Anthropology Chapter 10

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2 Early Neolithic Sites in the Near East

Ali Kosh and Catal Huyuk

__________ _________ are one of the many early domesticates from Highland Mesoamerica

Bottle Gourds

In place of the one piece flint implement, the preAG peoples in Europe, Asia and Africa equipped themselves with

Composite tools- tools made of more than one material

A similar shift toward more broad spectrum gathering occurred in the NEW WORLD (Mesoamerica) at the end of the paleo-indian period about ___________ years ago?

10,000 years ago

There is evidence of rice cultivated in Thailand ________ BC but do not know exactly when domesticated

4000 BC

Farming became widespread in the northern half of Africa after

6000 BC

There is evidence of long distance trade in the

Neolithic Obsidian, marble, seashells

Mesolithic

The archaeological period in the OLD WORLD beginning about 12,000BC, humans were starting to settle down in semi permanent camps and villages as people began to depend less on big game. (Big game have to follow for long distance) Depend more on stationary food resources like fish, small game, wild plants

Food Production

The form of subsidence technology in which food getting is dependent on the cultivation and domestication of plants and animals

Archaeologically we do not see the beginning of _________--

food production- we can see the signs of it only after plants and animals show differences from their wild varieties

The archaeological record for the domestication of seed crops is better known than for the soft flesh crops because

the latter do not preserve well

Microband camps were also inhabited seasonally probably by a single family when groups

were not assembled into macroband camps

What are some reasons that may have stimulated people to exploit new food resources?

Decreasing availability of big game Population growth

A comparison of settlements on the Peruvian Coast suggests that more permanent settlements were located nearer, within 3.5 miles to most if not all of the

Diverse food resources exploited during the year

Differences in physical characteristics may not be the only indicators of

Domestication

It is only when the crops cultivated and the animals raised are modified- different from wild varities- that we speak of plant and animals

Domestication

Some archeologists believe that the imbalances in the sex and age ratios of animal remains at particular sites also suggest that

Domestication had occurred

BS collecting may have involved exploitation of new food sources, but that does not necessarily mean that people were

Eating better

Genetic Studies suggest the changes in only 2 corn genes occurred which are

Kernel Glumes (outer casing) and Stalk Shape

The increased utilization of stationary food sources such as wild grain may partly explain why some people in the Near East began to

Lead more sedentary lives during the epipaleolithic

People who lived in ___________________, _______________, and _______________ are often credited with the invention of planting maize, beans and squash together in the same field

Mesoamerica, Mexico and Central America

Domestication

Modification or adaptation of plants and animals for human use. It is only when the crops cultivated and the animals raised have been modified- are different from wild varieties- that we speak of plant and animal domestication

Natufians are in which region?

NEAR EAST

Gordon Childe

Archeologist Came up with the name Neolithic Revolution (named the changeover to food production)

In the highlands of MESOAMERICA we see a shift from big game hunting to broader use of resources in part due to a change in

Climate

Mesoamerica were not forced into domestication by

Climate change or population pressure but actively turned to domestication to obtain more of the most desired or useful plant species

An economic transformation occurred in widely separate areas of the world beginning after about __________- years ago as people began to domesticate plants and animals

10,000 years ago

The oldest maize cobs dating to about ______ years ago, are tiny and only about an inch long

7,000

About __________ years ago, the archaic peoples in MESOAMERICA appear to have moved seasonally between communities of two different sizes. Microbands (2-5 residents) and macrobands (15 to 30 residents)

8,000

Dakhleth Oasis in Western Desert of Egypt- between ____________ and ________ years ago, the inhabitants lived in circular stone huts on the shores of rivers and lakes. Fishing allowed people to remain along R and L for much of the year

9,000 and 8,500 years ago

Many of the early domesticates in Mesoamerica were not

Basic to subsistence, even if they were highly desirable

First plants to be domesticated in the Near east

Cereal grain Crops

When people plant crops, we refer to this process as

Cultivation

WE know that several varieties of domesticated wheat were being grown in the ________________ after about 8,000 BC as were oats, rye, lentils, peas, fruits, nuts

Fertile Crescent

Most archaeologists believe that the __________ was one of the earliest centers of plant and animal domestication

Fertile Crescent (arc of land stretching up from Israel and west jordan valley through southern Turkey, downward to western slopes of the Zagros Mountains in Iran

New world independent centers of cultivation and domestication are

Highlands of Mesoamerica, Central Andes, Peru 7,000 BC Eastern woodlands of north America 2,000BC or 4,000 years ago, possibly earlier

Examples of Natufian villages are also found at the

Eynan site in Israel

Tools of the Natufians suggest that they

Harvested wild grain intensively

In ___________ the seminomadic Archaic hunting and gathering lifestyle persisted long after people first domesticated plants

MESOAMERICA

Many of the plants grown in North America such as corn, beans, squash were apparently introduced from

MESOAMERICA

Urban societies seem to have developed first in the _____ _________ and somewhat later around the Eastern Mediterranean in the Indus Valley of Northwestern India, in Northern China, and in Mexico and Peru

Near East

At the front of Natufian rock shelters, they hollowed out basin shaped depressions in the rock, possibly for

Storage pits

The Natufians are the earliest Epipaleolithic people known to have...

Stored surplus crops

Eynan in Israel

Stratified site containing the remains of three villages in sequence, one atop another 50 circular pit houses- retained heat longer because half underground cemeteries Stone paved walks, stone pavements, permanent hearths

Nancy Howell and Richard Lee

Suggested that the presence of baby foods other than mothers milk may be responsible for the decreased birth spacing in sedentary agricultural !Kung groups

Agriculture

The practice of raising domesticated crops All types of domestic plant cultivation

Groundnuts (peanuts) and yams were first domesticated in

West Africa

The community that did not have year round settlement seems to have depended on more

Widely distributed resources

____________- ____________ ___________ may have been a place of domestication as early as the Near East was

Mainland Southeast Asia Spirit Cave (Thailand) 9500 BC to 5500 BC

There is _____ evidence of social differences among the archaic people of highland MESOAMERICA

NO evidence

First domesticated animals in Africa

One form of cattle, donkey and Guinea fowl

Microliths

Small blades half an inch to two inches long, made in late upper paleolithic times, now used in quantity Fitted into grooves in bone, wood, form arrows, harpoons, daggers, sickles Made from variety of available stone Did not need the large nodules to make large core and flake tools, could work with smaller nodules to make smaller blades

About ________BC cities first appeared in the Near East

3500BC Political assemblies, kings, scribes and specialized workshops People settling down has also become civilized and urbanized

Maize and beans together provide all the essential _______- ________ that humans need to obtain from their food

Amino Acids

The settling down period of a nomadic group may reduce the typical spacing between

Births

Old world independent centers of domestication are

China, Southeast Asia and Africa around 6000BC or 8,000 years ago

The near east and Mesoamerica are the areas we know best archaeologically for the developments leading to

Food production and settled life

It is not simply the switch to broad spectrum collecting that accounts for

Increasing sedentarism in many areas

Animals were first domesticated in

Near East

Macroband camps were located near

Seasonally abundant resources, such as acorns or mesquite pods

Outside of Mesoamerica, evidence of independent domestication of plants comes from at least two areas in the NEW WORLD:

South America and Eastern United States

Rachis

The seed-bearing part of a plant. In the wild variety of grain, the rachis shatters easily, releasing the seeds. Domesticated grains have a tough rachis, which does not shatter easily.

The shift called the Neolithic Revolution occurred probably independently in other areas of the OLD and NEW WORLDS within the next few ___________ years

Thousand Years

It appears that health declined at least sometimes with the transition

To food production

Technologically, these preAG cultures did not differ radically from

Upper Paleolithic cultures Trend to smaller and lighter tools continued

Obsidian

Volcanic glass that can be used to make mirrors or sharp edged tools

Neolithic now means

We now know that pottery and Ground stone tools were both present in earlier times so.... Now in terms of the presence of domesticated plants and animals people began to produce food rather than merely collect it

Southeast Asia other domesticated plants

Yams, breadfruit, coconuts

Epipaleolithic

Time period during which food production first developed in the NEAR EAST

Archaic

Time period in the NEW WORLD during which food production first developed

In AFRICA, the preagricultural period was also marked by a

Warmer, wetter environment

The Natufians, a people living in the area that is now Israel and Jordan, inhavited caved and rock shelters and built villages on the slopes of Mount Carmel in Israel how many years ago? They are in the NEAR EAST

11,000 years ago!

Dogs were first domesticated before the rise of agriculture around

13,000 BC

The earliest domesticated form of maize (corn) dating from about _______ BC has been found in Tehuacan Mexico Maize was Domesticated from TEOSINTE

5000 BC

We see the first clear evidence of a changeover to food production- (cultivation and domestication of plants and animals) in the NEAR EAST about ____________BC or _______ years ago!

8,000 BC or 10,000 years ago!

A decline in stature often indicates

A poorer diet

Most of the worlds major food plants and animals were domesticated well before __________ BC or ___________years

2,000 BC or 4,000 years ago

The genes for modern corn were already established ________ to __________ years ago

4,000 to 6,000 years ago

Ali Kosh, after ________ BC we see the appearance of two innovations- irrigation and use of domesticated cattle- that seem to have stimulated a minor population explosion during the following millennium

5,500 BC

We can visualize the earliest preagricultural settlements clustered around such naturally rich regions as

Archeological evidence indeed suggests they were

After about ________BC the area around Ali Kosh began to show signs of a much larger population, made possible by more complex AG employing irrigation and plows drawn by domesticated cattle. By 4500 BC the population tripled, part of cultural developments the culminated in the rise of urban civilizations in the Near East

5500 BC

From _______ to __________BC the Ali Kosh increased their consumption of cultivated food plants, 40% of the seed remains in hearths and refuse areas were now from emmer wheat and barley. Proportion of diet coming from wild plants was much reduced, Cult plants have same growing season and grow in same soil as wild plants. Grazing of sheep and goats also reduced wild plants

6750 to 6000 BC

Goats, Sheep, cattle and pigs were domesticated around

7,000 BC and perhaps earlier

From ____________ to ___________ BC the people at Ali Kosh cut little slabs of raw clay out of the ground to build small multiroom structures, no evidence they were for sure houses people spent time in, may have been storage rooms. Bit of evidence suggesting the people may have moved for the summer to the grassier mountain valleys nearby

7500 to 6750 BC

In north America, _________ and _________ were the main domesticated animals before the arrival of the Spanish

Dogs and Turkeys

The preagricultural developments in SOUTHEAST ASIA probably were responses to changes in the

Environment, climate, warming trends, more moisture and higher sea level SA may have been one of the important centers of domestication

Cultural period in which the switch to relatively stationary food resources is called

Epipaleolithic- NEAR EAST Mesolithic- EUROPE

During the PreAG period, height declined as much as two inches in parts of the

OLD WORLD Decreasing nutrition Natural selection against tall

Europe, Near East, Africa, Peru- settlements became more

Permanent

In mesoamerica, people sowed a variety of plants, but after doing so they went on with their

Seasonal rounds of hunting and gathering and came back later to harvest what they had sown

What are some reasons for the spacing of children far apart

if Effective contraceptives are not available (prolonged sexual abstinence/taboo) Abortion or infanticide Problem of carrying small children (Sedentary populations could have children spaced closer because carrying children would not always be necessary)

How did domesticated plants get to be different from the wild varieties?

Artificial or human selection, deliberate or accidental

Remains of microband camps are often found in

Caves or rock shelters from which a variety of environments could be exploited by moving either upslope or downslope from the campsite

Ali Kosh Food

Cultivated ember wheat Barley Domesticated Goats No bones of elderly goats were found in the site suggesting that the goats were domesticated and headed rather than hunted Seed and bone fragments- depended mostly on wild plants and wild animals Fish, carp, catfish, shellfish, muscles, waterfowl

Ali Kosh tools

Flint tools varied and abundant Thousands of tiny blades Very small amount of Obsidian- volcanic glass Showed they had contact with people elsewhere Also suggested by the fact that emmer wheat they cultivated did not have a wild relative in the area

Domestic animals were less important economically in the _______ _______ than they were in many parts of the OLD WORLD

NEW WORLD

At the site of Ali Kosh (now southwestern Iran) we see the remains of a community that started out about __________ BC living mostly on wild plants and animals. Over the next 2,000 years, until about 5500 BC agriculture and herding became increasingly important

7500 BC

Other areas of the world show a similar switch to what is called broad spectrum food collecting, but do not always show an increasingly settled lifestyle, in MESOAMERICA this period is called

Archaic

Because Bird and Mammal extinctions occurred simultaneously, it is likely that most or nearly all extinctions were due to

Climactic and environmental changes

Semiarid highlands of Mesoamerica the switch to broad spectrum collecting was not associated with

Increasing sedentarism Even after they began to cultivate plants they still did not live in permanent villages

Population growth may have occurred in and around Ali Kosh but did not continue in all areas of the ________ ________ after domestication. Ain Ghazal, decline in population and standard of living over time the environment could not permanently support large village

Near East

Early cultivation in Mainland Southeast Asia seems to have occurred in the

Plains and low terraces around rivers, main subsidence foods of early cultivators was probably fish and shellfish

Sedentism

Settled Life How and why people in different places may have come to cultivate and domesticate plants and animals and to live in permanent villages

Neolithic Revolution

The switch from nomadic lifestyles to a settled agricultural lifestyle

Spindle and Loom developed in

Neolithic Society Spinning and weaving that made textiles possible

First domesticated in New Guinea

Bananas and Taro 7,000 years ago

It seems clear from the evidence now available that the climate of the Near East about ________ years to __________ years ago became more seasonal

13,000 to 12,000 years

Beginning about ___________ years ago, people in some regions began to depend less on big game hunting and more on relatively stationary food resources like fish, shellfish and small game, wild plants

14,000

Natufian foraging

Based on a more intensive use of stationary resources such as wild grain, but archaeological evidence suggests increasing social complexity

The earliest clear evidence of cereal cultivation outside the Near East is from

China Foxtail Millet cultivated (Late 6th millennium BC)

Maize takes __________ from the soil but beans like all legumes put _____ back into the soil

Nitrogen

Neolithic means

Of the new stone age Signified the cultural stage in which humans invented pottery and ground stone tools

Techniques developed during the Neolithic revolution

Plowing, fertilizing, fallowing and irrigation

The overkill hypothesis

Questioned on the basis of bird as well as mammal extinctions in NEW WORLD Decline of big game/herding animals Evidence- extinction in the NEW WORLD of many large Pleistocene animals, mammoth coincided with the movement of humans from the Bearing Strait region of the Americas

Guila Naquitz

Cave, excavated in 1960s by Kent Flannery, provides a good picture of domestication in Highland Mesoamerica Small groups lived intermittently over a period of 2000 years (8900 BC- 6700 BC) the period during which plants were domesticated Thorn forest of the upper piedmont above the floor of the Valley of Oaxaca Remains of domesticated plants found in cave

The __________ ___________ was the only part of the NEW WORLD where animals were a significant part of the economy

Central Andes Used for meat, transportation, wool (Llamas and alpacas) domesticated as early as 5000 BC in the Andes Guinea Pigs domesticated later

Robert Braidwood

Criticized Childe's theory Believed climate changes may not have been as dramatic as childe assumed and therefore the oasis incentive may not have existed Climactic changes that occurred in the Near East after the retreat of the last glaciers had probably occurred at earlier interglacial periods too but there had never been a similar food producing revolution before There must be more to the explanation of why people began to produce food than simply changes in climate

The first plants to be domesticated in the new world were members of the

Cucurbit family, including bottle gourd, and variety of squashes all domesticated some time after 7500 BC

This vertical zonation means that a wide range of plants and animals were available in relatively close proximity-

Different environments were close by and the Archaic peoples took advantage of these varied conditions to hunt and collect a broad range of resources

Climate change was at least partly responsible for the

Exploitation of new sources of food, Decline in the availability of big game, large herd animals

The faunal remains in inland sites (Southeast Asia) there indicate that many different sources of food were being

Exploited from the same base camps

An enormous number of bird species also became

Extinct during the last few thousand years of the North American Pleistocene, and difficult to argue human hunters caused all those extinctions

Investigators suspect that a critical minimum of

Fat in the body man be necessary for ovulation Sedentary woman more fat than nomadic and may begin ovulating sooner May explain why long distance runners do not ovulate regular

Theories of why food production developed

Most have tried to explain the origin of domestication in the area of the Fertile Crescent Gordon Childe's theory popular in the 1950s was that a drastic change in climate caused domestication in the NEAR EAST According to him, post glacial period was marked by a decline in summer rainfall in the Near East and northern Africa- people forced to retreat into shrinking pockets, oases of food resources surrounded by desert. Lessened availability of wild resources provided an incentive for people to cultivate grains and to domesticate animals

Catal Huyuk

Mountainous regions of Southern Turkey, mud brick town Huyuk is Turkish word for a mound formed by a succession of settlements, one built on top of another About 5600 BC adobe town- 200 houses excavated, interconnected in pueblo fashion. Walls decorated with murals, shrines(Shrine rooms too) with bulls and cattle Murals- religious scenes and everyday events, layers and layers of them repainted over

Did agriculture and a sedentary life develop together?

No not necessarily Some areas settled first then plant Some areas plant then settled

The spread of domesticated plants seems to have been more rapid in the _______ _________ than in the New World perhaps because the old world spread was more along an east west axis where as NW spread was more north south Spreading north and south in NW may have required more time to adapt to variation in day lengths, climates, and diseases

OLD WORLD

Natufian sites

On average 5x bigger than predecessors Communities occupied most of year More social differences between people Wild cereal enabled them to live in perm villages but Diets suffered Tooth enamel shows nutrient deficiency- stature declined over time The remains of many wild animals are found in these sites- concentrated on hunting gazelle

The line between food collecting and food producing occurs when people begin to

Plant crops and to keep and breed animals

Intensive Agriculture probably developed in response to

Population Pressure but we do not know for sure that PP was even partly responsible for plant and animal domestication in the first place

People may have turned to a broader spectrum of resources for another reason....

Population growth! Mark Cohen- hunter gathers were filling up the world, and may have had to seek new and possibly less desirable sources of food

Domestication in Guila Naquitz

Rather informal Supplement to diet already rich in animal and plant species Accomplished by hunters and gatherers who supplemented their basic diet with some desired plants (squashes) There was NO revolution that enabled the people to rely on domesticated plants

In Mesoamerica, Valleys had __________ grassland veg Foothills and mountains had ____________ forests of cactuses

Scrubby and thorn

Ali Kosh participated in extensive trading network. They got

Seashells, Copper, obsidian, turquoise, Ornaments made and worn by both sexes- from remains of bodies

Plants independently domesticated in North America

Sunflower, sumpweed, goosefoot May have been cultivated in the Area of Kentucky, Tennessee and southern Illinois around 2000 BC (corn was introduced about 200 AD)

Farming at Catal Huyuk

Well advanced Lentils, wheat, barley, peas grown in quantity that produced surplus Lots of handicrafts! Carved wooden boxes/bowls, obsidian and flint daggers, spearheads, scrapers, spatulas, spoons, knives Belt hooks, pins, mean and women wore bone, shell and copper jewelry and used obsidian mirrors Depended on exchange with other areas because of area with few raw materials

For the archaic people of the highlands of MESOAMERICA, was altitude and important factor in hunting and collecting?

YES! different altitudes have different plants and animal resources

In other areas of the world, such as Austrailia and what is now the midwestern US, Skeletal evidence suggests

a decline in the general level of health with the rise of broad spectrum collecting


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