Anthropology midterm
Why do horticulturalists typically plant a variety of crops? What is meant by the "quality of the burn" and why is it so important in horticulture?
They plant a variety of crops to mimic the natural ecosystem. The quality of the burn is important because during the burn nitrogen is deposited back into the soil and this helps with the natural regrowth of the land. This is important to horticulture because if the land is not producing any substance for them to survive on then they will have to either clear more land or move to a different location
How did the ancient hunter/gatherers of New England adjust their settlements and subsistence activities to the regions sternly season habit?
They would move if needed. They would plant in the spring, grow all summer, harvest in the fall.
Paul's article: Band
This is the smallest and least complex of political organization. Consists of only a few families and no formal leadership positions
Ecosystem
A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.
Descent group
A kinship group in which primary relationships are traced through consanguine ("blood") relatives.
Brachiation
A method of movement that uses the arms to swing from branch to branch
Polyandry
A relationship between one women and two or more men
Culture
A set of learned behaviors, ways of thinking, values, beliefs, languages, customs, technology, stories, NOT BIOLOGICAL OR GENETIC, shared by a group- this is critical to the definition. DONNA'S DEFINITION= the extrasomatic means of adaptation passed on primarily by symbolic learning
Political structures: States political organization
A stratified society in which elites control the strategic resources including water (in irrigation agriculture), land (in agricultural societies), and oil (in industrial societies). The exact opposite of egalitarian societies. Stratification refers to a social structure that involves two or more mutually exclusive populations. Some degree or social mobility (up or down) characterizes most societies, but not as much as most people think. In States, political power is centralized in a government that exercises a monopoly over the legitimate use of force. Large populations...hundreds of thousands to millions. Complex economies driven by command or the market, social stratification, and an intensive agricultural or industrial base. Like tribes or chiefdoms, occupy a clearly defined territory with boundaries that separate it from other political entities. Some type of head-of-state such as a monarch, dictator, emperor, or president. Enormous bureaucracy. Some form of taxation (for redistribution). State ideologies reinforce the right of powerholders to rule. Ideologies can be used as subtle propaganda . Coercive power...the threat of use of force or the actual use of force (internal and/or external control). State and nation are not synonymous; state is a coercive political institution, a nation is an ethnic population. Law at the level of the State is a formal process (codified laws). Punishment is usually through adjudication although mediation may sometimes be used. War has consistently been integral to State formation. As elites accumulate more resources, warfare became a means of increasing surpluses. With the advent of industrial societies, technology driven by fossil fuels allowed states to invade distant countries. What about stability or instability? increasing wealth gap, trade deficit, war, escalating social problems...do these suggest instability and decline?
What challenges do farmers face in tropical rainforests?
To much rain or a drought can affect planting and harvesting.
What is anthropology? What does it teach? What are its goals?
ANTHROPOLOGY= from text "the study of the full scope of human diversity and the application of that knowledge to help people of different backgrounds understand one another. GOALS= to study, describe, understand and explain human variation and to promote human rights..... all of which needs to be applied in order to promote human rights. Despite human variation, all people share a common humanity.
What opportunities does the artic tundra hold for hunter/gatherers?
Able to store food in the ground to keep it froze/preserved.
What does the definition of farming imply about work, settlement, environmental health, and stability?
Agriculture. Settlement has to be permanent. Work is hard. Environmental health- artificial ways of fertilizing fields is toxic. Stability= less stable HORTICULTURE IS MORE STABLE!
State
An autonomous regional structure of political, economic, and military rule with a central government authorized to make laws and use force to maintain order and defend its territory assed on
What is the basic unit of ecology?
An ecosystem. It is the natural association of plants, animals and inorganic matter that interacts. There is artificial ecosystems, ex= man made like zoo.
Niche
An organism's particular role in an ecosystem, or how it makes its living. Basically its job.
what is meant by anthropology as a four-field discipline?
Anthropologists use the four-field discipline to gain a comprehensive view of human cultures. Archeology= the investigation of the human past by means of excavating and analyzing artifacts. Linguistic anthropology= the study of human language in the past and the present. Biological (physical) anthropology= the study of humans forms a biological perspective, particularly how they have evolved over time and adapted to their environments. Cultural anthropology= the study of peoples communities, behaviors, beliefs and institutions, including how people make meaning as they live, work and play together.
Lineage
Type of descent group that traces genealogical connection through generations by linking persons to a founding ancestor
Cultural relativism
Understanding of a groups beliefs and practices within their own cultural context, without making judgements or cultural.
Why is the study of human ecology so complex?
Biological adaptation= through evolution by natural selection. Many offspring. High offspring mortality in animals and plants. Offspring exhibit variation within the same species. Those whose variations are passed on make them better adapted to the environment= reproductive success. Future generations have more of the adaptive characteristics.
How is cultural evolution different from biological evolution?
Both similar in that they both have evolved and that about it. CULTURAL EVOLUTION= social change BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION= genetic change
What are the two types of descent groups that anthropologists distinguish?
Clans- connect to a founding ancestor but without genealogical documentation. Lineages- demonstrate genealogical connections through many generations; tracing a family tree to a founding ancestor (called an apical ancestor)
Why is it difficult to draw analogies and make comparisons between past and present human ecological relationships or between two examples from the same time?
Complex because environments are always changing. Ex= Yukpa and Enga, these are 2 different geographical areas so relationships with the land will be different.
The three sisters
Corn, beans, squash. Plant corn, then plant beans around that then the squash after that, the leaves on squash are prickly, causing racoons to avoid scavenging the corn once ripe because they don't like them in their paws.
What is the fundamental ecological problem of farming?
Land being depleted.
Paul's Article: chiefdom
Larger population still. Hereditary chief with a formal position of power.
Political structures: tribal level political organization
Larger population than Bands (100s-thousands). At least 2 distinct groups (bands) linked in some way. Again, no centralized political organization, no hereditary leadership. Leadership is based on abilities and personal qualities and is situational. Like Bands, egalitarian. Some personal property but not to the extent that others are deprived. Leadership has no coercive power, no army or police force. Kinship, gender, or age groupings help form social cohesiveness. No system codified law or law enforcement. Conflict resolution through negotiation, apologies, mediation. Warfare likely consists of raids of livestock, women, wealth and usually of short duration. Feuds are generally of longer duration and exist between kinship groups
Paul's article: Tribe
Larger populations but still organized around kinship. Leadership is fluid and temporary
Paul's article- state
Largest population and the most complex form of political power. Central government. Government holds a monopoly over use of physical force. Sizeable bureaucracy. System of formal laws. Standing military force
What problems do livestock herders face in tropical rainforests?
Must worry about drought .
Describe the niche of hunter gatherers and include settlement patterns, population density, technology, personal property, social hierarchy, and surplus production.
NICHE= hunter/gatherer SETTLEMENT PATTERN= would move if needed for farming or weather, but typically always keep their original home. POPULATION DENSITY= 10 to 100 TECHNOLOGY= stone tools, equipment for weaving baskets, animal skins for clothing. PERSONAL PROPERTY= not a lot, had to have the carrying capacity for things, so they only owned what they could carry. SOCIAL HIERARCHY= fluid, no hierarchy SURPLUS PRODUCTION= no surplus
Niche and Habitat of Hunter/gatherers of ancient New England
Niche= New England Habitat= hunter/gatherer
Niche and Habitat of Mayans
Niche= agriculturist Habitat= Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula and adjacent areas of Central America
Niche and Habitat of Yukpa
Niche= horticulturalist Habitat= Columbia and Venezuela
Niche and Habitat of Enga
Niche= horticulturalist Habitat= Papaya New Guinea
Niche and Habitat of San (!Kung)
Niche= hunter/gatherer Habitat= Kalahari desert in southern Africa
Niche and Habitat of Paleolithic Ukranians
Niche= hunter/gatherer Habitat= Russian plains these are the mammoth bone dwelling
Political structure: chiefdom level political organization.
Not egalitarian but ranked society. Greater differentiation between individuals and the kinship groups to which they belong. These differences are often inherited but there are no significant restrictions on access to basic resources. The most significant differences consist of persons of higher rank (social status) wearing distinctive clothing, jewelry, or decorations denied those of lower rank. Each family group is ranked in a hierarchy of prestige and power. Within families, siblings are ranked by birth order and villages may also be ranked. The position of chief is actually an office...a permanent political status that demands a successor when the current chief dies. There must be a successor and there are rules of succession. There may be a ranking of clans within a Chiefdom. Because chiefdoms cannot enforce their power by controlling resources or having a monopoly on use of force, they rely on other mechanisms that cut across kinship lines......as in in tribal societies, marriage may provide a framework for social cohesion. Marriages tend to reinforce the system of ranking due to the fact that chiefdoms have more elaborate hierarchies than do tribes
To what Niche were the first stones tools suited?
Paleolithic Hunter/gatherers also = Foraging
In what important ways does permanent field agriculture differ from horticulture?
Permanent field agriculture- once the soil is depleted, we dump a bunch of chemicals on the land to try and produce crops. Agriculture is less sustainable. Horticulture- once the land is depleted, we slash/burn/swidden to put nitrogen back into soil to help it regenerate.
Habitat
Place where an organism lives
Scavenging
Searching/collecting of goods
What are two solutions to the ecological problem in farming?
Solutions/2 ecological niches= Abandon the artificial ecosystem and start a new one. HORTICULTURE= also known as shifting cultivaiton, slash and burn, swidden. Intensify and innovate- work harder and invent or adopt new techniques. AGRICULTURE= also known as permanent cultivation.
Pastoralism
Strategy for food production by domestication of animals
What is the significance of human culture for human ecology?
Culture= a set of learned behaviors. Ways of thinking, values, beliefs, languages, customs, technology and stories. NOT BIOLOGICAL OR GENETIC. Culture is primarily a means of adaptation to our environment. (natural and social) A change in one part of culture may affect other parts.
Authority
The ability to induce behavior of others by persuasion
Ethnocentrism
The belief that ones own culture or way of life is normal and natural; using ones own culture to evaluate and judge the practices and ideals of others.
Reciprocity
The exchange of resources, goods, and services among people of relatively equal status; meant to create and reinforce social ties. Is the process of exchange of goods or services (from note sheet). Reciprocity can be measures in positive, balance, and negative.
Nuclear Family
The kinship unit of mother, father and children
Fallow
Deplete field cultivation stops to allow natural regeneration
What are the sociopolitical categories?
EGALITARIAN= Band societies. Very little difference in status or power between individuals. There are as many valued status positions as there are persons to fill them. RANKED= Chiefdom societies. Substantial differences in wealth and social status based on how closely related one is to the chief (kinship. Limited number of positions of power or status and only a few persons can occupy them. STRATIFIED= State societies. Enormous differences in wealth, status, and power based on unequal access to resources and positions of power. Socio-economic classes are forms of stratification in many state societies
Human ecological relationships are always changing. Why?
Ecological relationships= a set of relationships existing between organisms and their environments. Relationships are always changing between these two because the environment is always changing. Ex= Global warming, the world is changing so we adapt/change too.
Why is fallow important? What are the possible consequences of reducing fallow periods for horticultures?
Fallow is important because when net productivity decreases, the cultivated fields are left to regenerate naturally. Fallow lands can provide important resources including- attracting animals, provide other food, provide fiber, provide medicine plants, corns, beans, squash- the 3 sisters. Some possible consequences of reducing the fallow period is the land not being able to regenerate naturally.
What is the three part definition of farming?
Farming is risky. Farming is hard work. Little or no leisure time while investing in an artificial ecosystem. FARMING= the creation and maintenance through human labor, knowledge and materials of an artificial ecosystem that yields high densities of food and/or animals.
Political structures of egalitarian societies.
Forager (hunter/gatherer) societies such as the !Kung, Inuit, Aboriginal Australians. Little difference in wealth, status, or power. No government or centralized leadership. Leaders ("headmen" or "big men") emerge by group consensus. Foraging societies are always egalitarian, but some societies that practice horticulture (NOT agriculture) or pastoralism are also egalitarian. As political organizations, egalitarian societies can be either bands or tribes
In what ways do horticulture and agriculture differ?
HORTICULTURE= NOT permanent cultivation, its a shift in cultivation. Its practiced throughout the world, wide variety of crops, today mostly root crops. MORE sustainable the agriculture. Depleted fields cultivation stops to allow natural regeneration (fallow), new fields cleared. Variety of crops is extensive (requires more land per person, limits population density and carrying capacity) AGRICULTURE= depleted field cultivation continues. Artificially regenerated, intensifying (work harder). innovate (develop new techniques). Often fewer crop diversity. Intensive (requires less land, but more labor per person). LESS sustainable, innovation or collapse.
Why is horticulture well-suited to tropical forests? Is this the only area for which is suited?
Horticulture is well suited to tropical forests. Horticulture is particularly well suited to humid, tropical conditions in such environments, temperature and rainfall are usually high, there is no cold season, and plants usually grow vigorously year round. Horticulture is well suited for low density areas as well.
Political structures: band level political organizations.
Hunter/gatherers (foragers). Low population. Small family groups. Shifting populations (fission and fusion). Usually nomadic or semi-nomadic. No formal leadership. Modesty is valued, arrogance and competitiveness unacceptable. Dispute mediation varies
What are the three types of learning?
INDIVIDUAL= building knowledge through individual reflection about eternal stimuli and sources and through the personal re-elaboration of individual knowledge and experience in light of interaction with others and the environment. SOCIAL= learn through observation, including direct instruction, modeling and imitation. SYMBOLIC= a symbol is a mark, sign or word that indicates, signifies or is understood as representing an idea, object or relationship
What are some possible advantages of bipedal locomotion in Savanna habitat?
Increased probability of better food diet. In long grasslands of Savanna apes are able to see above the tall grass to see predators, improving survival rates. Freed their arms up for other purposes.
Carrying capacity
The number of people who can be supported by the resources of the surrounding area of land
What is ecology?
The study of interactions between organisms and their environment
Ecology
The study of the rleaitonship between organisms and their environment
Stratified society
The uneven distribution of resources and privelges.
Applied anthropology
The use of anthropological data from the other fields to address modern problems and concerns; environmental, technological, economic, social, political or cultural. Some consider this to be a fifth field of anthropology
How do people practice permanent field agriculture cope with the inherent problem of environmental degradation?
They develop new techniques. They need to innovate or collapse. They are intensive- requires less land but more labor per person.
Give an example of a horticultural system including habitat, major crops, fertile-fallow periods, seasonality, problems or special features. We examined three in lectures/readings (Yukpa, Enga, New England Natives).
YUKPA= habitat is Columbia and Venezuela. Pratice shifitng cultivation. Major crops= manioc, taro, bananas. Farming schedule- clearing and burning schedule was December to April this was the dry season, vegetation and trees area allowed to dry for about 4 weeks, entire process is associated with rituals. Good burn is crucial. Planting during rainy season- maize- 2 to 3 planting/season, yams, beans, potatoes. Fallow varies place to place for yukpa after a five-year planting cycle is 30 to 35 years fallow period. ENGA= habitat is Papua New Guinea. Major crop is sweet potato. live/plant 5 to 9,000 feet above sea level in the highland, have periodic unpredictable frosts, rare sometimes happens about once a generation. Plant in large mounds of mulch which helps protect from frost by lifting the plants higher above the ground, decomposing mulch produces heat. NEW ENGLAND NATIVES= habitat is New England. Major crops were the three sisters (corn, beans, squash), also grew tobacco. Had dispersed dwellings surrounded by cultivated fields. Were horticulturalists. FIsh was used as fertilzer.
What are some potential consequences to farming?
You need a permanent settlement. Environmental degradation= non-renewable resources are depleted. There is no long term stability in artificial ecosystems. Diet and health may deteriorate due to food specialization. Potential for social inequality, typically regarding property accumulation being unequal. War. Craft specialization, innovation, and trade.
Egalitarian society
a group based on the sharing of resources to ensure success with a relative absence of hierarchy and violence
Ranked society
a group in which wealth is not stratified but prestige and status are
Affinal relationship
a kinship relationship established through marriage and/or alliance, not through biology or common descent
Band
a small kinship-based group of foragers who hunt and gather for a living over a particular territory.
Marriage
a socially recognized relationship that may involve physical and emotional intimacy as well as legal rights to property and inheritance
Clan
a type of descent group based on a claim to a founding ancestor but lacking genealogical documentation
Environment
all objects or conditions external to an organism with which it interacts, or by which is affected. Living things and objects, including bacteria. Physical thing such as temp, fire, water, seasons, radiation ystem.
Chiefdom
an autonomous political unit composed of a number of villages or communities under the permanent control of a paramount chief.
Capitalism
an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state.
Seed crop
crop that is reproduced by cultivating the seeds of the plants
Root crops
crops that are reproduced by cultivating either the roots or cuttings from the plants. Ex= maize, squash, taro.
Horticulture
cultivation of plants through non-intensive use of land and labor agment
Potlatch
elaborate redistribution ceremony practiced among the Kwakiutl of the Pacific Northwest
Anthropology
from the textbook- "the study of the full scope of human diversity and the application of that knowledge to help people of different backgrounds better understand one another"
Agriculture
intensive farming involving permanently cultivated land
Farming
is the creation of maintenance through human labor, knowledge and materials of an artificial ecosystem that yields high densities of food plants and/or animals. It is risky, its hard work and little to no leisure time while investing in an artificial ecosystem.
Polygyny
marriage between one man and two or more women
Companionate marriage
marriage built on love, intimacy, and personal choice rather than social obligation
Arranged marriage
marriage orchestrated by the families of the involved parties
Negative reciprocity
one side receives something in and exchange of less value than that which they have given. Often involves cheating, bargaining, manipulation, or force. No social or kinship relationship between the 2 people egative.
Tribe
originally viewed as a culturally distinct, multiband population that imagined itself as one people descended from a common ancestor; currently used to describe an indigenous group with its own set of loyalties and leaders living to some extent outside the control of a centralized authoritative state.
Foragers
subsisting by hunting, fishing, gathering
Power
the ability to induce behavior or others in specified ways by means of coercion or use or threat of physical force
Bipedalism
the ability to walk upright on two legs
Kinship
the system of meaning and power that cultures create to determine who is related to whom
Positive reciprocity
this occurs when a resource is built up; in other words, you expect to receive something but at a later time, not immediately
Balanced reciprocity
this occurs when the value of the exchange is equal. Immediate return. Trade and barter.
Shifting cultivation, slash and burn
to cut and burn trees, the burning tree puts CO2 back into the soil