Anthropology midterm

Why do horticulturalists typically plant a variety of crops? What is meant by the "quality of the burn" and why is it so important in horticulture?

They plant a variety of crops to mimic the natural ecosystem. The quality of the burn is important because during the burn nitrogen is deposited back into the soil and this helps with the natural regrowth of the land. This is important to horticulture because if the land is not producing any substance for them to survive on then they will have to either clear more land or move to a different location

How did the ancient hunter/gatherers of New England adjust their settlements and subsistence activities to the regions sternly season habit?

They would move if needed. They would plant in the spring, grow all summer, harvest in the fall.

Paul's article: Band

This is the smallest and least complex of political organization. Consists of only a few families and no formal leadership positions

Ecosystem

A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.

Descent group

A kinship group in which primary relationships are traced through consanguine ("blood") relatives.

Brachiation

A method of movement that uses the arms to swing from branch to branch

Polyandry

A relationship between one women and two or more men

Culture

A set of learned behaviors, ways of thinking, values, beliefs, languages, customs, technology, stories, NOT BIOLOGICAL OR GENETIC, shared by a group- this is critical to the definition. DONNA'S DEFINITION= the extrasomatic means of adaptation passed on primarily by symbolic learning

Political structures: States political organization

A stratified society in which elites control the strategic resources including water (in irrigation agriculture), land (in agricultural societies), and oil (in industrial societies). The exact opposite of egalitarian societies. Stratification refers to a social structure that involves two or more mutually exclusive populations. Some degree or social mobility (up or down) characterizes most societies, but not as much as most people think. In States, political power is centralized in a government that exercises a monopoly over the legitimate use of force. Large populations...hundreds of thousands to millions. Complex economies driven by command or the market, social stratification, and an intensive agricultural or industrial base. Like tribes or chiefdoms, occupy a clearly defined territory with boundaries that separate it from other political entities. Some type of head-of-state such as a monarch, dictator, emperor, or president. Enormous bureaucracy. Some form of taxation (for redistribution). State ideologies reinforce the right of powerholders to rule. Ideologies can be used as subtle propaganda . Coercive power...the threat of use of force or the actual use of force (internal and/or external control). State and nation are not synonymous; state is a coercive political institution, a nation is an ethnic population. Law at the level of the State is a formal process (codified laws). Punishment is usually through adjudication although mediation may sometimes be used. War has consistently been integral to State formation. As elites accumulate more resources, warfare became a means of increasing surpluses. With the advent of industrial societies, technology driven by fossil fuels allowed states to invade distant countries. What about stability or instability? increasing wealth gap, trade deficit, war, escalating social problems...do these suggest instability and decline?

What challenges do farmers face in tropical rainforests?

To much rain or a drought can affect planting and harvesting.

What is anthropology? What does it teach? What are its goals?

ANTHROPOLOGY= from text "the study of the full scope of human diversity and the application of that knowledge to help people of different backgrounds understand one another. GOALS= to study, describe, understand and explain human variation and to promote human rights..... all of which needs to be applied in order to promote human rights. Despite human variation, all people share a common humanity.

What opportunities does the artic tundra hold for hunter/gatherers?

Able to store food in the ground to keep it froze/preserved.

What does the definition of farming imply about work, settlement, environmental health, and stability?

Agriculture. Settlement has to be permanent. Work is hard. Environmental health- artificial ways of fertilizing fields is toxic. Stability= less stable HORTICULTURE IS MORE STABLE!

State

An autonomous regional structure of political, economic, and military rule with a central government authorized to make laws and use force to maintain order and defend its territory assed on

What is the basic unit of ecology?

An ecosystem. It is the natural association of plants, animals and inorganic matter that interacts. There is artificial ecosystems, ex= man made like zoo.

Niche

An organism's particular role in an ecosystem, or how it makes its living. Basically its job.

what is meant by anthropology as a four-field discipline?

Anthropologists use the four-field discipline to gain a comprehensive view of human cultures. Archeology= the investigation of the human past by means of excavating and analyzing artifacts. Linguistic anthropology= the study of human language in the past and the present. Biological (physical) anthropology= the study of humans forms a biological perspective, particularly how they have evolved over time and adapted to their environments. Cultural anthropology= the study of peoples communities, behaviors, beliefs and institutions, including how people make meaning as they live, work and play together.

Lineage

Type of descent group that traces genealogical connection through generations by linking persons to a founding ancestor

Cultural relativism

Understanding of a groups beliefs and practices within their own cultural context, without making judgements or cultural.

Why is the study of human ecology so complex?

Biological adaptation= through evolution by natural selection. Many offspring. High offspring mortality in animals and plants. Offspring exhibit variation within the same species. Those whose variations are passed on make them better adapted to the environment= reproductive success. Future generations have more of the adaptive characteristics.

How is cultural evolution different from biological evolution?

Both similar in that they both have evolved and that about it. CULTURAL EVOLUTION= social change BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION= genetic change

What are the two types of descent groups that anthropologists distinguish?

Clans- connect to a founding ancestor but without genealogical documentation. Lineages- demonstrate genealogical connections through many generations; tracing a family tree to a founding ancestor (called an apical ancestor)

Why is it difficult to draw analogies and make comparisons between past and present human ecological relationships or between two examples from the same time?

Complex because environments are always changing. Ex= Yukpa and Enga, these are 2 different geographical areas so relationships with the land will be different.

The three sisters

Corn, beans, squash. Plant corn, then plant beans around that then the squash after that, the leaves on squash are prickly, causing racoons to avoid scavenging the corn once ripe because they don't like them in their paws.

What is the fundamental ecological problem of farming?

Land being depleted.

Paul's Article: chiefdom

Larger population still. Hereditary chief with a formal position of power.

Political structures: tribal level political organization

Larger population than Bands (100s-thousands). At least 2 distinct groups (bands) linked in some way. Again, no centralized political organization, no hereditary leadership. Leadership is based on abilities and personal qualities and is situational. Like Bands, egalitarian. Some personal property but not to the extent that others are deprived. Leadership has no coercive power, no army or police force. Kinship, gender, or age groupings help form social cohesiveness. No system codified law or law enforcement. Conflict resolution through negotiation, apologies, mediation. Warfare likely consists of raids of livestock, women, wealth and usually of short duration. Feuds are generally of longer duration and exist between kinship groups

Paul's article: Tribe

Larger populations but still organized around kinship. Leadership is fluid and temporary

Paul's article- state

Largest population and the most complex form of political power. Central government. Government holds a monopoly over use of physical force. Sizeable bureaucracy. System of formal laws. Standing military force

What problems do livestock herders face in tropical rainforests?

Must worry about drought .

Describe the niche of hunter gatherers and include settlement patterns, population density, technology, personal property, social hierarchy, and surplus production.

NICHE= hunter/gatherer SETTLEMENT PATTERN= would move if needed for farming or weather, but typically always keep their original home. POPULATION DENSITY= 10 to 100 TECHNOLOGY= stone tools, equipment for weaving baskets, animal skins for clothing. PERSONAL PROPERTY= not a lot, had to have the carrying capacity for things, so they only owned what they could carry. SOCIAL HIERARCHY= fluid, no hierarchy SURPLUS PRODUCTION= no surplus

Niche and Habitat of Hunter/gatherers of ancient New England

Niche= New England Habitat= hunter/gatherer

Niche and Habitat of Mayans

Niche= agriculturist Habitat= Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula and adjacent areas of Central America

Niche and Habitat of Yukpa

Niche= horticulturalist Habitat= Columbia and Venezuela

Niche and Habitat of Enga

Niche= horticulturalist Habitat= Papaya New Guinea

Niche and Habitat of San (!Kung)

Niche= hunter/gatherer Habitat= Kalahari desert in southern Africa

Niche and Habitat of Paleolithic Ukranians

Niche= hunter/gatherer Habitat= Russian plains these are the mammoth bone dwelling

Political structure: chiefdom level political organization.

Not egalitarian but ranked society. Greater differentiation between individuals and the kinship groups to which they belong. These differences are often inherited but there are no significant restrictions on access to basic resources. The most significant differences consist of persons of higher rank (social status) wearing distinctive clothing, jewelry, or decorations denied those of lower rank. Each family group is ranked in a hierarchy of prestige and power. Within families, siblings are ranked by birth order and villages may also be ranked. The position of chief is actually an office...a permanent political status that demands a successor when the current chief dies. There must be a successor and there are rules of succession. There may be a ranking of clans within a Chiefdom. Because chiefdoms cannot enforce their power by controlling resources or having a monopoly on use of force, they rely on other mechanisms that cut across kinship lines......as in in tribal societies, marriage may provide a framework for social cohesion. Marriages tend to reinforce the system of ranking due to the fact that chiefdoms have more elaborate hierarchies than do tribes

To what Niche were the first stones tools suited?

Paleolithic Hunter/gatherers also = Foraging

In what important ways does permanent field agriculture differ from horticulture?

Permanent field agriculture- once the soil is depleted, we dump a bunch of chemicals on the land to try and produce crops. Agriculture is less sustainable. Horticulture- once the land is depleted, we slash/burn/swidden to put nitrogen back into soil to help it regenerate.

Habitat

Place where an organism lives

Scavenging

Searching/collecting of goods

What are two solutions to the ecological problem in farming?

Solutions/2 ecological niches= Abandon the artificial ecosystem and start a new one. HORTICULTURE= also known as shifting cultivaiton, slash and burn, swidden. Intensify and innovate- work harder and invent or adopt new techniques. AGRICULTURE= also known as permanent cultivation.

Pastoralism

Strategy for food production by domestication of animals

What is the significance of human culture for human ecology?

Culture= a set of learned behaviors. Ways of thinking, values, beliefs, languages, customs, technology and stories. NOT BIOLOGICAL OR GENETIC. Culture is primarily a means of adaptation to our environment. (natural and social) A change in one part of culture may affect other parts.

Authority

The ability to induce behavior of others by persuasion

Ethnocentrism

The belief that ones own culture or way of life is normal and natural; using ones own culture to evaluate and judge the practices and ideals of others.

Reciprocity

The exchange of resources, goods, and services among people of relatively equal status; meant to create and reinforce social ties. Is the process of exchange of goods or services (from note sheet). Reciprocity can be measures in positive, balance, and negative.

Nuclear Family

The kinship unit of mother, father and children

Fallow

Deplete field cultivation stops to allow natural regeneration

What are the sociopolitical categories?

EGALITARIAN= Band societies. Very little difference in status or power between individuals. There are as many valued status positions as there are persons to fill them. RANKED= Chiefdom societies. Substantial differences in wealth and social status based on how closely related one is to the chief (kinship. Limited number of positions of power or status and only a few persons can occupy them. STRATIFIED= State societies. Enormous differences in wealth, status, and power based on unequal access to resources and positions of power. Socio-economic classes are forms of stratification in many state societies

Human ecological relationships are always changing. Why?

Ecological relationships= a set of relationships existing between organisms and their environments. Relationships are always changing between these two because the environment is always changing. Ex= Global warming, the world is changing so we adapt/change too.

Why is fallow important? What are the possible consequences of reducing fallow periods for horticultures?

Fallow is important because when net productivity decreases, the cultivated fields are left to regenerate naturally. Fallow lands can provide important resources including- attracting animals, provide other food, provide fiber, provide medicine plants, corns, beans, squash- the 3 sisters. Some possible consequences of reducing the fallow period is the land not being able to regenerate naturally.

What is the three part definition of farming?

Farming is risky. Farming is hard work. Little or no leisure time while investing in an artificial ecosystem. FARMING= the creation and maintenance through human labor, knowledge and materials of an artificial ecosystem that yields high densities of food and/or animals.

Political structures of egalitarian societies.

Forager (hunter/gatherer) societies such as the !Kung, Inuit, Aboriginal Australians. Little difference in wealth, status, or power. No government or centralized leadership. Leaders ("headmen" or "big men") emerge by group consensus. Foraging societies are always egalitarian, but some societies that practice horticulture (NOT agriculture) or pastoralism are also egalitarian. As political organizations, egalitarian societies can be either bands or tribes

In what ways do horticulture and agriculture differ?

HORTICULTURE= NOT permanent cultivation, its a shift in cultivation. Its practiced throughout the world, wide variety of crops, today mostly root crops. MORE sustainable the agriculture. Depleted fields cultivation stops to allow natural regeneration (fallow), new fields cleared. Variety of crops is extensive (requires more land per person, limits population density and carrying capacity) AGRICULTURE= depleted field cultivation continues. Artificially regenerated, intensifying (work harder). innovate (develop new techniques). Often fewer crop diversity. Intensive (requires less land, but more labor per person). LESS sustainable, innovation or collapse.

Why is horticulture well-suited to tropical forests? Is this the only area for which is suited?

Horticulture is well suited to tropical forests. Horticulture is particularly well suited to humid, tropical conditions in such environments, temperature and rainfall are usually high, there is no cold season, and plants usually grow vigorously year round. Horticulture is well suited for low density areas as well.

Political structures: band level political organizations.

Hunter/gatherers (foragers). Low population. Small family groups. Shifting populations (fission and fusion). Usually nomadic or semi-nomadic. No formal leadership. Modesty is valued, arrogance and competitiveness unacceptable. Dispute mediation varies

What are the three types of learning?

INDIVIDUAL= building knowledge through individual reflection about eternal stimuli and sources and through the personal re-elaboration of individual knowledge and experience in light of interaction with others and the environment. SOCIAL= learn through observation, including direct instruction, modeling and imitation. SYMBOLIC= a symbol is a mark, sign or word that indicates, signifies or is understood as representing an idea, object or relationship

What are some possible advantages of bipedal locomotion in Savanna habitat?

Increased probability of better food diet. In long grasslands of Savanna apes are able to see above the tall grass to see predators, improving survival rates. Freed their arms up for other purposes.

Carrying capacity

The number of people who can be supported by the resources of the surrounding area of land

What is ecology?

The study of interactions between organisms and their environment

Ecology

The study of the rleaitonship between organisms and their environment

Stratified society

The uneven distribution of resources and privelges.

Applied anthropology

The use of anthropological data from the other fields to address modern problems and concerns; environmental, technological, economic, social, political or cultural. Some consider this to be a fifth field of anthropology

How do people practice permanent field agriculture cope with the inherent problem of environmental degradation?

They develop new techniques. They need to innovate or collapse. They are intensive- requires less land but more labor per person.

Give an example of a horticultural system including habitat, major crops, fertile-fallow periods, seasonality, problems or special features. We examined three in lectures/readings (Yukpa, Enga, New England Natives).

YUKPA= habitat is Columbia and Venezuela. Pratice shifitng cultivation. Major crops= manioc, taro, bananas. Farming schedule- clearing and burning schedule was December to April this was the dry season, vegetation and trees area allowed to dry for about 4 weeks, entire process is associated with rituals. Good burn is crucial. Planting during rainy season- maize- 2 to 3 planting/season, yams, beans, potatoes. Fallow varies place to place for yukpa after a five-year planting cycle is 30 to 35 years fallow period. ENGA= habitat is Papua New Guinea. Major crop is sweet potato. live/plant 5 to 9,000 feet above sea level in the highland, have periodic unpredictable frosts, rare sometimes happens about once a generation. Plant in large mounds of mulch which helps protect from frost by lifting the plants higher above the ground, decomposing mulch produces heat. NEW ENGLAND NATIVES= habitat is New England. Major crops were the three sisters (corn, beans, squash), also grew tobacco. Had dispersed dwellings surrounded by cultivated fields. Were horticulturalists. FIsh was used as fertilzer.

What are some potential consequences to farming?

You need a permanent settlement. Environmental degradation= non-renewable resources are depleted. There is no long term stability in artificial ecosystems. Diet and health may deteriorate due to food specialization. Potential for social inequality, typically regarding property accumulation being unequal. War. Craft specialization, innovation, and trade.

Egalitarian society

a group based on the sharing of resources to ensure success with a relative absence of hierarchy and violence

Ranked society

a group in which wealth is not stratified but prestige and status are

Affinal relationship

a kinship relationship established through marriage and/or alliance, not through biology or common descent

Band

a small kinship-based group of foragers who hunt and gather for a living over a particular territory.

Marriage

a socially recognized relationship that may involve physical and emotional intimacy as well as legal rights to property and inheritance

Clan

a type of descent group based on a claim to a founding ancestor but lacking genealogical documentation

Environment

all objects or conditions external to an organism with which it interacts, or by which is affected. Living things and objects, including bacteria. Physical thing such as temp, fire, water, seasons, radiation ystem.

Chiefdom

an autonomous political unit composed of a number of villages or communities under the permanent control of a paramount chief.

Capitalism

an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state.

Seed crop

crop that is reproduced by cultivating the seeds of the plants

Root crops

crops that are reproduced by cultivating either the roots or cuttings from the plants. Ex= maize, squash, taro.

Horticulture

cultivation of plants through non-intensive use of land and labor agment

Potlatch

elaborate redistribution ceremony practiced among the Kwakiutl of the Pacific Northwest

Anthropology

from the textbook- "the study of the full scope of human diversity and the application of that knowledge to help people of different backgrounds better understand one another"

Agriculture

intensive farming involving permanently cultivated land

Farming

is the creation of maintenance through human labor, knowledge and materials of an artificial ecosystem that yields high densities of food plants and/or animals. It is risky, its hard work and little to no leisure time while investing in an artificial ecosystem.

Polygyny

marriage between one man and two or more women

Companionate marriage

marriage built on love, intimacy, and personal choice rather than social obligation

Arranged marriage

marriage orchestrated by the families of the involved parties

Negative reciprocity

one side receives something in and exchange of less value than that which they have given. Often involves cheating, bargaining, manipulation, or force. No social or kinship relationship between the 2 people egative.

Tribe

originally viewed as a culturally distinct, multiband population that imagined itself as one people descended from a common ancestor; currently used to describe an indigenous group with its own set of loyalties and leaders living to some extent outside the control of a centralized authoritative state.

Foragers

subsisting by hunting, fishing, gathering

Power

the ability to induce behavior or others in specified ways by means of coercion or use or threat of physical force

Bipedalism

the ability to walk upright on two legs

Kinship

the system of meaning and power that cultures create to determine who is related to whom

Positive reciprocity

this occurs when a resource is built up; in other words, you expect to receive something but at a later time, not immediately

Balanced reciprocity

this occurs when the value of the exchange is equal. Immediate return. Trade and barter.

Shifting cultivation, slash and burn

to cut and burn trees, the burning tree puts CO2 back into the soil