Ancient History: The Persian Wars

Toni Hurley: Stage One of the Battle of Artemisium

"...the Greeks used the defensive tactic called the 'kylos'... At a given signal they charged the Persian ships head-on... The Persians lost 30 ships in this encounter." (Hurley et al., 2019). He also describes the Battle of Artemisium as "indecisive... with heavy losses on both side" (Hurley et al., 2019).

Herodotus: The Battle of Thermopylae

"...the Persians using shorter spears than the Greeks and having no advantage from their numbers.... [found] that their assaults upon the pass... were all useless". (Herodotus, unknown).

Herodotus: Stage Three of the Battle of Plataea

"...they [the Persians] were deficient in armour, untrained and greatly inferior in skill... they fell upon the Spartan line and were cut down." (Herodotus, unknown).

Herodotus: The Phocian Wall

"A wall was once built across this passage... by the Phocians... it was decided to rebuild it and to use it to help stop the Persians from getting through into Greece." (Herodotus, unknown).

Herodotus: Xerxes' wait at Thermopylae

"For four days Xerxes waited, in constant expectation that the Greeks would make good their escape." (Herodotus, unknown).

Herodotus: Stage One of the Battle of Salamis

"Greek squadrons were lying in ambush behind the promontory of Cynosura... [the Persian] fleet advanced into the narrow waters of the straits." (Herodotus, unknown).

Herodotus: The conclusion of the Battle of Thermopylae

"Leonidas... sent away most of the troops who were with him... The Spartans resisted to the last... [but were] finally overwhelmed with missile weapons." (Herodotus, unknown).

Toni Hurley: Stage One of the Battle of Plataea

"Mardonius sent his cavalry under the command of Persian officer Masistius to attack them [the Greeks], inflicting heavy casualties in the process. Pausanias responded by sending a contingent of skilled Athenian archers who shot Masistius' horse from under him and hacked him to death." (Hurley et al., 2019).

Herodotus: The Battle of Mycale

"The Greeks... discovered that the Persians had departed and sailed for Mycale... [consequently] the Greek fleet sailed for Mycale." (Herodotus, unknown).

Aeschylus: Stage Three of the Battle of Salamis

"They [the Persian ships] rammed each other... the enemy [the Greeks] came round us in a ring and charged." (Aeschylus, unknown).

Herodotus: Historiographical issues

- Greek bias; - Did not participate in the Persian Wars himself (i.e. Consulted secondary sources); - Is known to have exaggerated certain elements of the account/not told the complete truth; and - His descriptions of some battles are not thorough enough for them to be fully reconstructed.

Key factors to consider in making judgements about the Persian Wars

- Leadership; - Unity; - Size of opposing forces; - Tactics; - Nature of weapons; and - Armour.

The Battle of Thermopylae: Significance

- Significant losses were incurred by the Persians; - The Persian invasion had been delayed for long enough to allow for the complete evacuation of the city of Athens; and - It gave the Hellenic League enough time to reconsider its strategy of defence.

The Battle of Artemisium: Significance

- The Greek navy was able, briefly, to prevent the Persian navy from assisting their land forces; - Due to the heavy losses the Persian navy had incurred, the Persian strategy of a combined naval and infantry operation had been interrupted and, ultimately, nullified by the Greeks; and - The reduced size of the Persian fleet meant that the Persians could no longer send naval detachments to other parts of the Greek mainland.

The significance of the Battle of Salamis

- The Persian fleet was largely destroyed, making it a turning point in the war; - The Persian strategy of a combined land and sea operation was now impossible, as their supply line (which was dependent upon the navy) was broken; and - The loyalty of the Ionian Greeks, who comprised a large part of the Persian navy, was weakened.

The Battle of Mycale: Significance

- The war was carried onto Persian territory; - The massive Persian invasion had been repulsed; and - Important trade routes through the Hellespont and the Black Sea were now open to the Greeks (especially the Athenians), who seized this opportunity.

Aeschylus: Historiographical issues

- Wrote for entertainment purposes and did not follow any form of historical method; and - Was Greek himself and therefore possessed possible bias in favour of this side.

Herodotus

A Greek historian who wrote an account of the Persian Wars shortly after their occurrence, in the 5th century BC, who travelled widely and gathered material from oral sources, including participants of the war themselves.

Mardonius

A Persian general who was given command of the remnants of the Persian army following Xerxes' flight from Greece.

Eurybiades

A Spartan man who was the overall commander of the Greek navy throughout the Persian Wars.

The Battle of Thermopylae

A conflict fought between the Greeks (specifically a force of 300 Spartans, led by their king Leonidas, and approximately 7 000 locals of the region) and the Persians (who numbered up to 500 000) during the Persian Wars, at the narrow mountain pass of Thermopylae, Greece, in 480 BC. Ultimately, a Persian victory occurred.

The Battle of Mycale

A conflict that occurred in the final stages of the Persian Wars, in 479 BC, between the Greek and Persian navies and infantries at Mycale, which was a part of the Persian Empire at the time. The result was a decisive Greek victory, which marked the end of the Persian invasion of Greece and, therefore, the main part of the Persian Wars.

The Battle of Plataea

A drawn-out conflict between the Greeks and the Persians that occurred in and around the foothills of Plataea, Greece, in 479 BC, during the Persian Wars. It resulted in a decisive Greek victory and the destruction of a large portion of the Persian army that had remained in Persia, including the death of their leader, Mardonius.

The Battle of Artemisium

A naval conflict fought between the Greeks (namely the Athenians and other minor members of the Hellenic League, who had 271 triremes) and the Persians (who had up to 1 200 ships) off the coast of Artemisium, Greece, in 480 BC, during the Persian Wars. Perhaps intended to prevent the Persians landing troops behind the portion of the Greek infantry simultaneously fighting at Thermopylae, this battle consisted of three distinct stages and its result was inconclusive.

The Battle of Salamis

A naval conflict that occurred between the Greeks (who had approximately 380 ships) and the Persians (who possessed roughly 500 ships) in a narrow strait off the island of Salamis, Greece, during the Persian Wars, in 480 BC. This battle resulted in a decisive Greek victory and is widely regarded as the turning point in the Persian Wars.

The Persian Wars/Greco-Persian Wars

A series of conflicts fought between the Persian Empire and the united Greek city-states of the Hellenic League between 492 and 449 BC, which were at their peak of intensity from 490 to 479 BC, during which the Battle of Marathon occurred and King Xerxes of Persia invaded Greece.

Trireme

A type of Greek warship built specifically for the purpose of ramming enemy ships (via the bronze plate it was equipped with at the front) and which contained three banks of oars.

The Battle of Salamis: Stage One. (Note: This battle did not consist of distinct stages - I have merely labelled them as such for the purpose of studying).

According to Herodotus, Themistocles deceived Xerxes, tricking him into dividing the Persian fleet and joining battle. The Greek flanking ships, which were lying in ambush behind the Cynosura headland, crowded the Persian fleet into a narrow strait when they entered the trap.

Themistocles

An Athenian leader who convinced the Athenians to build a substantial navy prior to the Persian Wars. He was the leader of the Athenian contingent of the navy and was given the credit (by Herodotus) for devising the Greek strategy at the Battle of Salamis.

Aeschylus

An Athenian playwright who served in the Persian Wars himself and wrote plays about the events he witnessed in the years after.

The Persian Empire

An ancient civilisation that was at its peak from approximately 550 - 500 BC, during which time it controlled an enormous amount of land and was the predominant force of the ancient world.

Toni Hurley (et al.): Historiographical issues

As a contemporary historian with access to a multitude of sources, the secondary sources he provides should be reasonably accurate and unbiased. However, he was not a first-hand witness to the events he described.

The Battle of Plataea: Stage Three

At dawn the following day, Mardonius was surprised to see that the Greeks were in retreat and subsequently ordered his army to engage. The Persians, whose sight of the Greeks was obscured by the hills (thus causing them to believe that they had the Greeks on the run), streamed forward in a disorganised mass. Upon joining battle, the conflict became divided, with the Athenians, on the left wing, being cut off from the remainder of the Greek army and the Spartans and Tegeans fighting alone against the onslaught of the Persian infantry on the right wing. Ultimately, each of the respective Greek forces were victories against their adversaries, with the Persians suffering heavy casualties - including their leader, Mardonius - and retreating.

The Battle of Mycale: Summary

At the same time or shortly after the Greek land forces were fighting at Plataea, Leotychides and his fleet of 250 ships set sail for the island of Samos, the headquarters of the Persian fleet in Ionia. However, upon arriving, they found that the remnants of the Persian fleet had sailed further along the coast to Mycale. Therefore, the Greek force, numbering 6 000, met an unknown number of Persians here, disembarking from their ships and attacking the Persians, who had formed a barricade of shields. An Athenian contingent advanced from one side, while the Spartans advanced from another. At first, the Persians stood firm against this onslaught but then the Greeks burst through the barricades and slaughtered the Persians.

Although their invasion was repelled, the Persians did achieve one significant objective of theirs during the Persian Wars: The city of ______ was _________ (twice), thus punishing the _________ for their involvement in the ______ ______. However, their ___________ aims were not achieved and, in addition to this, Xerxes failed to match his predecessors in _____.

Athens; destroyed; Athenians; Ionian Revolt; imperialist; glory.

The Battle of Salamis: Stage Two

Crammed into this narrow strait, the lead Persian ships were disabled by the ramming tactics of the Greeks and were forced back onto the ships following closely behind.

The Battle of Artemisium: Stage Two

During the night, further storms damage the Persian ships, encouraging the Greeks to sail across the channel and raid part of the Persian fleet engaged in the task of repairing the ships.

The aftermath of the Battle of Salamis

Fearing he would be cut off from Persia completely without his navy, wary of the ever-present threats of revolts in his absence and accepting of the disadvantageous position the Persians were now in, Xerxes returned to Persia, with a significant portion of the army. The Persian supply line had also been largely destroyed. However, he left a substantial force in Greece, under the command of General Mardonius, to continue the war. This force waited out the winter in Thessaly, during which time attempts were made at diplomacy and bribery to break up the alliance of the Greek states. When these attempts failed, Mardonius marched upon Athens and destroyed it once again, before progressing to Plataea, where he constructed a palisade (a fence, made up of wooden stakes, for defence) and would soon meet a united Greek force.

The Battle of Thermopylae: Summary (battle phase).

For two days, the Persian infantry is unsuccessfully deployed against the Greeks holding the pass. Persian losses are heavy and even the famed Immortals have no success. The strategic position of the Greeks prevents the Persians from being able to effectively use their cavalry. Ephialtes, a native of the region, then betrays the Greeks, enlightening Xerxes about the mountain pass which bypasses the Greek's position. He guides the Immortals over it during the night, who swiftly advance past the Phocians' position. Leonidas is informed of the Persian attempt to encircle him. He sends most of his troops away, in order to avoid such unnecessary casualties, but keeps his force of 300 Spartans and a small amount of local Greeks, some of whom volunteered to remain. The remaining Greek forces move out into the wider part of the pass, fighting with great courage and inflicting heavy losses. Leonidas is killed and a fight ensues over his body. When the contingent of troops sent to encircle the Greeks arrives from behind, the Greeks retire once more to the narrow section of the pass and take up position on a mound. Completely surrounded, they defend themselves ferociously, until a Persian retreat is called and the archers pick off those who remain from a distance. Thus, a Persian victory is achieved.

The Battle of Plataea: Stage Two

In order to gain better access to water, the Greeks moved down from the foothills and to the Gargaphia Spring. However, further stalemate ensued, with the continued arrival of Greek reinforcements and lightning attacks by the Persian cavalry, both on the Greek's position and their supply lines, being the only engagement. Soon after, the main Greek supply column was intercepted and massacred by Persian forces and the Greek's water source was poisoned, leaving them without a water source altogether and with dwindling food rations. Following this, the Greeks decided to withdraw to the foothills, this time to a location with better access to water and protection from Persian cavalry attacks. However, this plan was never carried out.

The Battle of Artemisium: Stage Zero

Prior to the commencement of battle, a summer storm rages, destroying an estimated 200 Persian ships. The Greeks, with their superior knowledge of the local weather, safely ride out the storm in a sheltered bay. Upon their arrival at Artemisium, the Persians, hoping to encircle the Greeks, send a fleet of 200 ships to sail around Euboea and carry out this task. However, these ships, too, are destroyed in another storm.

Following the return of Xerxes to Persia (after the Battle of _______), the Persian infantry numbered approximately __ ___ and their cavalry roughly __ ___. The Greeks had a _______ number of troops (approximately __ ___ at the Battle of _______), which meant that the Persians' previous numerical advantage was __ ______ present.

Salamis; 35 000; 12 000; similar; 38 000; Plataea; no longer.

The Battle of Artemisium: Aftermath

The Greek fleet sailed to Athens in order to assist the city's evacuation (many of its residents were temporarily deposited on the island of Salamis). This was completed successfully and only a few "diehards" remained in Athens. They were slaughtered when the Persian army marched upon Athens and pillaged and burnt it. The Hellenic League met once more and decided to engage the Persian fleet in the waters off Salamis.

The Battle of Thermopylae: Summary (pre-battle phase)

The Greeks arrive at the narrow mountain pass near the ancient Phocian wall, which is rebuilt. On arrival, Leonidas is formed of an alternative mountain pass through which the Greek's position can be reached from behind. He commands a force of 1 000 Phocians (locals of the region) to hold this pass. Xerxes and his Persian force halt before the entry of the path for four day, waiting for the remainder of the army to arrive and fully expecting a Greek retreat.

The Battle of Plataea: Stage One

The Greeks took up a position in the foothills of the land and, for a considerable period of time, the opposing armies faced each other across the Asopus River. After failed attempts to lure the Greeks down from the foothills, Mardonius sent the Persian cavalry against the Greeks, inflicting heavy casualties in the process. Pausanius responded by sending a contingent of skilled Athenian archers to join battle, who fired at the Persian cavalry and, significantly, shot Masistius' (a distinguished Persian officer) horse from under him, before hacking him to death. His body was put on a cart and paraded along the Greek lines, giving heart to their cause but causing great consternation in the Persian camp.

Darius I (the Great)

The King of Persia during the early stages of the Persian Wars. He died in 487 BC.

Xerxes

The King of Persia during the height of the Persian Wars, who undertook extensive preparations for an invasion of Greece and, ultimately, conducted this invasion (although it failed). Son of Darius.

Leonidas

The King of Sparta and leader of the Greek forces present at the Battle of Thermopylae, who was slain in this conflict.

Pausanias

The King of Sparta following the death of King Leonidas, who assumed military command at the Battle of Plataea.

The Battle of Artemisium: Stage One

The Persian fleet, with its superior numbers and lighter, more manoeuvrable ships, attempted to surround the Greek fleet in the open water. However, the Greeks employed a defensive tactic called the "kylos", in which their smaller force formed a close circle with their rams pointing outwards, preventing the enemy ships from disrupting their formation. At a given signal, the Greek ships charge the Persian ships head-on and inflict significant losses - 30 ships, according to Herodotus.

The Battle of Salamis: Stage Three

The Persian ships ended by ramming each other and provided an easy target for the Greeks, who were able to ram them at will.

The Battle of Artemisium: Stage Three

The Persian ships sail across to the Greek position at Artemisium and form an offensive semicircle, which the Greeks attack head-on. Both sides sustain heavy casualties and the Persians withdraw. No clear victory is gained by either side in this battle as a whole. Soon after, news of the disaster at Thermopylae reaches the Greeks and they retreat to Athens, with the Persian navy in pursuit.

Leotychides

The dual Spartan king, who commanded a Greek fleet of 250 ships.

Aftermath of the Battle of Plataea

The remainder of the Persian forces retreated behind the wooden palisades. However, the Greeks forced an entry into the Persian stockade and slaughtered the Persians. To give thanks for their victory, the Greeks melted the bronze items captured after the battle to make an eight-metre-high Serpent Column, dedicated to the gods and inscribed with the names of the 31 members of the Hellenic League who had fought in the Persian Wars.

Aftermath of the Battle of Mycale

What remained of the Persian forces retreated to Persia, abandoning the invasion of Greece. However, the Greeks still could not secure Asia Minor from the Persian threat and, thus, their own attempts to invade were repelled, too. The Ionian Greeks would soon initiate a second, successful revolt.