AP Comparative Communist/Former Communist States
CCP
Chinese Communist Party
Self-Reliance
Instead of relying on the elite to give directions, people under Maoist rule were encouraged to rely on their own talents to contribute to their communities.
PRC
Peoples Republic of China
Russian Bureaucracy
Since 1991 the Russian bureaucracy has remained large, as it was under the former Soviet regime. Civil servants can have great powers, especially when the Russian President decides to expand an agency or even to create a new one to carry out policies based on personal preferences. In practice, the Russian state bureaucracy has little separation or political independence from the President
semi-presidential system
Some countries combine elements of the presidential and parliamentary systems, as is illustrated in Russia's 1993 Constitution. Although Russia is far from a democracy today, the Constitution clearly provides for a ____-_____ ______ where a prime minister coexists with a president who is directly elected by the people and who holds a significant degree of power.
cadre
Term used to define the permanent, professional members of a party, especially in the communist world.
Federation Council
The 166 member _______ represent the 83 recognized regional governments within the federation. Each regional government selects two members of the council. One representative of each region is selected by that region's governor with the consent of the regional legislature, while the other is directly elected by the regional legislature. There is no formal term limit for members of the ________.
Duma
The 450 members of the _____ are selected by popular election using a party-list voting system. Members serve for a term of four years, although starting with the 2012 election cycle, the term will be extended to five years.
Political Socialization in China
The CCP is the main agent of political socialization in China. The CCP is involved in nearly every official structure in Chinese society; from the media and schools to scout troops, and the CCP uses all of these structures to indoctrinate and educate the people of China in the socialist system of the country.
Political Party System in China
The PRC effectively operates under a single-party system. Unlike the other countries covered in this course, the PRC is run by the parallel structures of the CCP and the government. The CCP sets the ideological and policy agenda in the PRC and party members populate virtually all government positions of real authority. The CCP has ultimate control of many of the key agents of political socialization in China, including the media, schools, and the government. Although other political parties are allowed to exist, all legally operating parties in the PRC must be approved by the CCP. Parties that challenge the supremacy of the CCP rarely, if ever, gain official approval.
President of China
The President of the PRC is largely a ceremonial position. All official actions of the president must be done under orders of the NPC and its Standing Committee. The office has no power of its own. The office of president is term limited; the president may not serve more than two consecutive five-year terms. While the office of the president has no official power in the government, it has been traditional since the 1990s for the president to also be the general secretary of the CCP. Since the president is head of state of China, the office represents China to the world. By making the general secretary of the CCP the president, the most powerful political figure in China has also been its public and diplomatic face to the world. As a result, the presidency is a powerful position in China despite the lack of official governmental powers.
Chinese Governmental System
The role of the government of the PRC is to implement the policies of the CCP. Nothing of significance is done by the government of China without approval of the CCP. China operates under a unitary system of government with all power ultimately resting in the capital, Beijing. There is no American-style separation of powers or checks and balances built into the Chinese government's structures.
regime
The rules that a state sets and follows in exerting its power are referred to collectively as a _____. Regimes endure beyond individual governments and leaders. We refer to a regime when a country's institutions and practices carry over across time, even though leaders and particular issues change. _____ may be compared by using these categories: democracies and authoritarian systems
Soviet Union
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.s.s.R.)
Deng Xiaoping's Modernizations (1977-1997)
• "Open door" trade policy - trade with everyone, including capitalist nations like the U.S., that would boost China's economy • Reforms in education -higher academic standards, expansion of higher education and research (a reversal of the policy during the Cultural Revolution) • Institutionalization of the Revolution - restoring the legal system and bureaucracy of the old China, decentralizing the government, modifying elections, and infusing capitalism Despite the major reforms that Deng Xiaoping instituted, he did not support political liberalization, and China has followed this path ever since.
3 time periods of Russian political history
• A long period of autocratic rule by tsars - Tsars ruled Russia from the 14th to the early 20th century. Control of Russia was passed down through the Romanov family from the 17th century on, but transitions were often accompanied by brutality and sometimes assassination. • 20th century rule by the Communist Party- Communist rule began in 1917 when V.I. Lenin's Bolsheviks seized control of the government after the last tsar, Nicholas II, was deposed. The regime toppled in 1991 when a failed coup from within the government created chaos. • An abrupt regime change to procedural democracy and a free market in 1991 - President Boris Yeltsin put western-style reforms in place to create the Russian Federation.
Egalitarianism
1.the doctrine of the equality of mankind and the desirability of political and economic and social equality Hierarchy was the key organizing principle in Chinese society before 1949, and Mao's emphasis on creating an egalitarian society was in complete opposition to Chinese hierarchical traditions.
Powers of the Duma
>- Consenting to the appointment of the Prime Minister >- Hearing annual reports from the Government of the Russian Federation on the results of its work, including on issues raised by the State Duma >- Issuing votes of confidence on the Government >- Appointing and dismissing the Chairman of the Central Bank of Russia >- Appointing and dismissing the Chairman and half of the auditors of the Accounts Chamber >- Appointing and dismissing the Commissioner for Human Rights >- Impeaching the president by a two-thirds majority >- Adopting decrees by a majority vote of the total number of deputies of the State Duma
Lack of worker incentives
According to the basic tenets of Marxism, neither principle-ownership of private property nor the market economy -encourages equitable distribution of wealth. Countries with communist political economies have experienced the following problem: ________________ - Capitalist countries often repeat this criticism of communist political economies. Workers have no fear of losing their jobs, and factories don't worry about going out of business, so there are few incentives for producing good quality products. In the absence of competition and incentives, innovation and efficiency disappear, and as a result, communist economies generally fall behind market economtes.
Logistical difficulties
According to the basic tenets of Marxism, neither principle- ownership of private property nor the market economy -encourages equitable distribution of wealth. Countries with communist political economies have experienced the following problem: ________ - Planning an entire economy is an extremely difficult task. The larger the economy, the more difficult the planning is. In a market economy supply and demand interact spontaneously, but active management of an economy takes more work and energy.
Political Participation in China
Although electoral politics are not a big part of the Chinese system, the government has experimented with elections at the local level. Since the period of reforms that began in the late 1970s, however, many more avenues of political participation have opened up for the average citizen. Especially at the local level, it is common for leaders to meet with citizens to discuss their concerns.
Ethnic Cleavages
Although over 90% of people living within the People's Republic of China are Han Chinese, China must still deal with significant ethnic cleavages in some regions of the country. To address these cleavages, the Chinese government has set up five autonomous regions within the PRC. The five autonomous regions in the PRC are: ~ Tibet ~ Guangxi ~ Xinjiang ~ Inner Mongolia ~ Ningxia Despite the theoretical autonomy of these regions, separatist movements operate within each of them. Both peaceful and violent protests are common in some of these regions. The government in Beijing frequently calls on the military to quell these protests.
Chinese Bureaucracy
An appointed State Council of appointed ministers directs the bureaucracy, which is very large (40 million is one estimate) and has extensive powers to manage all aspects of political, economic, and social life in China. Civil servants (called cadres) are often members of the Communist Party, but this is not a requirement. Recently the Chinese government has embarked on a program to reduce the overall size of the bureaucracy by eliminating many positions, especially at the local level.
civil servant
Bureaucrat; A person who works for the government
Central Planning
Communist ideology led to political economies characterized by ______, in which the ownership of private property and the market mechanism were replaced with the allocation of resources by the state bureaucracy.
Conservative party faction
Conservatives - Although all factions supported economic reform, conservatives worried that perhaps the power of the party and the central government has eroded too much. They were particularly concerned about any movement toward democracy and generally support crackdowns on organizations and individuals who act too independently. Their most prominent leader has been Li Peng, the former premier and chair of the National People's Congress. His retirement in 2003 left this faction with less influence than it had before.
Russian Political Culture: Skepticism about Power
Despite their dependence on government initiative, Russian citizens can be surprisingly hostile toward their leadership. Mikhail Gorbachev found this out the hard way when he initiated glasnost- a new emphasis on freedom of speech and press - in the 1980s. He received torrents of complaints from citizens that almost certainly contributed to the breakup of the Soviet Union. Today surveys show that citizens have little faith in the political system, although, until recently, people seemed to have more confidence in Putin than in any other individual leaders or institutions. During his first two terms as president, Putin's approval ratings remained between 70 and 80 percent and even reached almost 90 percent in 2008, but no other public officials have had comparable approval rates, including governors of regions, army generals, Duma members, or the police. According to Russia's most respected polling outfit, the Levada Institute, Putin's popularity declined after the oil bust of 2008, but since 2011, his approval rating has still remained above 60 percent. The Russian people appear to have little confidence in nongovernmental leaders, such as entrepreneurs, bankers, and media personalities.
Russian Political Culture: Eastern Orthodoxy
Early in its history, Russians cast their lot with the flourishing city of Constantinople, establishing trade routes in that direction, and adopting the Eastern Orthodox religion. As Constantinople's influence waned and the influence of Western Europe increased, Russia's orientation meant that it did not share the values generated by the European Renaissance, Reformation, Scientific Revolution, and Enlightenment. Instead of individualism, Russians came to value a strong state that could protect them from their geographic vulnerabilities. In contrast to Russian statism, the West developed a taste for civil society, or spheres of privacy free from control by the state. Eastern Orthodoxy also was inextricably linked to the state, so the principle of separation of church and state never developed. Even when the Communist state forbid its citizens to practice religion, the acceptance of government control remained.
Russian Political Culture: The Importance of Nationality
Even though cultural heterogeneity has almost always been characteristic of the Russian political culture, people tend to categorize others based on their nationality, and they often discriminate against groups based on long-held stereotypes. Russians generally admire the Baltic people for their "civility" and sophistication, but they sometimes express disdain for the Muslim-Turkic people of Central Asia. In return, governments in those areas have passed laws discouraging Russians from remaining within their borders. Anti-Semitism was strong in tsarist Russia, and today some nationalists blame Jews for Russia's current problems
Historical Influences on Political Traditions: Absolute, centralized rule
From the beginning, Russian tsars held absolute power that they defended with brutality and force. One reason for their tyranny was geography: the Russian plain was overrun and conquered by a series of invaders, including Huns, Vikings, and Mongols. The chaos caused by these takeovers convinced Russian leaders of the importance of firm, unchallenged leadership in keeping their subjects in control. Centralized power also characterized the Communist regime of the 20th century. Many observers believe that Vladimir Putin has steered the country back to this style of leadership.
Russian Political Culture: Geographic Setting
Geographically, Russia is the largest country in the world and encompasses many different ethnicities and climates. Its republics and regions border the Black Sea in the southwest, the Baltic Sea in the northwest, the Pacific to the east, the Arctic Ocean to the north, and China to the south. Its borders touch many other nations with vastly different political cultures and customs. Russia is also one of the coldest countries on earth, partly because of northern latitude, but also because so many cities are inland. Ironically for a country of its size, warm water ports are few, and its history has been shaped by the desire to conquer countries that have blocked Russian access to the sea. Russia has many natural resources, including oil, gas, and timber, but much of it is locked in frozen Siberia, very difficult to extract. However, in recent years these resources have been developed, and have fueled significant economic growth
Powers of the Federation Council
In addition to this important power, the Federation Council also has these additional powers: >- Approving changes of borders within the Russian Federation >- Approving presidential decrees invoking martial law >- Approving presidential decrees of states of emergency >- Deciding on the use of the armed forces outside the territory of the Russian Federation >- Declaring the election of the president >- Removing the president, following impeachment by the State Duma >- Approving the president's nomination of judges of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation, of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, and of the Higher Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation ~ Approving the president's nomination of the Attorney General ~ Appointing the Deputy Chairman and half the auditors of the Accounting Chamber
Russian Legitimacy
In the earliest years of the 21st century, the legitimacy of the Russian government was at very low ebb, partly because the regime change was so recent, and partly because the change appeared to be a drastic departure from the past. However, there is growing evidence that the system has stabilized since Vladimir Putin was first elected president in 2000, and since then, Putin and his successor, Medvedev, retreated from democratic practices to reestablish some of the old authoritarianism from Russia's traditional political culture.
Historical Influences on Political Traditions: Slavophile v. Westernizer
In the mid-20th century, American diplomat George Kennan identified this conflicting set of political traditions as a major source of problems for Russia. The Slavophile ("lover of Slavs") tradition has led to a pride in Slavic customs, language, religion, and history that causes Russia to resist outside influence. This tendency to value isolation was challenged first by Tsar Peter the Great in the late 17th and early 18th century. He used the western model to "modernize" Russia with a stronger army, a navy, an infrastructure of roads and communication, a reorganized bureaucracy, and a "Window on the West." The window was St. Petersburg, a city built by Peter on newly conquered lands near the Baltic Sea. His efforts to build Russia's power were followed by those of Catherine the Great of the late 18th century, so that by the time of her death, Russia was seen as a major empire. However, their efforts set in place a conflict, since the affection for Slavic ways did not disappear with the changes.
National People's Congress
In theory, the party's highest body is the _____________. In practice, the Party Congress is too large and meets too infrequently - once every five years - to exercise any real authority. Instead, it functions primarily as a "rubber stamp" of broad policy decisions made by smaller and more powerful party structures.
authoritarian regimes
In this type of regime, decisions are made by political elites - those who hold political power - without much input from citizens. These regimes may be ruled by a single dictator, an hereditary monarch, a small group of religious clerics, or a single political party. The economy is generally tightly controlled by the political elite.
state
In today's world, power is territorially organized into _____, or countries, that control what happens within their borders. German scholar Max Weber defined _____ as the organization that maintains a monopoly of violence over a territory. In other words, the _____ defines who can and cannot use weapons and force, and it sets the rules as to how violence is used. _____ often sponsor armies, navies, and/or air forces that legitimately use power and sometimes violence, but individual citizens are very restricted in their use of force.
Marxism-Leninism
Lenin's democratic centralism; provided the legitimacy base for the communist party with its ideology of democratic centralism (rule by few instead of the many)
Liberal party faction
Liberals- This faction went out of power after the 1989 Tiananmen Square incident, but its members were generally more accepting of political liberties and democratic movements than are members of the other factions. They supported economic and political reform. The two most famous leaders of this faction were Hu Yuobang - whose death started the protests in 1989- and Zhao Ziyang- the Premier and General Secretary who was ousted for being too sympathetic with the Tiananmen protestors. Hu Yuobang was the mentor of China's current president, Hu Jintao, but during his presidency he showed little support for democratic movements.
"Princelings" faction
Many of China's recent leaders come from the "princeling" class, an aristocracy of families with revolutionary credentials from the days of Mao Zedong. Their policy preferences are not always clear: some have been big beneficiaries of China's economic reforms, using their political connections and Western education to build lucrative business careers. Other princelings are critical of China's stark inequality and call for a return to socialist principles. Former President Hu Jintao's son, Hu Haifeng, who headed a big company that produced airport scanners, is a prominent princeling, as is Xi Jinping, who took over as party chief in 2012 and as president in 2013. Another princeling is Wen Yunsong, a financier who is the son of Wen Jiabao, the former prime minister.
Mass Line
Mao conceptualized a line of communication between party leaders, members, and peasants that would allow all to struggle toward realization of the goals of a communist state. The _____ involved teaching and listening on everyone's part. Leaders would communicate their will and direction to the people, but the people in tum would communicate their wisdom to the leaders through the _______.
corporatism
Modem ______ is a method through which business, labor, and/ or other interest groups bargain with the state over economic policy. In its earliest form corporatism emerged as a way that authoritarian regimes tried to control the public by creating or recognizing organizations to represent the interests of the public. This practice makes the government appear to be less authoritarian, but in reality the practice eliminates any input from groups not sanctioned or created by the state. Only a handful of groups have the right to speak for the public, effectively silencing the majority of citizens in political affairs.
How the Federation Council and the Duma Interact
Most bills in Russia originate in the State Duma and, if passed there, are sent to the Federation Council for its approval. A majority vote is required for bills to pass the Federation Council. When the Council rejects a law passed by the State Duma, the two chambers are required to form a Conciliation Committee to form a compromise document, which is then voted on by both houses of the legislature. In addition, the State Duma may override the Federation Council's veto of legislation by passing a bill by a two-thirds majority.
institutions
States also include _________: stable, long lasting organizations that help to turn political ideas into policy. Common examples of _______ are bureaucracies, legislatures, judicial systems, and political parties. These institutions make states themselves long lasting, and often help them to endure even when leaders change.
sovereignty
States exercise ________, the ability to carry out actions or policies within their borders independently from interference either from the inside or the outside. A state that is unable to exercise _____ lacks autonomy, and because it is not independent, it may be exploited by leaders and/or organizations that see the state as a resource to use for their own ends. Frequently, the result is a high level of corruption.
Russian Political Culture: Equality of Result (contrasted to equality of opportunity)
The Communist regime instilled in the Russian people an appreciation for equality, a value already strong in a country of peasants with similar living standards. Russian egalitarianism has survived the fall of the Soviet Union, and most Russians resent wealth and income differences. This "equality of result" is very different from western "equality of opportunity" that sees "getting ahead" as a sign of initiative, hard work, and talent. As a result, the Russian political culture is not particularly conducive to the development of capitalism.
People's Liberation Army (PLA)
The __________ is the unified land, sea, air, and missile forces of the PRC.
Central Committee
The ___________ - consists of about 300 members chosen by the National Party Congress. Members all hold positions of significant power around the country. Theoretically, the ______ is the body that chooses the members of the Politburo, its standing committee, and the general secretary of the party. The ______ exercises the authority of the National Party Congress when that body is not in session, approving party policies. The ______ often plays a crucial role in party policy-making because it is the organ of the CCP in which true political debate between party elites occurs.
Discipline Inspection Commission
The _______________ - has the job of finding corruption within the party, enforcing standards of conduct (including ideological standards), and disciplines party members who do not follow the standards or engage in corruption.
guanxi
The concept of _____ cannot be easily defined in English. It is deeply rooted in Chinese culture and influences how every aspect of Chinese society operates, including those related to government and politics. ______ describes a personal connection between two people that allows one to ask a favor of the other. ____ also describes a network of contacts which an individual can ask to do a favor, or can call upon to exert influence on behalf of a third party. _____ can also describe the idea that the relationship between two people is such that they needn't speak their needs for the other to take them into consideration before acting. No matter the formal structures in place, much decision making in China still occurs on the basis of ______.
nation
The concept of state is closely related to a nation, a group of people that are bound together by a common political identity.
bureaucracy
The executive branch carries out ("executes") national policies and laws. Governments employ people as civil servants to do this work. This group is known collectively as the nation's ______.
fang-shou
The factions follow the process of ______ - a tightening up, loosening up cycle - a waxing and waning of the power of each
Marxism
The father of communism is generally acknowledged to be Karl Marx, who first wrote about his interpretation of history and vision for the future in The Communist Manifesto in 1848. He believed that conditions in capitalist countries would eventually become so bad that workers would join together in a revolution of the proletariat (workers), and overcome the bourgeoisie, or owners of factories and other means of production. Marx envisioned a new world after the revolution, one in which social class would disappear because ownership of private property would be banned. According to Marx, communism encourages equality and cooperation, and without property to encourage greed and strife, governments would be unnecessary, and they would wither away.
statism
The idea that the rights of the nation are supreme over the rights of the individuals who make up the nation.
Historical Influences on Political Traditions: Revolutions of the 20th century
The long, autocratic rule of the tsars suddenly and decisively came to an end in 1917 when V. I. Lenin's Bolsheviks seized power, and renamed the country the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Communist leaders replaced the tsars, and they ruled according to socialist principles, although the tendency toward absolute, centralized rule did not change. The old social classes, however, were swept away, and the new regime tried to blend elements of westernization (industrialization, economic development, and technological innovation) with those of the Slavophile (nationalism, resistance to western culture and customs). A second revolution occurred in 1991, when the U.S.S.R. dissolved and its fifteen republics became independent nations. The Russian Federation, born in that year, is currently struggling to replace the old regime with a new one, although many of the former republics have settled into authoritarianism.
Factionalism
The splitting of a group into factions; Conflict between factions
Maoism
The theory and practice of Marxism-Leninism developed in China by Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung), which states that a continuous revolution is necessary if the leaders of a communist state are to keep in touch with the people.
Chinese Communist Youth League ("tuanpai") faction
This faction is led by former President Hu Jintao, whose allies come from the CCYL, the party's nation-wide organization for youth aged 14-28. Some analysts characterize the tuanpai faction as promoters of the concerns of the urban and rural poor, but others see few ideological commonalities among its leaders.
Gender as a cleavage
Traditional Chinese culture places far greater value on male children than on female children. At times throughout China's history, this has led to parents killing female infants. Although it is illegal under current Chinese law, the use of sex-selection abortions is a modern incarnation of this ancient issue in Chinese society.
party general secretary
Traditionally, the nine-member Politburo Standing Committee holds the most power within the CCP, usually setting the direction of party policy. The Standing Committee of the Politburo holds weekly meetings chaired by the party general secretary. The _____________ is usually the single most powerful political figure in China.
Supreme People's Court (SPC)
Under the Chinese constitution, the ___________ is responsible to the NPC, and therefore is not a truly independent body, nor does it have the power of judicial review. The ___ is responsible for administering courts of all levels and in all regions of China. Like most supreme courts around the world, the _________ is a court of last resort and has appellate jurisdiction over cases heard in the local courts and the special courts.
Historical Influences on Political Traditions: Extensive cultural heterogeneity
Until the 17th century Russia was a relatively small inland culture, but even then, the numerous invasions from earlier times meant that the area was home to people of wide cultural diversity. This cultural heterogeneity intensified as Russia rapidly expanded its borders, until by the end of the 19th century, the empire stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean. Since then, the borders of Russia have been in an almost constant state of change, so that ethnicities have split, thrown together with others, and then split apart again. The name "Russian Federation" reflects the diversity, with countless "republics" and "autonomous regions" based on ethnicity, but with borders impossible to draw because of the blend and locations of people. This heterogeneity has always been a special challenge to Russian rulers.
Collectivism v. Individualism in Chinese Political Culture
Valuing the good of the community above that of the individual suited the peasant-based communities that have existed throughout Chinese history. It contrasts to the beliefs of scholars (valued by the old culture) who have often been drawn to individualism.
Secretariat
_____ - the permanent bureaucratic body of the CCP. Administers party actions, provides staff support to the Politburo, and turns Politburo policies into rules and instructions for subordinate parts of the party apparatus.
multinational state
_____ _____ is one that contains more than one nation. The former Soviet Union is a good example of a _____ ______. It was divided into "soviet republics" that were based on nationality, such as the Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. When the country fell apart in 1991, it fell along ethnic boundaries into independent nation-states. Today Russia (one of the former soviet republics) remains a large multinational state that governs many ethnic groups.
Politburo
______ consists of 25 full members, including the members of the Politburo Standing Committee. The ______ consists of the key decision makers in China. Selects candidates for Central Committee membership before meetings of the National Party Congress.
democratic centralism
_______ is the system of internal political organization used in China. The term was first used to describe the Marxist/Leninist system used in the U.S.S.R. Under the theory of ______, members of the ruling party in a single-party state are allowed to debate policy, but once a decision has been reached by majority vote, all members are expected to follow the decision. In the words of Vladimir Lenin, _______ requires "freedom of discussion, unity of action." In systems that employ ______, the government is usually subordinate to the party. This has been the case in China since the founding of the PRC.
political culture
_______ refers to the collection of political beliefs, values, practices, and institutions that the government is based on. For example, if a society values individualism, the government will generally reflect this value in the way that it is structured and in the way that it operates. If the government does not reflect basic political values of a people, it will have difficulty remaining viable.
patron-clientelism
________, a system in which the state provides specific benefits or favors to a single person or small group in return for public support. Unlike corporatism, ____-____ relies on individual patronage rather than organizations that serve a large group of people. Responsibilities and obligations are based on a hierarchy between elites and citizens. We will see example of ____-_____ in China, Russia, Mexico, and Nigeria.
Central Military Commission
__________ - although the chairman of the _________n of the PRC (the government) is technically commander-in-chief of the Chinese military, the ________ of the CCP really controls military policy in the PRC.
Consensual political culture
___________ - Although citizens may disagree on some political processes and policies, they tend generally to agree on how decisions are made, what issues should be addressed, and how problems should be solved. For example, citizens agree that elections should be held to select leaders, and they accept the election winners as their leaders. Once the leaders take charge, the problems they address are considered by most people to be appropriate for government to handle. By and large, a _________________ accepts both the legitimacy of the regime and solutions to major problems.
Conflictual political culture
____________ - Citizens in a ___________________are sharply divided, often on both the legitimacy of the regime and solutions to major problems. For example, if citizens disagree on something as basic as capitalism vs. communism, conflict almost certainly will be difficult to avoid. Or if religious differences are so pronounced that followers of one religion do not accept an elected leader from another religion, these differences strike at the heart of legitimacy, and threaten to topple the regime. When a country is deeply divided in political beliefs and values over a long period of time, political subcultures may develop, and the divisions become so imbedded that the government finds it difficult to rule effectively.
Communism
advocates a political system in which all property is held in common, usually by the state.
Liberalism
advocates a political system in which the individual is autonomous, civil liberties are respected, and rapid progress is encouraged.
Socialism
advocates a political system in which the means of production and distribution are held in common, usually by the state.
Fascism
advocates a political system in which the nation or a race is seen as most important, not the individual or even the people as a collective.
Conservatism
advocates a political system in which traditional institutions are respected and maintained, while allowing for slow and minimal change.
market-based socialism
initiated in China after Mao's death, allows for a significant infusion of capitalism into the system
Liberalization
movements toward greater individual liberty or greater use of free markets.
Glasnost
the Russian word for openness. Describes the policy of increased political openness seen near the end of the U.S.S.R.
Perestroika
the Russian word for restructuring. Used to describe the liberalization of government structures in the Soviet Union under the leadership of Mikhail Gorbachev.
BRIC
the fast-growing economies of Brazil, Russia, India, and China. The economies of the four countries are growing so fast that they might overtake the combined economies of the current richest countries of the world by 2050. In June 2009, the leaders of the BRIC countries held their first summit in Yekaterinburg, Russia, where they discussed common concerns and demanded more say in global policymaking.
nomenklatura
the process of filing influential jobs in the state, society, or the economy with people approved and chosen by the communist party
nationalism
the sense of belonging and identity that distinguishes one nation from another.
