitment: a personal investment in what an individual is going to do - more recent extension of Marcia's concepts stresses that effective identity development involves evaluating identity commitments on a continuing - involves 2 processes: 1. exploration in depth 2. identification with commitment - one way that researches are examining identity changes in depth is to use a narrative approach

According to the textbook, having race as a central part of one's identity has the following impact(s) on adolescent development:

A and B are both true; it may make adolescents more sensitive to discrimination and it may help adolescents cope better with discrimination

Which adolescent is most vulnerable to disturbances in self-image? A) Carol, a 13-year-old female B) Catherine, an 18-year-old female C) Carl, a 13-year-old male D) Carlton, an 18-year-old male

A) Carol, a 13-year-old female

Jenny has high academic self esteem while Cory has high physical self-esteem. According to the textbook, who will probably have higher overall self-esteem? A) Cory B) Jenny C) Cory and Jenny will most likely have equally high self-esteem D) There is not enough information to answer this question

A) Cory

Based on the research findings of Simmons and her colleagues, compared to older adolescents (15 years and older) and preadolescents (8-11 year olds), which of the following statements about young adolescents' self-esteem, self-consciousness, and self-image is false? A) Early adolescents' self-esteem remains stable. B) Early adolescents have lower self-esteem. C) Early adolescents are more self-conscious. D) Early adolescents have a more unstable self-image.

A) Early adolescents' self-esteem remains stable.

Which adolescent would be expected to have the greatest difficulty establishing a sense of identity? A) Jerome, who has many alternatives available to him in many different arenas B) Gerald, who has a moderate number of alternatives available to him in a few different arenas C) Guillermo, who has few alternatives available to him and is expected to follow in his father's footsteps D) All of these adolescents are likely to have difficulty establishing a sense of identity.

A) Jerome, who has many alternatives available to him in many different arenas

Which adolescent male would be expected to have the highest self-esteem? A)Paul, who is extremely masculine B) David, who is extremely feminine C) Roger, who is androgynous D) Donald, who is both masculine and feminine

A) Paul, who is extremely masculine

Tony, a Black adolescent, and Vicki, a White adolescent, both attend a predominantly Black school. Studies predict that: A) Tony will have higher self-esteem than Vicki. B) Tony will have lower self-esteem than Vicki. C) both Tony and Vicki will have high self-esteem. D) both Tony and Vicki will have low self-esteem

A) Tony will have higher self-esteem than Vicki

According to the textbook, young adolescents with __________ also report high levels of anxiety, tension, psychosomatic symptoms and irritability. A) a volatile self-image B) an aggressive parent C) extremely low self-esteem D) very few close peers

A) a volatile self-image

According to the textbook, one of the pathways by which adolescents who feel discriminated against experience negative mental health outcomes is: A) adolescents who feel discriminated against in school report feeling less control over their academic achievement, which leads to feelings of depression B) adolescents who feel discriminated against put less effort into their school work, which leads to feelings of worthlessness C) adolescents who feel discriminated against isolate themselves from their peers D) adolescents who feel discriminated against are afraid to present their "true self"

A) adolescents who feel discriminated against in school report feeling less control over their academic achievement, which leads to feelings of depression

A recent study of ethnic identity and academic achievement illustrated how racial centrality, private regard, and public regard work together to influence Black adolescents' school performance and motivation. The researchers identified four distinct clusters within their sample of 600 students. Which cluster of students was most likely to drop out and which cluster of students was most likely to hold positive beliefs about the school? A) alienated students were the most likely to drop out; idealized students were most likely to hold positive beliefs about the school. B) buffering/ defensive students were the most likely to drop out; idealized students were most likely to hold positive beliefs about the school. C) alienated students were the most likely to drop out; buffering/ defensive students were most likely to hold positive beliefs about the school. D) idealized students were the most likely to drop out; alienated students were most likely to hold positive beliefs about the school.

A) alienated students were the most likely to drop out; idealized students were most likely to hold positive beliefs about the school.

Involvement in delinquent activity may lead to ________ in self-esteem. A) an increase B) a decrease C) stability D) no relationship

A) an increase

According to the textbook, Black individuals who believe that the public has low regard for African Americans typically: A) are more sensitive to racial cues B) are less sensitive to racial cues C) have low private regard D) have high private regard

A) are more sensitive to racial cues

Being aware of potential racism and mistrusting others are not the same thing. Awareness of racism is associated with _________, while mistrust is associated with _________. A) better achievement; doing poorly in school B) doing poorly in school; better achievement C) disengagement from school; better achievement D) reductions in self-esteem; increases in self-esteem

A) better achievement; doing poorly in school

Simmons and her colleagues found that the most marked fluctuations in self-image occur: A) during the transition into adolescence. B) during middle adolescence. C) over the course of adolescence. D) during the transition from adolescence to adulthood.

A) during the transition into adolescence.

Problems in identity development can result when: A) earlier crises have not been resolved. B) an adolescent's environment does not allow for a period of foreclosure. C) the adolescent has many alternatives from which to choose. D) the adolescent has not yet experienced the crisis of generativity.

A) earlier crises have not been resolved.

The idea that pressure to behave in sex-appropriate ways increases during adolescence, especially for girls, is called the _______ hypothesis. A) gender intensification B) self-image stability C) sex-role stereotyping D) androgyny

A) gender intensification

James has flunked out of high school, has severed all of his ties with family and friends, and has no sense of where he is headed. He also seems to have significant disruptions in his sense of time (some things seem to happen much faster than they really do). According to Erikson, James is experiencing: A) identity diffusion. B) negative identity. C) identity foreclosure. D) psychosocial moratorium.

A) identity diffusion.

Specific to the ways of resolving an identity crisis, in which category would you classify Robin, an adolescent who approaches identity related decisions with an open mind and actively seeks information: A) informational orientation B) normative orientation C) diffuse/ avoidant orientation D) rational orientation

A) informational orientation

Based on information from the textbook, among both males and females, many traits traditionally labeled as _____ are associated in adolescence with __________. A) masculine; better adjustment and greater peer acceptance B) androgynous; better adjustment and greater peer acceptance C) masculine; worse adjustment and poorer peer acceptance D) androgynous; worse adjustment and poorer peer acceptance

A) masculine; better adjustment and greater peer acceptance

Identities that are undesirable to parents and community members are referred to by Erikson as: A) negative identities. B) marginal identities. C) false identities. D) offensive identities.

A) negative identities.

According to Sellers's Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity (MMRI), three different aspects of racial identity are important to consider in understanding discrimination and its effects. These three components are: A) private regard, public regard, and racial centrality. B) private regard, external regard, and familial regard. C) racial centrality, external regard, and code switching. D) public regard, private regard, and perceived discrimination.

A) private regard, public regard, and racial centrality.

According to Erikson, a necessary "time out" for adolescents is called: A) psychosocial moratorium. B) a period of crystallization. C) deindividuation. D) a period of separation.

A) psychosocial moratorium.

According to the textbook, some adolescents might forge some sense of self-definition in an environment that has made it difficult to establish an acceptable identity by: A) selecting a negative identity B) using drugs and alcohol C) engaging in identity moratorium D) engaging in identity foreclosure

A) selecting a negative identity

Maria sees herself as an only child, as a person who likes art and music, who is shy, and who likes to read. Maria's description fits best with the idea of: A) self-conception. B) self-esteem. C) self-attribution. D) self-control.

A) self-conception.

Identity formation is best seen as a: A) series of interrelated developments. B) single developmental issue. C) discrete quantitative switch. D) movement into a new and different person.

A) series of interrelated developments.

Adolescents who have more complex self-conceptions are less likely: A) to be depressed. B) to achieve more in school. C) to have lots of friends. D) to be foreclosed.

A) to be depressed.

According to the textbook, which of the following might make individuals especially vulnerable to the effects of stress? A) volatile self-image B) low sense of self-worth C) egocentrism D) impression management

A) volatile self-image

Generally speaking, the parenting style that is associated with the healthiest identity development is: A) warm but not excessively constraining. B) the absence of parental warmth. C) the absence of parental encouragement of individuality. D) warm but discouraging of individuality. Answer: A

A) warm but not excessively constraining.

Which of the following individuals would be considered to be in an identity diffusion state?

Alexandra, who has not made firm commitments and is not currently trying to make them

Which of the following is one of the characteristics that distinguish between the adolescent's and the child's self-concept?

All of the above; Adolescents tend to view the self as involving more dimensions than do children, Adolescents distinguish among actual, ideal, and feared selves, and The adolescent's self varies over time and across situations

Someone who is more likely to engage in excessive false-self behavior is most likely:

All of the above; to report less emotional support from parents and peers, to have lower self-esteem, and to report depressive symptoms

Recent identity research has debunked which of the following myths about identity development in adolescence?

All of these ideas about identity development in adolescence are myths that have been debunked in research studies; There is an identity crisis that is resolved during adolescence, There is a clear, systematic order in which all individuals must pass through the stages of identity development, and Identity achievement is the final state of identity development for all individuals

Describe the patterns of stability and change of the personality dimensions of the Big Five model. Understand how genetic and environmental factors may influence personality development

Although the five-factor model was developed through research on adults, it has been successfully applied to adolescents, too. For example, delinquent adolescents are more likely than their peers to score high in extraversion and low in agreeableness and conscientiousness, whereas adolescents who are high achievers in school score high in conscientiousness and openness. The five-factor model applies equally well across groups of adolescents from different ethnic backgrounds - There are both genetic and environmental influences on personality, although the environment becomes somewhat more important as people age. Individuals may inherit temperamental predispositions (such as a high activity level or an inclination to be sociable), which are observable early in life, and these predispositions may "harden" and become organized into personality traits partially in response to the environment. An active and sociable child who enjoys interacting with others may be rewarded for doing so and, over time, become extraverted. Both temperament and personality become increasingly stable as we grow older, in part because we tend to spend time in environments that reward and reinforce the traits that draw us to these settings .As a result, we become more like ourselves every day! - Between childhood and mid-adolescence, people become less extraverted, perhaps as they become more self-conscious, and less conscientious, perhaps as they begin to become more emotionally autonomous from their parents. The rate of change in personality begins to slow during the early 20s. Between adolescence and young adulthood, individuals continue to become less extraverted, but as they mature, they become more conscientious, more agreeable, more resilient, and more emotionally stable. Girls mature earlier than boys emotionally, but boys catch up over time, so that by the end of adolescence, there are few gender differences in maturity. - In sum, many core personality traits, such as impulsivity or timidity, are stable between childhood and adolescence and between adolescence and young adulthood. Although the external manifestations of these traits may change with age (for example, anxiety may appear as bed-wetting in early childhood but as nervous talkativeness in adolescence), our basic, underlying traits turn out to be remarkably unchanging. For example, individuals who displayed relatively higher levels of aggression in preadolescence, temper tantrums during childhood, or negative emotions during infancy are more likely to behave aggressively as adolescents. Similarly, individuals who had difficulty controlling their impulses as preschoolers are more likely to be rash, aggressive, and sensation seeking as adolescents and young adults, whereas individuals who were inhibited as young children tend to be relatively more timid, anxious, and shy. Not surprisingly, individuals who are well-adjusted in early and middle childhood tend to be resilient and competent in adolescence. Despite popular stereotypes about adolescence as a time of "rebirth," research does not show that adolescence is a time of tumultuous upheaval in personality.

Which of the following adolescents' self-esteem is most likely affected by their academic success? A) Stacey, a White adolescent B) Bill, an Asian-American adolescent C) Henry, a Mexican-American adolescent D) Cathy, a Black adolescent

B) Bill, an Asian-American adolescent

Which of the following is not one of the explanations researchers have presented to answer the question, "Given the prevalence of prejudice in American society and the generally disadvantaged position of Blacks, why do Black adolescents have high self-esteem?" A) Black teenagers benefit from the support and positive feedback of adults in their communities. B) Blacks have learned not to recognize the extent to which American society discriminates against them. C) Adolescents protect their self-esteem by focusing on areas of strength instead of areas of weakness. D) A strong sense of ethnic identity among Black adolescents enhances their self-esteem.

B) Blacks have learned not to recognize the extent to which American society discriminates against them

Which of the following adolescents is least likely to engage in false-self behavior? A) Kassim, who has low self-esteem B) Emily, who has high support from her parents C) Joy, who has problems with depression D) Eddie, who has a sense of hopelessness

B) Emily, who has high support from her parents

Which of the following statements concerning ethnic identity is false? A) Proficiency in one's ethnic language and interacting with peers from the same ethnic group are associated with having a strong ethnic identity. B) Foreign-born ethnic minority adolescents express more negative feelings about mainstream American ideals than their more acculturated peers. C) Foreign-born ethnic minority adolescents perform better in school than their more acculturated peers. D) Foreign-born ethnic minority adolescents are less likely to be involved in delinquent behavior than their more acculturated peers.

B) Foreign-born ethnic minority adolescents express more negative feelings about mainstream American ideals than their more acculturated peers

Which of the following statements about self-esteem in children is true? A) Having high self-esteem boosts achievement. B) High achievement boosts self-esteem. C) High achievement and high self-esteem each boost the other characteristic. D) For the most part, self-esteem and achievement are unrelated characteristics.

B) High achievement boosts self-esteem.

Which of the following statements is not true regarding the gender intensification hypothesis in adolescence? A) during adolescence, girls can be highly pressured to behave in feminine ways without necessarily being punished or labeled deviant for exhibiting some masculine traits at the same time B) during adolescence, boys can be highly pressured to behave in masculine ways without necessarily being punished or labeled deviant for exhibiting some feminine traits at the same time. C) boys' gender-role socialization does not intensify during adolescence as much as it does for girls because boys' gender-role socialization is very intense from childhood D) girls may feel increasingly pressured to dress nicely and to wear makeup when they reach adolescence, but they are not pressured to give up athletics

B) during adolescence, boys can be highly pressured to behave in masculine ways without necessarily being punished or labeled deviant for exhibiting some feminine traits at the same time.

Sixteen-year-old Mercedes believes that the death penalty is wrong because her parents, friends, and church say so. She has never really thought about the issue, but has accepted this view as her own. What is her identity status? A) achievement B) foreclosure C) diffusion D) moratorium

B) foreclosure

Among biracial adolescents asked to describe their own ethnic identity, those with one Black parent and one nonBlack parent are more likely to: A) identify themselves as a member of the nonBlack parent's ethnic group. B) identify themselves as Black. C) refuse to answer questions about their own ethnic identity. D) identify themselves as half-Black.

B) identify themselves as Black.

What does the Five-Factor Model describe? A) research methodology B) personality dimensions C) false-self behavior D) self-esteem dimensions

B) personality dimensions

Being androgynous may have _____ effects for girls and _____ effects for boys. A) positive; positive B) positive; negative C) negative; positive D) negative; negative

B) positive; negative

Since Jerry became an adolescent, he has experimented with different roles and personalities. Jerry's parents are telling all their friends that this is just a "phase" that he's going through. According to Erikson, this "phase" is called: A) identity foreclosure. B) psychosocial moratorium. C) identity confusion. D) negative identity.

B) psychosocial moratorium.

During childhood, Cathy had high self-esteem. As she enters adolescence, Cathy's self-esteem is most likely to: A) increase. B) remain the same or increase. C) remain the same or decrease. D) decrease.

B) remain the same or increase.

Gwen has recently been preoccupied with trying to understand what kind of person she is. As an exercise, she writes out a list of 20 traits that she thinks best describe her. According to the text, Gwen is focusing on her: A) identity. B) self-conception. C) self-esteem. D) socialization.

B) self-conception.

How positively or negatively people feel about themselves defines: A) self-regulation B) self-esteem C) self-attribution D) self-idealization

B) self-esteem

Susan, a White adolescent, is more likely to be vulnerable to disturbances in ________ than any other group of youngsters. A) self-concept B) self-image C) false-self behavior D) family relationships

B) self-image

Compared to parents who emphasize having pride in one's ethnic group, parents who emphasize the need to be wary about potential racism tend to have children: A) who fare better in the face of discrimination B) who fare worse in the face of discrimination C) who are more prepared for the "real world" D) who are more accepting of discrimination

B) who fare worse in the face of discrimination

According to the textbook, because _____ girls do not feel as _____ about their appearances as girls of other racial backgrounds, these individuals typically have _____ overall self-esteem.

Black; negatively; higher

Which of the following statements is not true regarding the gender intensification hypothesis in adolescence?

Boys' gender-role socialization does not intensify during adolescence as much as it does for girls because boys' gender-role socialization is very intense from childhood

Which of the following individuals would be considered to be in an identity moratorium state?

Brandon, who is in the midst of a period of exploration

Which of the following statements about self-conception is most likely to be made by a child rather than by an adolescent? A) "I am not a classifiable person." B) "Most people think I'm very secure, but really I'm pretty shy." C) "I am a girl; I have two brothers; I like to read." D) "I am honest; I am helpful; I am friendly."

C) "I am a girl; I have two brothers; I like to read.

According to the textbook, because _____girls do not feel as _____ about their appearances as girls of other racial backgrounds, these individuals typically have _____ overall self-esteem. A) White; negatively; higher B) White; insecure; lower C) Black; negatively; higher D) Black; positively; lower

C) Black; negatively; higher

All of the following are defining characteristics of agency, except: A) feeling in control of one's own decisions. B) having confidence that obstacles can be overcome. C) blaming other people for one's problems. D) taking responsibility for one's self.

C) Blaming other people for one's problems.

Whose research supports Erikson's theory on identity development? A) Phinney B) Harter C) Marcia D) Gilligan

C) Marcia

Adolescents are most likely to exhibit false-self behavior with their: A) friends. B) parents. C) dates. D) siblings.

C) dates.

When asked to describe himself, Aaron stated, "Most of my friends think I don't care about school, but I really study a lot at night because school is important to me." This is an example of how adolescent self-conceptions become more: A) detailed. B) logical. C) differentiated. D) intensified.

C) differentiated.

Erik Erikson believed that ________ is the primary psychosocial crisis of adolescence. A) balancing a sense of trust with a sense of mistrust B) developing a sense of autonomy and the ability to do things for oneself C) establishing a coherent sense of identity D) developing intimate personal relationships

C) establishing a coherent sense of identity

Positive mental health is associated with: A) having strong positive feelings about one's own ethnic heritage and feeling separate from the mainstream culture. B) separating from one's own ethnic heritage but having strong positive feelings about mainstream culture. C) having strong positive feelings about one's own ethnic heritage and about mainstream culture. D) separating from both one's own ethnic heritage and mainstream culture.

C) having strong positive feelings about one's own ethnic heritage and about mainstream culture.

An important aspect of having a healthy self-concept and more socially appropriate behavior is to be able to balance one's ______ self with one's ______ self. A) actual; ideal B) actual; feared C) ideal; feared D) ideal; other

C) ideal; feared

Identity that is incoherent, disjointed, and characterized by an incomplete sense of self is called: A) false-self behavior. B) moratorium. C) identity diffusion. D) marginal identity

C) identity diffusion.

Adolescents are most likely to behave __________ in romantic situations and with a classmate, and they are least likely to engage in ___________ with parents. A) falsely; inauthentic behavior B) authentically; inauthentic behavior C) inauthentically; false-self behavior D) authentically; true-self behavior

C) inauthentically; false-self behavior

The key to resolving the crisis of identity versus identity diffusion, according to Erikson, is: A) identity achievement. B) family relationships. C) interactions with others. D) peer relationships.

C) interactions with others.

Racial socialization, the process by which parents teach children about their ethnic identity and the experiences they may encounter within society as a result of this identity, is thought to focus on three major themes. Which of the following is not one of these themes? A) getting along in mainstream society B) dealing with racism C) intolerance of the majority culture D) understanding one's own culture

C) intolerance of the majority culture

According to personality research presented in the textbook, there is evidence that, between adolescence and young adulthood, individuals become: A) more extraverted and less conscientious B) less extraverted and more agreeable C) more emotionally stable and more extraverted D) less agreeable and more emotionally stable

C) more emotionally stable and more extraverted

Jane, the adolescent daughter of the local police chief, has recently been hanging out with a rowdy group of youth who have vandalized a number of public buildings. Jane has most likely adopted a: A) false-self behavior. B) negative peer culture. C) negative identity. D) all of the above

C) negative identity.

Which of the following factors is the most important predictor of overall self-esteem? A) athletic ability B) academic ability C) physical self-esteem D) moral conduct

C) physical self-esteem

Identity status: A) is stable across time. B) proceeds from uncommitted to committed patterns. C) shifts across the life span. D) proceeds from diffused, to foreclosed, to moratorium, to achieved

C) shifts across the life span

Temperament and personality tend to become _________ as we __________. A) stable; take more classes B) unstable; get older C) stable; get older D) unstable; take more classes

C) stable; get older

Robert Sellers and colleagues have presented a model to help make sense of the complicated relations among perceived discrimination, ethnic identity, and mental health among Blacks. This model is called: A) the racial centrality model of identity (RCMI). B) the multicultural model of discrimination (MMOD). C) the multidimensional model of racial identity (MMRI). D) the multitrait multimethod model of discrimination (MMMD).

C) the multidimensional model of racial identity (MMRI).

Which dimension of the Five-Factor Model measures how organized someone is?

Conscientiousness

Larry is an adolescent who frequently engages in false-self behavior and also has low self-esteem. One explanation for these two characteristics is that: A) Larry might be low in self-esteem because he knowingly puts on a false front B) Larry might engage in false-self behavior because he is low in self-esteem C) There is no relation between false-self behavior and low self-esteem D) Both A and B are correct

D) Both A and B are correct

Which of the following is not one of the personality dimensions of the Five-Factor Model? A) Neuroticism B) Openness to Experience C) Agreeableness D) Gender Intensification

D) Gender Intensification

Generalizing from Marcia's research on identity, who is most likely to become an authoritarian parent? A) Sanjay, identity achieved B) Ann, identity diffusion C) Michele, psychosocial moratorium D) Tara, identity foreclosed

D) Tara, identity foreclosed

Bruce, a 2nd-year college student, has switched majors three times. He is still undecided about what he wants to do with his life. Bruce is in: A) a state of psychological confusion. B) a period of crystallization. C) a state of deindividuation. D) a state of psychosocial moratorium.

D) a state of psychosocial moratorium.

Ethnic identity may be sped up if parents teach their children: A) to ignore society's conflicting messages about race. B) to respect their elders. C) to attend church regularly. D) about racism.

D) about racism.

Alex suffers from identity diffusion. In addition to problems with identity development, problems with identity diffusion are likely to be reflected in the area(s) of: A) autonomy B) intimacy C) sexuality D) all of the above

D) all of the above

Although research presented in the textbook indicates that physical self-esteem is the best predictor of adolescents' self-esteem: A) adolescents, when asked, say that their physical appearance is one of the least important contributors to how they feel about themselves B) adolescents may be unaware of the degree to which their self-worth is based on their feelings about their appearance C) physical self-esteem is a more important influence on overall self-esteem among girls than among boys and girls' physical self-esteem is on average lower than boys' D) all of the above

D) all of the above

Which of the following is one of the characteristics that distinguish between the adolescent's and the child's self-concept? A) Adolescents tend to view the self as involving more dimensions than do children. B) Adolescents distinguish among actual, ideal, and feared selves. C) The adolescent's self varies over time and across situations. D) all of the above

D) all of the above

Among ethnic minority youth, academic achievement is highest when adolescents experience all of the following except: A) feel connected to their ethnic group B) are aware of racism C) believe it is important to the people in their life to be academically successful within mainstream society D) are not aware of racism

D) are not aware of racism

Which of the following is not a reason that early adolescents might experience fluctuations in self-image? A) egocentrism B) they are learning that it is not always possible to tell what people are thinking on the basis of how they act or what they say C) because of the increased importance of peers in early adolescence D) because early adolescents spend most of their time engaging in false-self behavior

D) because early adolescents spend most of their time engaging in false-self behavior

Which of the following statements regarding sex differences in self-esteem is accurate? A) early adolescent girls' self-esteem is higher than same-age boys B) early adolescent girls have lower self-consciousness than same-age boys C) early adolescent boys have a shakier self-image than same-age girls D) early adolescent girls are more likely to say negative things about themselves than same-aged boys

D) early adolescent girls are more likely to say negative things about themselves than same-aged boys

Studies of ethnic identity development have shown that, relative to ethnic minorities, Whites are more likely to: A) identify their specific heritage (e.g., German, Irish). B) have a stronger sense of ethnic identity. C) avoid using "panethnic" labels to describe themselves. D) identify themselves as "American" rather than a specific heritage label.

D) identify themselves as "American" rather than a specific heritage label.

According to Erikson, the major crisis of adolescence is called: A) basic trust versus mistrust. B) autonomy versus shame and doubt. C) industry versus inferiority. D) identity versus identity diffusion.

D) identity versus identity diffusion.

Kurt is 15 and spends most of his energy wondering who he is and what kind of person he will become. Erikson would describe him as facing the crisis called: A) basic trust versus mistrust. B) autonomy versus shame and doubt. C) industry versus inferiority. D) identity versus identity diffusion.

D) identity versus identity diffusion.

Identity typically is crystallized: A) in early adolescence. B) throughout the adolescent period. C) in late adolescence. D) in late adolescence to the early 20s.

D) in late adolescence to the early 20s.

According to the textbook, research indicates which of the following is not a correlate of high self-esteem: A) approval of parents B) approval of peers C) succeeding in school D) involvement in many extracurricular activities

D) involvement in many extracurricular activities

Research has shown that racial socialization that results in having positive attitudes about one's ethnic group is associated with: A) having negative attitudes about other ethnic groups. B) faster identity development among adolescents. C) problematic interracial relations. D) positive attitudes about other ethnic groups.

D) positive attitudes about other ethnic groups.

Dr. Smith argues that adolescence is such a demanding time that adolescents need several years with as few responsibilities as possible so they can sort out their identities. His argument focuses on the idea of: A) indivi B) separation. C) crystallization. D) psychosocial moratorium.

D) psychosocial moratorium.

Which of the following is not generally a predictor of self-esteem? A) academic achievement B) parental love C) supportive friends D) religious affiliation

D) religious affiliation

Researchers have identified all of the following factors as critical components of the development of identity during adolescence, except: A) self-esteem. B) sense of identity. C) self-conception. D) self-regulation.

D) self-regulation.

Kikko hates country music but told Keith, who is a big Garth Brooks fan and her latest love interest, that she adored country music and would love to go with him to see Garth in concert. This type of behavior is called: A) the negative identity. B) code switching. C) identity confusion. D) the false-self.

D) the false-self.

Compared to minority adolescents with families that have been in the U.S. for a long time, foreign-born ethnic minority adolescents tend to perform: A) better in school, but are more likely to be involved in delinquent behavior B) worse in school, but are less likely to have emotional and behavioral problems C) better in school, and are less likely to be involved in delinquent behavior D) worse in school, and are more likely to have emotional and behavioral problems.

D) worse in school, and are more likely to have emotional and behavioral problems.

Based on findings from research studies, compared to older adolescents (15 years and older) and preadolescents (8- to 11-year-olds), which of the following statements about young adolescents' self-esteem, self-consciousness, and self-image is false?

Early adolescents experience a sharp increase in self-esteem'

Which of the following is not one of the personality dimensions of the Five-Factor Model?

Gender Intensification

Which of the following statements about self-esteem in children is true?

High achievement in school boosts self-esteem

Which adolescent would be expected to have the greatest difficulty establishing a sense of identity?

Michael, who has many alternatives available to him in many different arenas

Whose research supports Erikson's theory on identity development?

Phinney

Rose is transitioning from elementary into junior high school and Sally will be starting her senior year of high school in the fall. According to research presented in the textbook, who is more likely to experience disruptions in self-esteem?

Rose

Understand self-conception and the changes that take place between childhood and adolescence

Self-concept: is a cognitive appraisal of out social, physical, and academic competence. Preschoolers: possessions, physical characteristics, preferences, competencies (I like cars and trucks) School-aged children: emotions, social groups, comparisons with peers (I;m the best goalie in my class) Adolescents: attitudes, personality traits, beliefs vary with the setting, future oriented (I'm quiet and shay at school) - more complex, abstract - expressed differently across contexts - differentiated - false self behavior Age related changes in self-conceptions - fluctuations in adolescents self-image most likely occur between 12-14 As individuals mature intellectually and undergo the sorts of cognitive changes characteristic of adolescence, they come to conceive of themselves in more sophisticated and more differentiated ways. Adolescents are much more capable than children of thinking about abstract concepts and considerably more proficient in processing large amounts of information. These intellectual capabilities affect the way in which individuals characterize themselves. Compared with children, who tend to describe themselves in relatively simple, concrete terms, adolescents are more likely to employ complex, abstract, and psychological self-characterizations. In addition, with development comes greater consistency between how individuals describe themselves and how they actually behave. There is also evidence that adolescents' ideas about the sort of person they would like to be (their "ideal self") become more stable over time

Explain the individual differences in self-esteem

Self-esteem: is the affective or emotional reaction to one's self-concept (I'm a good person, it's important to do succeed in school, and i feel good about my math skills) - physical appearance is the most highly correlated with self-esteem - boys have higher self-esteem than girls - diffs. become smaller over adolescence - more pronounced with white and Hispanic teens - less pronounced with black teens - higher self esteem among black teens

Tony and Jeff, both Black adolescents, attend different schools. Tony attends a school where his ethnic group is in the majority and Jeff attends a predominately White school. What do studies predict about Tony and/or Jeff's self-perception?

Tony will have fewer self-image problems than Jeff

Dewayne's parents are worried that as he enters adolescence, his self-esteem will greatly decrease. During what time should Dewayne's parents expect the most fluctuations in his self-image?

When he is 12-14 years old

Overall, which group of adolescents feels least positive about themselves?

White females

psychosocial moratorium

a period during which individuals are free from excessive obligations and responsibilities and can therefor experiment with different roles and personalities

multidimensional model of racial identity

a perspective on ethnic identity, that emphasizes three different phenomena: 1. racial centrality: how important race is in defining individuals' identity 2. private regard: how individuals feel about being a member of their race 3. public regard: how individuals think others feel about their race

Bruce, a second-year college student, has switched majors three times. He is still undecided about what he wants to do with his life. Bruce is in:

a state of psychosocial moratorium

Ethnic identity may be sped up if parents teach their children:

about dealing with racism

identity versus identity diffusion

according to Erikson, the normative crisis characteristics of the fifth stage of psychosocial development, predominant during adolescence - as part of their identity exploration, adolescents experience a psychosocial moratorium - adolescents who do not successfully resolve the identity crisis are at risk for identity confusion - Achieving a balanced and coherent sense of identity is intellectually and emotionally taxing. According to Erikson, it is not until adolescence that one even has the mental or emotional capacity to tackle this task. He believed that the key to resolving the crisis of identity versus identity diffusion lies in the adolescent's interactions with others. By responding to the reactions of people who matter, the adolescent selects and chooses from among the many elements that could conceivably become a part of his or her identity.

According to the textbook, which identity status is associated with a coherent sense of identity?

achievement

ethnic identity

an enduring aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethic group, along with the attitudes and feelings related to that membership - may occur earlier among ethnic minority individuals who take on family responsibilities and do not go to college - may take longer for those who go to college: broader exposure may lead to greater exploration of bicultural identity

Among ethnic minority youth, academic achievement is highest when adolescents experience all of the following except:

are not aware of racism

Which of the following is not a reason that early adolescents might experience fluctuations in self-image?

because early adolescents spend most of their time engaging in false-self behavior

Compared to minority adolescents with families that have been in the United States for a long-time, foreign-born ethnic minority adolescents tend to perform:

better in school, and are less likely to be involved in delinquent behavior

All of the following are defining characteristics of agency, except:

blaming other people for one's problems

According to the chapter in the textbook, most researchers today believe that adolescents evaluate themselves:

both A and B are correct; globally and along several distinct dimensions

As adolescents develop, their self-conceptions become more:

differentiated

Erik Erikson believed that ________ is the primary psychosocial crisis of adolescence.

establishing a coherent sense of identity

Adolescents improve their ability and tendency to consider the long-term consequences of their decisions, which is one aspect of:

future orientation

The idea that pressure to behave in sex-appropriate ways temporary increases during middle adolescence, especially for girls,is called the _______ hypothesis.

gender intensification

Positive mental health is associated with:

having strong positive feelings about one's own ethnic heritage and about mainstream culture

multiethnic

having two different parents of ethnic or racial backgrounds

Identity that is incoherent, disjointed, and characterized by an incomplete sense of self is called:

identity diffusion

Jessica is 15 years old and spends most of her energy wondering who she is and what kind of person she will become. Erikson would describe her as facing the crisis called:

identity versus identity diffusion

Mei was an impulsive preschooler. It is likely that, as an adolescent, she will be:

impulsive

A sense of identity is typically crystallized:

in late adolescence to the early 20s

Adolescents are most likely to behave __________ in romantic situations and with a classmate, and they are least likely to engage in ___________ with close friends.

inauthentically; false self behavior

Racial socialization, the process by which parents teach children about their ethnic identity and the experiences they may encounter within society as a result of this identity, is thought to focus on three major themes. Which of the following is not one of these themes?

intolerance of the majority culture

Describe the processes of ethnic socialization and the impact(s) of discrimination

is the process parents use to attempt to teach their children about their ethnic or racial identity and about the special experiences they may encounter within the broader society as a result of their ethnic background. Having strong ethnic identity and sense of ethnic pride is consistently associated with higher self-esteem, stronger self-efficacy, and better mental heath - Ethnic socialization by parents encourages adolescents to think positively about their ethnic heritage, which may lead to a stronger sense of ethnic identity. But more ethnic socialization isn't necessarily better; in one study, the best-adjusted Black adolescents came from homes in which their mothers provided a moderate number of racial socialization messages, rather than many or few. In fact, when parents and other caregivers describe their own experiences of discrimination, this adversely affects their adolescents' mental health. Occasional communication of highly positive messages may be most effective approach for parents to take.

According to personality research presented in the textbook, there is evidence that, between adolescence and young adulthood,individuals become:

more emotionally stable and more extraverted

Adolescents whose parents are not both from the same ethnic or racial group are known as ________ adolescents.

multiethnic

Identities that are undesirable to parents and community members are referred to by Erikson as:

negative identities

James has flunked out of high school, has severed all of his ties with family and friends, and has no sense of where he is headed. He also seems to have significant disruptions in his sense of time (some things seem to happen much faster than they really do). According to Erikson, James is experiencing:

negative identity

gender identity

one's sense of oneself as male, female, or transgender

Which of the following factors is the most important predictor of overall self-esteem?

physical appearance self-esteem

ethnic socialization

practices by which we acquire the behaviors, perceptions, values, and attitudes of an ethnic group and come to see ourselves as member of an ethnic group - the process through which individuals develop an understanding of their ethnic or racial background also referred to as racial socialization Three themes: 1. understanding and valuing one's culture 2. dealing with racism 3. succeeding in mainstream society

Since Ignacio became an adolescent, he has experimented with different roles and personalities. Ignacio's parents are telling all their friends that this is just a "phase" that he's going through. According to Erikson, this "phase" is called:

psychosocial moratorium

According to the textbook, which of the following is not generally a predictor of self-esteem?

religious affiliation

Maria describes herself as an only child, as a person who likes art and music, who is shy, and who likes to read. Maria's description fits best with the idea of:

self-conception

How positively or negatively people feel about themselves defines:

self-esteem

Researchers have identified all of the following factors as critical components of the development of identity during adolescence, except:

self-regulation

gender intensification hypothesis

sex differences result from societal pressure to act in stereotypical masculine/feminine ways - beliefs about gender roles become more flexible as individuals move through adolescences - environment has much stronger effect on gender-role behavior than biology

future orientation

the ability and tendency to consider the long-term consequences of one's decisions and imagine what one's life might be like in the years to come

self-conceptions

the collect of traits and attributes that individuals use to describe pr characterize themselves

self-image stability

the degree to which an individual feels that his or her self-image changes from day to day

self-consciousness

the degree to which individuals feel positively or negatively about themselves

Amy, a 16-year-old girl, is shy around boys though she would really like to be more outgoing. This reflects:

the discrepancy between her ideal and actual selves

gender-role behavior

the extent to which an individual behaves in traditionally "masculine" or "feminine" ways

sense of identity

the extent to which individuals feel secure about who they are and who they are becoming

immigrant paradox

the fact that on many measures of psychological functioning and mental health, adolescents who have immigrated more recently to the United States score higher on measures of adjustment than adolescents from the same ethnic group whose family has lived in the United States for several generations

identity diffusion

the incoherent, disjointed, incomplete sense of self characteristic of not having resolves the crisis of identity

Robert Sellers and colleagues have presented a model to help make sense of the complicated relations among perceived discrimination, ethnic identity, and mental health among minorities. This model is called:

the multidimensional model of racial identity (MMRI)

identity foreclosure

the premature establishment of a sense of identity, before sufficient role experimentation has occurred

agency

the sense that one has an impact on one's world

five-factor model

the theory that there are five basic dimensions to personality: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientious, neuroticism, and openness to experience

possible selves

the various identities an adolescent may imagine for themselves

Adolescents who have more complex self-conceptions are less likely:

to be depressed

false-self behavior

behavior that intentionally presents a false impression to others

Overall, which group of adolescents feels least positive about themselves? A) White females B) White males C) Black females D) Black males

A) White females

Mei was an impulsive preschooler. It is likely that, as an adolescent, she will be: A) impulsive. B) shy. C) anxious. D) well-adjusted.

A) impulsive.

According to the textbook, feeling discriminated against is predictive of all of the following except:

All of the above; conduct problems, depression, and lower achievement