ANT 26 FINAL
6.Describe Otzi's tattoos (e.g., what they look like, how numerous they are, and what their intended purpose is thought to have been).
-61 tattoos ~~Mostly on back or lower legs ~~Made from charcoal dust rubbed into cuts on skin ~~Mostly sets of parallel lines or crosses ~~Locations correspond to where Otzi suffered from arthritis ~~Possibly acupuncture points or pain treatment
4. There was a notable change in Egypt's climate around 5000 years ago. What is the relationship between this paleoclimatic shift and burial practices (especially mummification)?
-7 - 5000 BC, much wetter; grasslands -Desertification 5 - 4000 BC ~~Drives people south to the Nile Valley ~~Sahara becomes largely depopulated ~~Artificial mummification begins around 5000 years ago
7.What is the scientific definition of a mummy? Why does a photograph of a person not qualify?
-A mummy is a preserved body with its original soft tissue, with or without bones and teeth. -It includes both "spontaneous" (natural) and "intentional" (artificial) mummification -A mummy in our context would be most of, or all of, a body, not just an arm or a leg -A photograph doesn't qualify because there is no soft tissue preservation
5.List three pieces of evidence that suggest that Capacocha mummies were probably the result of a ritual sacrifice.
-Most victims b/w ages 8 - 16, boys and girls -Individuals seem to have been selected up to a year before sacrifice -Sacrificed by being hit over the head or strangled -Dressed in finest clothing buried with items from "the 4 corners" of the Inca empire -Diets showed "rich" person diet as compared to commoner, fed well before sacrificed
3.What is the last name of the archaeologist who worked on Miranda Eve?
Eerkens_(our teacher)
Steps in Egyptian Artificial Mummification
1) Embalm Body (after washed in wine, rinse in Nile) 2) Remove internal organs (except heart - center of intelligence & feeling): after, some placed in Natron 3) Get rid of brain: liquefy, pull out through nose 4) Cover/fill body with Natron (sodium carbonate) 5) Wait 40 days 6) wash in Nile 7) Cover skin in oils - makes skin elastic 8) Fluids/rags are buried with body to save/preserve it 9) Dehydrated Internal organs either: A-wrapped in linen, returned to body (late practice), OR B-left in canopic jars (earlier practice) 10) Body is stuffed with leaves, sawdust, linens to look "lifelike" 11) Wrap body in resin-soaked linens (start at head); amulets placed to protect body 12) Priests Ward off evil spirits by reading spells 13) hands/feet tied together 14) spell scrolls placed in with body 15) add more bandages (painted w/liquid resins = glue) 16) large cloth around body 17) funeral mask (gold = wealthy, paper-mache = commoners) 18) Funeral procession - family mourns death 19) FOR wealthy: place in sarcophagus / coffin,usually painted, nice words about person written, eye of Horus on outside (to look out), mummy then placed in tomb above or below ground (usually painted - enjoying afterlife), tomb filled with grave goods/items needed for afterlife-enjoyment (food, pets, household items)
2. All of the following about Otzi are true except:
A. He was likely murdered by being shot in the back and left for dead. B.Tree pollen in his intestines shows he died around late spring/early summer. C. There was no evidence of a fight before he died. D. Radiocarbon dating indicated he was from the Neolithic period.
1. All of the following about bog mummies are true except:
A. Many are paper mummies. B. Many are damaged due to peat cutting. C.Many were put on display as "curiosities". D.None were murdered.
Otzi: health, tattoos, Last meal, death
Health: We know he possibly had arthritis due to the location of his tattoos (marked areas where he had arthritis) b.Meal: Ibex (wild goat), probably cooked (but had bits of hair and fly parts, so not "cleaned" like our meats); unleavened bread (of einkorn wheat)... His intestine and colon contents: (meals eaten 24-48 hrs prior to death) meat and grain also, but also whipworm (parasite) eggs, and pollen from the Hop-Hornbeam tree (which only grows south of the Alps And in Italian side, and blooms in early summer; this type of info is used to establish season of death) c.Tattoos: 61 tattoos, mostly covering his lower back and lower legs; made from charcoal dust rubbed into cuts on skin; most are sets of parallel lines or perpendicular lines.
Museums: Preserving Mummies for future
Should mummy studies defer to any??? No country has "how to" laws on mummy research, so it's more up to the science community. International Council of Museums strongly encourages research on existing specimens. There are stronger laws pertaining to ownership of mummies, British common law says no one can own a human body, and U.S. law is based on this (this is partly stemming from lax importation laws of the early 1800s - 1900s when mummies were treated like resources. Since 1960s, there are stronger laws. Today countries "Claim" and own mummies in a national sense, and many countries are trying to repatriate the dead. Information and the progress of knowledge. Let's face it, there are no substitute for mummies... There is a constant need for new information (which favors research). Research on mummies has made significant contributions to medicine, anthropology, ecology. Even mummy portrayals in entertainment Provides information to public as well Individualism → right of integrity of person
Behaviors relevant to study of mummies
a.
Life in the iron age
a. Life in the Iron Age Agro-pastoralist societies: grew wheat, barley. Raised cattle, pigs, goats, diet also supplemented by wild foods. -Small settlements: longhouses (around 2 - 10). -10 - 100 people, usually with defensive walls built around settlement (suggests warfare had been common) -Life expectancy = 30 - 40 yrs (hard life) -Stratified social hierarchy = wealthy, peasants, leaders -Tollund Man was from village like this
Sphagnan
a. Mosses have sphagnan which binds to metals that bacteria need. Organic matter accumulates, but bacteria cannot decompose it, so this preserves organic material if buried quickly.
Quest for immorality
a. People fear death - it is an unknown. Physical immortality is what people believe to be the logical step towards trying to fight this fear. -Many myths, such as vampires, Homer + Greek culture, Achilles choosing to die in the battle of Troy, Lingzhi the "Mushroom of Immortality" in Chinese texts, the Epic of Gilgamesh; all are examples of human fascination with the premise of living forever, including living forever by being remembered after death (Achilles). b. The Egyptians also felt that erasing someone's name from history would cause their "second death."
Salt Mummies
a. Salt Sodium Chloride (NaCl) minerals... many different varieties, common minerals on Earth, sometimes get concentrated (evaporation of salty waters → like lake beds, intrusive plumes of oceanic waters). b.Salt is essential for humans. -Component of blood, sweat, tears -Aids in digestion (Chlorine for hydrochloric acid {HCl} in stomach) -Aids the nervous system (transmit electrical signals) -Aids in waste removal (sodium binds = urine) -Minimum physiological req.= 1500 mg/day (most Americans get 7 - 10x this amnt.). -Our evolutionary past = diets poor in salts...so we crave it. c.Salts readily binds to H2O (draws it out of body due to osmotic pressure), making it hard for bacteria to access H2O = preservation. Before refrigeration, salt was used as way to preserve foods (salt-cured meats). d.Salt mining not surprising, people (both in the past and present) mine salt (traded widely, because some areas were salt-poor); sometimes accidents happen (e.g. trapped medieval salt miner from Hallstatt, Austria). -Sometimes people bury dead in salt-rich soils (e.g. Tarim Basin, China). -Sometimes salts used to preserve bodies (Egyptians and Natron). e.EXAMPLE: Chehrabad NW Iran(arid region) modern salt mine, excavated by archaeologists 2004 - 2009, 5 ancient salt miners found from 2 different burial events: -3 men date to ~ 400 BC, 2 men date to ~ AD 200 The theory is that there was an earthquake causing a roof collapse in salt cave, and they got buried with their mining equipment (iron picks with wood handles), clothing. -Analysis of stable isotopes collected suggests miners weren't locals → perhaps traders gathering salt, clearly were part of an agro-pastoral society (diet of barley, wheat, chickpea, goat), one mummy had eggs of tapeworm parasite (oldest physical evidence of tapeworm) -The studies are ongoing, DNA study is underway
Bog Mummies
a. found in wetland bog environments usually when peat was being cut. - no sediment of nutrition for plants but good for mosses -over time peat forms b. are all natural/spontaneous --> Not artificial (are soley from bog conditions) c. concentrated in NW Europe -100's found, most are partial mummies -even recent bodies are found ~~boriz lazaez- soviet fighter piolet shot down in 194, found 1998 d. most are from iron Age -often tied to stake in peat and covered with heavy objects -50% Hung or throat slit (murdered) --> punishment (dishonorable) -ritual sacrifice (honorable) e. there is much variation in preservation -comes from varying acidity of peat -bones demineralization from the acid, but organics are preserved f. poorly drained soild.. overtime organic matter acumulates, often acidifies bog -pH 3.2 - 6.5 but, 5.5 - 6.5 are best for mummies -Acidic and anaerobic ~~Slows down enzymes, limits bacterial activity, and prevents chemical oxidation g. Many are lost due to poor care/preservation/conservation when removed -Often damaged due to peat cutting h.Many are paper mummies -Only known from newspapers, county records, and sometimes photos
Reasons for artificial mummification
a.All adults realize death is coming. Death and fear of unknown. Religions often tell people what happens, esp. To "soul, spirit, or essence". Gives spiritual immortality, not observable, hard to evaluate rationally. Physical mortality = bodies.
Ethics: Funerary rituals
a.All societies have funerary rituals -Cope and heal, signal end of old ways and start of new order, details vary among cultures, when done put it behind you b.Western Culture: death is sanitized, have specialized people to deal with it, don't see dead (unless it's open casket)
Pseudo mummies
a.Any casts, tracks, impressions and human replications. b.Not true mummies because there is no soft tissue preservation and they're only a representation of the body c.Two kinds: Natural and Cultural -Natural: better for archaeological/biological issues ~~Ex: Laetoli footprints & Body casts from Pompeii eruption -Cultural: are expressly made more subject to bias, more valuable to understanding worldviews and other cultural anthropological issues ~~Ex: Greek statues, paintings, terracotta warriors, rock art from Native Americans
Nederfrederiksmose mummy
a.Bog mummy -Found in 1878 in Denmark, first bog body to be photographed in Situ. -Medieval in age (AD 1100) b.Stake next to body to hold down in peat c.Male, well preserved clothing on body Only photos remain; it has been lost due to decay d.Other notable bog mummies include Damendorf Man, Yde Girl, Clonycavan Man, Old Croghan Man, Grauballe Man, Borremose Man (Iron age)
Juanita
a.Capacocha mummy of Peru (Also known as "Ice Maiden") -From Inca Period -Found in 1995 at over 20k feet above sea level b.Sacrificed in the Capacocha ritual -High elevation sacrifice to appease angry gods or celebrate battle, royal birth/death -~ 35 ritual mummies found today
Nederfrederiksmose
a.Denmark? (Where notable bog mummy was found ^)
Metal Mummies
a.Due to presence of metals -Many metals are anti-bacterial, esp. copper b.Voltage difference between bacterial cell & copper makes bacterial cells rupture -Metal ions invade cell -Inhibit enzymes from operating -Nutrients leak out -Can make skin into copper c.Most Famous - "Copper Man" Found in 1899, in Chuquicamata - Northern Chile
Environmental reasons for mummification
a.Ice, Salt, metal, Bogs/peat, Lack of moisture (Deserts)
Qilakitsoq Mummies/site
a.Iceland 1972, 8 mummies on north-facing slope which freeze-dried them from intense wind and cold. 5 stacked bodies (3 women, 2 boys) + 3 nearby women. 4 nearly perfectly preserved, others partially mummified. 1450 - 1490 from radiocarbon, probably did not all die at once. -Near small thule settlement (mobile arctic hunter-gatherers with bone and antler tools, some stone tools, umiak canoes, kayaks, cold-hammered metal tools, in contact with Vikings (artifacts found) -All women seemed to be in good health, had head lice, lots of soot in lungs (from seal oil lamps). Most pinworms, nasal cancer in one. -All the women had facial tattoos common among Inuit, wore sophisticated sealskin and reindeer hide clothing. Tattoo styles indicate women married into community. -Diet = 75% protein intake from marine foods. Minor vegetable and reindeer matter. Ate stomachs of reindeer for plant nutrients. Stomach and intestine contained reindeer, seal, hair, some moss. -Genetics = mtDNA shows 3 diff maternal lines in 2 stacks (3 generations). Showed links to Inuit people of same area. -Mummies displayed in Greenland National Museum, Nuuk
Naqada Society
a.In Egypt, had some natural mummies, mostly artificial b.Where oldest egyptian mummies, & Ginger are from c.Sedentary → agricultural (wheat/barley imported then grown) d.non-egalitarian: chiefdoms, status differentiation (pots, exotic beads in some graves, but most have nothing). e.Over 1000 years, greater investment in mortuary activity: -painted coffins; -elite get tombs; -people's heads, hands wrapped in linen soaked in resin (antibacterial → pine, plant-gums/sugar, animal fats halted microbial activity partial skin preservation... probably noticed later then improved upon).
Inca Capacocha Ritual/mummies
a.It's an honor to be a Capacocha sacrifice -Sacrifice beautiful youth ages 8-16 (female and male) when extreme circumstances (earthquakes, famine, etc) or celebrations/mark of particular event occur (death of emperor, birth of Inca son, victory in battle) -Dressed in finest clothing, marched around cuzco and the empire, visited huacas (sacred places) accompanied by priests, received goods to take to the next world, hit over head and sometimes strangled, and usually mummified in high elevation (mountain tops) -Isotope evidence: ~~Victims come from all over empire ~~Months-year before the event, they eat like royalty-high status diet ~~Individuals are selected and as they visit different important places, they get food ~~Victims selected up to a year before the event -Chemical studies of hair: ~~Drank chicha (maize based beer) over many months before the event ~~Chewed lots of coca leaves -Years after death: ~~Priests return, bring new offers and fill burial site with dirt b. Ritual information uncovered by Spanish Colonists
Otzi Ownership
a.Italy and Austria fought over who had control of Ötzi -A survey showed that he was found 100 meters into Italy. -his body is now housed in the Tyrol Museum of Archaeology, in Bolzano, South Tyrol, Italy and kept at -6°C and high humidity... but there is still a little decomp going on (black fungus) and they are attempting to stop this.
Franklin expedition
a.Led by John Franklin b.Arctic Exploration -4th trip to Arctic by Franklin, were never seen again -Last seen by Inuits after search parties sent c.Embarked 1845 from Greenland -British, 129 men (they all died) -Winter came early → ice gave in → stuck for 1-2 years ~~First few deaths receive burial → 3 Graves found ~~~~Excavations of graves happened in 1981 - 1986 *****Perfect preservation from permafrost ******Names: John Torrington, John Hartnell, William Baine ******Found artifacts and journals -Sickness came from TB, scurvy, lead poisoning (pipes/canned food → starts dying after 1 year) -Ships abandoned 1.5 years after embarking, cannibalism -Insane survivors tried to find/ walk to village -30 bodies recovered so far 2 skeletons in whale boat The rest are probably in ice
Pyramid Looting
a.Looting = BIG problem in Egypt → people used dynamite to break into pyramids.. -Early mummification for high-status people only graves/tombs rich with goods = looters treasure trove (this has been going on for a long time) -later dynasties as well as treasure hunters and people who called themselves archaeologists in the1800s. -Plus, demand for mummies in Europe 1700 - 1800s; today, focus is on pots and textiles.
Ice mummies
a.Low temps slow down chemical reactions (and bacteria, and lysosomes), and there is also little available oxygen... -Ice/frozen environments well known to preserve organic materials... in Arctic and alpine areas, it is a race to find artifacts that are melting out of glaciers (if uncovered, start decomposing). b.Most famous: Ötzi
Miranda Eve
a.Metal Anaerobic Mummy b.Real name Edith Cook. -Found in Richmond District, San Fran. -Sealed in Cast-iron casket, discovered by construction activities... -Children of the owner of the house nicknamed the child "Miranda Eve". -Casket opened, coroner said "not recent"and left. -Casket left in garage, started to smell, Homeowner finally got someone willing to deal with the unusual discovery...to be reburied. -Found with spike in nitrogen content c.We think Edith was preserved due to the metal from casket inhibiting microbial activity, plus sealed (limited oxygen), plus cool environment of SF. d.Had very lengthy and detailed investigation process -Child was buried in a white funeral dress (thought girl, but could be boy too) with roses, baby's breath flowers, maiden's hair too...some in shape of cross on chest. -There used to be several cemeteries in SF, but due to urban sprawl, cemeteries dug up and moved (sometimes bodies missed...). ~~Team went through records in order to ID Edith Cook ~~Oddfellows = one of the original cemeteries in SF ~~Moved to colma 1933, but no new burials after 1903 -Proved girl from genetic test, no Y chromosome -Lived 1873-1876 -Died of Marasmus (severe undernourishment) and poor sanitation/medicine -Conclusion: vaccinate kids
Copper Man
a.Metal mummy -Found in 1899 in dry Atacama desert, Chuquicamata. Northern Chile. ~~Area still mined today for Cu, body preserved by copper. -Died 550 AD from pressure changes leading to shaft collapse, asphyxiated from CO2 while digging out ~~Skin was found in process of becoming copper ~~2 others found in area. Not as well preserved. -X-rays show front head flattened (intentional) & head binding of infants (beauty) ~~Common in coastal Peru and Atacama b.Had battle for ownership -French vs. American, bought by 3rd party Edward Jackson for NY, thought woman -Then JP Morgan got it for Am Museum of Natural History -Movement caused damage (fingers lost, bacterial decomp) -Chile wants it back, but challenged by AMNH
Ethnic: Displays
a.Mummies fascinate the living, and are a big draw at museums, but they were all once living people and some argue its dehumanizing to display them out in the open, especially if they're from another culture -if mummies are displayed in a dark, quiet, crypt-like place people will tend to have a sense of respect and awe and be impressed with the culture that preserved
Bog Environment
a.North West Europe -Wetland environments; poorly drained soil→ over time organic matter accumulates ~~acidifying the bog (it can be between a pH 3.2 - 6.5... but pH 5.5 - 6.5 best for mummies). ~~Good for paleoenvironmental reconstruction and archeology. -There is little to no sediment input plus nutrient poor for plants (no minerals), are good places to find mosses (which can overwhelm and fill in the bog). ~~Over time, peat forms. Bogs become acidic and anaerobic (slow enzymes, limit bacterial activity, prevents chemical oxidation) ~~Moss has sphagnan (binds to metals bacteria need). ~~Organic material accumulates, preserves quickly buried organic materials. ~~Peat cutting occurs here
Chehrabad mummies
a.Northwestern Iran (arid region) b.Modern salt mine c.Excavated from 2004 - 2009. Studies still ongoing. -5 miners, but 2 different burial events. ~~One around 300 BC (3 men) ~~Other around 200 AD (2 men). -Roof collapsed- miners trapped and buried. ~~Probable cause - earthquakes. ~~Buried w/ gear, clothing (dyes and colors preserved). ~~Stable isotope data suggests miners were agropastoral non-locals. ~~~~Perhaps traders getting salt. d.Diets = mix of plant and animal. -Barley, wheat and chickpea, goat. -One mummy had eggs of tapeworm. -Oldest physical evidence of tapeworm. -Egyptians wrote about worms but species not known. Pinworm and whipworm eggs as well. Traders encounter many people. Exposed to many people, exposed to many parasites and diseases. -DNA studies underway... seems to be good at preservation.
Self-mummification
a.Not well studied by archaeologists because: -They are important cultural relics, the belief that the mummy is not dead, religious reasons, ethically not feasible b.Most are from China and Japan (few from Mongolia, Thailand, Taiwan) c.Date from A.D 1000 - today d.Most Buddhist mummies were destroyed in China by Mao during the communist revolution e.Is from the Buddhist belief that meditation means enlightenment -Life continues after the person becomes inanimate, the mummy will eventually wake up f.Monks eat a special diet to assist the process, months of preparation, limit food and water, body consumes own fat and muscle, drink toxic tea or eat toxic food (prevents bacteria/flies); sometimes assisted by living, candles or salt to dry out, encase body to prevent scavengers. Monks who achieve this are revered, put on display, become important relics. g.Example : Phra Khru Samathakittikhun, Thailand
Koelbjerg Woman
a.Oldest bog person (not a mummy) -Found 1941, dates to 8000 BC, age 25 - 30 -Skeletonized with no soft tissue due to "fresh" bog water ~~Buried in lake before it became a bog -Only later peat soils developed allowing mummification b.Part of Mesolithic culture -Hunter-gatherer fishers -No agriculture, no domesticated animals besides dog -Seasonally mobile
Ginger
a.One of the oldest egyptian mummies ~ 3400 BC. Pre-dynastic chiefdom from Naqada. Named because of hair color. Prehistoric. b.Ginger was 1 of 6 of the mummies found, best preserved, first to be displayed in 1901 and still shown at the British Museum.
Peat cutting
a.Organic material, good fuel source (for burning) -Natural (spontaneous environments) -Releases lots of CO2 when burned b.Exposes archaeological materials (wooden trackway 650 - 750 AD Ireland; Mesolithic fish traps 7000 BC; dugout canoe fl 1300 AD) c.In Europe, long history (since Iron Age) Largely abandoned in early 1900s d.Takes thousands of years to form, gone within decades -Which is why there are many efforts to stop peat cutting and preserve bogs e.While cutting peat, sometimes mummified bodies are found -When peat is too acidic, bone becomes demineralized, but organics will NOT react -Most famous from Northwestern Europe
Huldremose woman
a.Peat Bog Ca se study #2 Found in 1879 Denmark. Dates to 160 BC. -Died at 40 (old lady) during the iron age. -Right arm was severed prob by peat cutters. -Wool cord tied hair and neck, probably murdered. -Fully clothed skirt of wood, scarf, and two skins capes. She was tanned by the tannins in the bog. -Last meal (stomach) was coarsely ground rye with seeds from spurrey (wild weed) as well as animal meat and tissue. Meat was NOT cleaned well. -Displayed at national museum of denmark in copenhagen.
Tollund Man
a.Peat Bog Case Study # 1 -Tollund Fen, Denmark. Bog was not as acidic as some; is variation of preservation crossbody (hands = skeletonized, feet = preserved, O2 levels at different depths varied). -Found 1950 (by 2 peat cutters), thought recent murder = careful removal of body (for 1950s standards). -Mummy was buried w/o clothes except skin cap and hide belt, and hair was cut short.14C dates 300-400 BC (Iron Age). Male,About 40 years old, 5'3", Healthy heart and organs, 5 o'clock shadow (skin retracted), brain well preserved; noose around neck,distended tongue, but no broken cervical vertebrae so he was most likely strangled. Careful burial = Eyes shut, mouth closed before burial. -Stomach/intestines = Last meal → a porridge mix of barley, linseed, flax and knotgrass seeds Common Iron Age meal...indicates a late winter or early spring death. Had pinworms (common in NW Europe bog mummies, but can cause anemia)...DNA extraction failed. b.Why hanged? -Theory 1: Traitor or Coward (Roman accounts of same region 400 years later say area known to hang traitors and place in bog). -Theory 2: Ritual sacrifice (to appease angry spirits).Tollund Man is on display at Silkeborg Museum, Denmark → Only head is still original,the rest is cast/synthetic.
Buddhist mummies
a.Self-mummification: not well studied by archaeologists(for a couple of reasons) -They are considered important cultural relics -The belief that the mummy is not dead -Their religious reasons -It is ethically not feasible b.Most are from China and Japan (a few from Mongolia, Thailand and Taiwan), date from 1000 AD to today -During the communist revolution in China many Buddhist mummies were destroyed by Mao while others were stolen and sold on the blackmarket. c.Certain sects of Buddhists believe meditation enlightenment...can become permanent state, life continues after inanimate, mummy will wake up eventually. -The monks eat a special diet to assist the process, that takes months of preparation, ~~Have to limit food and water ~~Body consumes own fat and muscle ~~They drink toxic tea or eat toxic food (prevents bacteria/flies) ~~It is sometimes assisted by living, ~~~~The use of candles and/or salt to dry out, ~~~~Encased in glass cases so that the body to prevent scavengers. -Monks who achieve this are revered, put on display, become important relics. d.Examples: -Phra Khru Samathakittikhun, Thailand, ~~according to his wishes relatives placed him in a glass case and he is said to bring joy to visitors. -*One of the oldest is from S. China, believed to be Liuquan, a Buddhist monk that died around 1000 AD... ~~self-mummified initially, assisted later ~~CT scans showed in-tact mummy in a statue, but internal organs removed and space filled w/paper scraps instead...gives his name and history... ~~For 1st 200 years after death mummy = relic, worshipped in temples, 14th century was transformed into a statue. Statue stolen, town tracked it down, wants it back... it was donated back to home temple in 2015.
Museums: Preserving Mummies for future
a.Should mummy studies defer to any??? -No country has "how to" laws on mummy research, so it's more up to the science community. -International Council of Museums strongly encourages research on existing specimens. ~~There are stronger laws pertaining to ownership of mummies, British common law says no one can own a human body, and U.S. law is based on this (this is partly stemming from lax importation laws of the early 1800s - 1900s when mummies were treated like resources. Since 1960s, there are stronger laws. ~~Today countries ~~~~"Claim" and own mummies in a national sense, and many countries are trying to repatriate the dead. Information and the progress of knowledge. -Let's face it, there are no substitute for mummies... ~~There is a constant need for new information (which favors research). Research on mummies has made significant contributions to medicine, anthropology, ecology. ~~Even mummy portrayals in entertainment ~~Provides information to public as well -Individualism → right of integrity of person
Ethics: Research
a.Should try to preserve mummies as best as possible for the future and publish results. -Who owns the past? ~~The archaeological perspective is that historically important knowledge belongs to the world. IT IS collective human heritage. IT IS important to work with stakeholders. No one group should own or destroy it. ~~Great opposition: to looting, private collecting, destruction without study. ~~Mummies tell us something about ourselves, how we view death and immortality, and says something about our attachment to the past
Franklin mummies: lead (Pb), cannibalism
a.Sickness -Lungs: emphysema and tuberculosis -Evidence of scurvy: sores on gums, loose teeth, subcutaneous hematomas -All 3 mummified men that were found had died of pneumonia b.Cannibalism Some skeletons (not the 3 mummified men) had cut marks most likely from metal to remove muscles and fat rich brain c.Lead Poisoning -High levels of lead in skin (5 - 10x normal) and hair (20 - 100x) possibly due to 2 theories: ~~Cans with preserved fruit drowned in lead ~~Bad water filtration system on ship- pipes that were used to make drinking water may have been made with lead
Tutankhamun: health, family, and legacy
a.Son of Akhenaten (aka Amenhotep IV) and Akhenaten's wife (unknown name). -Tut became pharaoh at the age of 9, died by 19. -His name was erased by later Egyptians, so he went nearly unknown, but there were hints of his existence, yet now he is the most famous. -His tomb was discovered in 1922. b.Tut's dad Akhenaten (1350-1334 BC) 18th Dynasty, known as the "Heretic King", was unpopular because: he abolished polytheism, shut down temples, forced the worship of Aten (disk of sun); the art emphasized realism. None of these changes were popular with the priests. -10-12 years after his death everything changed back: (his) temples destroyed, his tomb was desecrated,and both his name and Tut's were erased from the list of pharaohs. It is speculated that Queen Nefertiti (Akhenaten's wife... one of many...) may have been influential in this change. c.Tut's tomb small for a pharaoh, probably forgotten by later pharaohs after his name was erased... -Covered up by the sedimentation in the Valley of Kings. -The tomb had been entered prior to its discovery, but had not been looted in prehistory... -there was of course, no written curse. -It was found by Carter and Carnarvon in 1922. d.Death of Tut -Speculation of murder (fractured skull base) but recent analyses say post-mortem... ~~Carter probably fractured it when he was hastily trying to remove Tut's jewelry...* ~~Images of Tut show him walking with a cane he had a clubfoot, scoliosis, cleft palate (all congenital diseases) and an infected broken leg... ~~he probably died due to an overall poor state of health. ~~In 2011, DNA tests on Tut Recent studies show Tut was the son of Akhenaten and Akhenaten's sister... so, sister-wives(keep genealogy "pure", and economic resources stay in the family)... ~~~~Tut was highly inbred, plus, he had multiple strains of malaria... ~~~~The current theory about Tut's death is: poor genetics weakened immune system, club foot tripped, broke leg, got infected and eventually died. e.Tut Married his half-sister, daughter of Nefertiti, named Ankhesenamun, who was his only wife. -She bore him 2 kids: both stillborn, mummified and entombed with Tut. -After his death, Egypt went to war with the Hittites, and lost a bit of the empire. ~~The new Pharaoh, Horemheb, erased Tut's Family from history... ~~The irony: The erasure of Tut from history probably saved his tomb from looters, and upon its discovery he became the most famous of all mummies.
Arbon Bleiche
a.Village on Lake Constance → where the "Neolithic" society was preserved by peat moss deposit. -~ 27 houses ; around 100 - 400 people -Raised pigs, sheep and cattle -Pottery, mostly stone tools, and traces of copper b. This was most likely the type of society Otzi lived in → Neolithic sedentary society -Agro-pastoral, supplemented by hunting and gathering
Neolithic
a.When humans started developing technology (10, 200 to 4500 - 2000 BC)
Western culture: handling of dead
a.death and funerals are highly sanitized, usually don't see or handle the dead and have specialized morticians; funerary practices became a business in our culture
Ethics: Stakeholders
a.researchers, science community, descendants (direct, or distant), future generations -Religion and Culture ~~Whose? Ours? The deceased? Descendant community? ~~~~Example: *****In ancient Egypt, it was of the foremost importance to be remembered after death and to not die a second time ~~~~Research could serve that purpose ~~What about the peace of the deceased? *****It was important to some ancient cultures and still is in some cultures today (just think about "proper behavior of the living" when visiting a cemetery). ~~In some modern religions the soul resurrects, in others the soul reconnects to body.
Salt & human biology
a.salts are essential for humans, and we have evolved to like salty foods. Its an essential component for blood/sweat/tears, aids in digestion (chlorine for hydrochloric acid), aids in the nervous system (helps transmit electrical signals) and aids in waste removal (sodium binds with urine). -the minimum requirement for humans is 1500 mg; most Americans get 7 - 10x that, while our evolutionary past were poor in salt consumption