APEX AP Gov&Politics Semester 1
statutory power
A power created for the president through laws enacted by Congress.
"beauty contest"
A presidential primary in which candidates compete for popular votes but the results do not control the selection of delegates to the national convention.
open primary
A primary election in which voters may choose in which party to vote as they enter the polling place
closed primary
A primary in which only registered members of a particular political party can vote
majority rule
A principle of democracy asserting that a simple majority, defined as 50 percent plus one in most cases, should select public officials and determine the policies and actions of their government.
checks and balances
A system that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches in order to prevent abuse of power
regressive tax
A tax for which the percentage of income paid in taxes decreases as income increases
progressive tax
A tax for which the percentage of income paid in taxes increases as income increases
tariff
A tax placed on imported items. It's designed to protect a nation's businesses and workers from international competition or to increase revenue.
continuing resolution
A temporary funding law that Congress passes when an appropriations bill has not been decided by the beginning of the new fiscal year on October 1.
select committee
A temporary legislative committee established for a limited time period and for a special purpose.
fourth branch of government
A term referring to the federal bureaucracy.
Federalist
A term used to describe supporters of the Constitution during ratification debates in state legislatures.
literacy test
A test given to persons to prove they can read and write before being allowed to register to vote
Strict Scrutiny
A test used by the Supreme Court for issues such as affirmative action. Legislation in these areas is highly suspect and will be closely watched and allowed to stand only if it's "narrowly tailored" and serves a "compelling government interest."
pluralist theory (model)
A theory holding that policy is the product of group conflict and that the public interest tends to emerge out of the welter of competing individual and group claims as these groups bargain and compromise to make decisions.
pressure system
A theory of American politics in which organized special interest groups dominate government.
fiscal year (FY)
A twelve-month period that is used for bookkeeping, or accounting, purposes. Usually, the fiscal year does not coincide with the calendar year. For example, the federal government's fiscal year runs from October 1 through September 30.
distributive policy
A type of policy that provides benefits to all Americans.
spot ad
A type of political advertising that generally promotes a candidate, in a positive fashion, by name
public employee interest group
A type of private interest group that works to further the interests of government employees.
independent
A voter or candidate who does not identify with a political party.
libel
A written defamation of a person's character, reputation, business, or property rights.
cruel and unusual punishment
Any torture, wanton infliction of pain, mutilation, or degrading treatment, or any sentence too severe for the offense committed. This is prohibited by the Eighth Amendment to the Constitution.
pork barrel (or pork)
Appropriations made by a legislative body providing public money for local projects not critically needed.
separation of powers
Constitutional division of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, with the legislative branch making law, the executive applying and enforcing the law, and the judiciary interpreting the law
civil liberties
Constitutional freedoms guaranteed to all citizens
writ of mandamus
Court order directing an official to perform an official duty.
stare decisis
Court policy to follow precedents established in past cases; to stand on decided cases.
jurisdiction
Court's authority to decide certain cases. Not all courts have the authority to decide all cases.
federal court system
Deals with disputes about laws that apply to the entire United States
U.S. Treasury bond
Debt issued by the federal government
super majorities
Defined voting blocks of greater than 51 percent needed to approve a proposal. For example, a two-thirds vote is required for proposing a constitutional amendment.
indirect democracy
Democracy in which people do not directly govern or directly vote for their representatives
agenda setting
Determining which public-policy questions will be debated or considered.
reverse discrimination
Discrimination against those who do not have minority status within a community. Reverse discrimination may result from affirmative action programs that require preferential treatment for minority members of society.
safe district
Districts that almost automatically reelect House of Representative incumbents.
division of labor
Division of work into a number of separate tasks to be performed by different workers
state court
Each of the 50 states have their own courts with jurisdiction over all cases that arise under their own laws
market economy
Economic decisions are made by individuals or the open market.
lobbying
Efforts by individuals or organizations to pass, defeat, change, or influence the crafting of laws and the decisions, policies, and actions of the government.
multi-member electoral districts
Electoral districts in which voters choose multiple officials to represent them, instead of just one.
Mapp v. Ohio (1961)
Established exclusionary rule; illegally obtained evidence cannot be used in court; Warren Court's judicial activism.
standard operating procedures
Established methods routinely followed for the performance of specific operations or in specific situations.
Roth v. United States (1957)
Established that obscenity is not within the area of constitutionally protected speech or press.
media event
Events that are purposely staged for the media and that are significant just because the media are there.
Eighth Amendment
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
line-item veto
Executive power to veto specific items included in a piece of legislation without vetoing the entire piece of legislation.
three branches of government
Executive, Legislative, Judicial
radical left
Extremist political groups who advocate substantial or fundamental political, social, and economic changes. They often have a Marxist or socialist orientation. On the radical right, are ultraconservative groups.
data
Facts, figures, and other evidence gathered through observations.
categorical grant-in-aid
Federal funding for states or local governments that is for very specific programs or projects.
block grant
Federal funding to state and local governments for general functional areas, such as criminal justice or mental-health programs, rather than for specific programs.
federal mandate
Federal rules requiring compliance by states and municipalities in order to obtain federal grant money, or rules requiring states to pay the costs of specific nationally defined programs.
free exercise clause
First Amendment requirement that law cannot prevent free exercise of religion
Iowa caucus
First state to hold a caucus or primary, therefore giving Iowa much attention during the campaign season.
Texas v. Johnson (1989)
Flag-burning is symbolic speech with a political purpose and is protected by 1st Amendment.
ratification
Formal approval
secession
Formal withdrawal of states or regions from a nation
Madison, James (1751 - 1836)
Fourth president of the United States (1809 - 1817). A member of the Continental Congress and the Constitutional Convention, he wrote many of the Federalist Papers, including Federalist No. 10 and Federalist No. 51.
labor movement
Generally, the economic and political expression of working-class interests; politically, the organization of working-class interests.
divided government
Governance divided between the parties, as when one holds the presidency and the other controls one or both houses of Congress.
direct democracy
Government in which citizens vote on laws and select officials directly.
redistributive policy
Government policy designed to shift government burdens and benefits from one group to another
monetary policy
Government policy that attempts to manage the economy by controlling the money supply and thus interest rates.
direct regulation
Government regulation targeted at a specific firm or industry, as opposed to a regulation that's not targeted at a specific firm or industry but affects them anyway, as is the case with some environmental regulations.
patronage
Granting favors or giving contracts or making appointments to office in return for political support
expansion of the franchise
Granting of voting rights to more and more members of society.
apportionment
Granting political representation to a group of people. The apportionment of members of the House of Representatives between states is done through a complicated statistical method. The apportionment of representatives to districts within a state is done by the majority party of the state legislature and sometimes leads to gerrymandering.
division of power (horizontal and vertical)
Granting some powers to one government and some to another. A horizontal division of power separates power between executive, legislative, and judicial branches. A vertical division of power separates power between national and state governments (federalism).
freedom ride
Group of civil rights workers who took bus trips through southern states in 1961 to protest illegal bus segregation
framers
Group of delegates who drafted the United States Constitution at the Philadelphia Convention
elite groups
Groups of people who exercise a major influence on or control the making of political, economic, and social decisions. They gain their power positions through wealth, family status, caste systems, or intellectual superiority.
writ of habeas corpus
Habeas corpus literally means "you have the body." It's a court order that requires a jailer to bring a person to a court or judge and explain the charges on which the person is being held. If sufficient cause for imprisonment is not produced, the prisoner must be released
Ways and Means Committee
House committee that handles tax bills
judicial implementation
How court decisions are turned into actions.
Hatch Act (Political Activities Act of 1939)
Prohibited civil servants from taking activist roles in partisan campaigns; prohibited federal employees from making political contributions, working for a particular party, or campaigning for a particular candidate
Executive Order 12291
Order made by President Ronald Reagan requiring the review, by the Office of Management and Budget, of all proposals for new executive branch regulations.
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
Organization cofounded by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and dedicated to using nonviolent means to fight racial inequality and discrimination.
right to counsel
Part of the right to a fair trial, allowing for the defendant to be assisted by an attorney, and if the defendant cannot afford counsel, requiring that the state appoint an attorney or pay the defendant's legal fees.
non-violent protest tactics
Peaceful or passive actions to gain political or social ends.
public figures
People who are known to the general public through their activities, including movie stars, musicians, television personalities, public officials, and others.
moderate
Person whose views are between conservative and liberal and may include some of both ideologies
casework
Personal work for constituents by members of Congress.
civil rights
Policies designed to protect people against arbitrary or discriminatory treatment by government officials or individuals.
issue ad
Political advertisement focusing on a specific issue rather than on a particular candidate.
attack ad
Political advertising that denounces a candidate's opponent by name.
political culture
Political beliefs and attitudes concerning government and political process held by a group of people
latent public opinion
Political opinions that citizens hold but don't express or act on. These latent opinions have the potential to become widely expressed and acted on within the political arena.
single-issue party
Political parties that focus on one issue
advice and consent
Power the Constitution (Article II, Section 2) grants the U.S. Senate to give its advice and consent to treaties and presidential appointment of federal judges, ambassadors, and cabinet members.
pardon
Power to release a person from the punishment or legal consequences resulting from a crime. The president and governors of 30 states have the right to grant pardons within their respective areas of authority.
concurrent powers
Powers held jointly by the national and state governments.
reserved powers
Powers not specifically granted to the federal government or denied to the states belong to the states and the people
enumerated powers
Powers specifically given to Congress in the Constitution; including the power to collect taxes, coin money, regulate foreign and interstate commerce, and declare war.
New Deal
President Franklin D. Roosevelt, designed to promote economic recovery and social reform.
senatorial courtesy
Presidential custom of submitting the names of prospective appointees for approval to senators from the states in which the appointees are to work.
political appointments
Presidential granting of federal jobs to reward friends and supporters.
expressed powers
Presidential powers expressly written into the Constitution or congressional statute
chief of public opinion
Presidential role as chief communicator for the nation and nation's symbolic leader.
bureaucratic red tape
Probably the most common complaint about bureaucracies, red tape refers collectively to the complex rules and procedures that cause delays and sometimes make it difficult to get something done.
bureaucratic pathologies
Problems shared by all or most federal bureaus or agencies. They include bureaucratic red tape, mission conflict, mission duplication, agency imperialism, and bureaucratic waste.
distributive benefits
Programs, such as military contracts, that legislators try to secure for their constituents, who gain much by receiving them.
presidential debate
Series of televised debates generally held once the two major parties (or sometimes three, as has happened recently) select their candidates for president.
Clean Air Act
Set emission standards for cars, and limits for release of air pollutants
United States v. Leon (1984)
The court case that allowed the use of evidence taken without a warrant if the police acted with "objective and good faith."
trial
The court process to determine whether someone committed a criminal act
majority floor leader
the legislative position held by an important party member who is chosen by the majority party in caucus or conference. The job is designed to keep members of that party in line and determine the agenda of that branch of government.
House of Representatives
the lower legislative house of the United States Congress
price support
the maintenance of a price at a certain level through government intervention
minority floor leader
the major spokesperson for the minority party and organizes opposition to the majority party
majority whip
the majority leader's assistant
feeding frenzy
the media "attack" when they sense wrongdoing or scandal in government, and devote great amounts of coverage to such stories.
minority whip
the minority leader's assistant
census
the official count of a population
Publius
the pen name that Framers Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay used when writing the Federalist Papers; Latin for "public man"
voter turnout
the percentage of eligible voters who cast a ballot in an election
polls
the place where people vote
authority
the power or right to give orders, make decisions, and enforce obedience.
white primary
the practice of keeping blacks from voting in the southern states' primaries through arbitrary use of registration requirements and intimidation
slavery
the practice of owning people as property
press secretary
the president's spokesperson to the media
watchdog function
the press stands ready to expose officials who violate accepted legal, ethical, or performance standards
free-rider problem
the problem faced by interest groups when citizens can reap the benefits of interest group action without actually joining, participating in, or contributing money to such groups.
registration
the process of signing up to be a voter
public agenda
the public issues on which the people's attention is focused
freedom of the press
the right of journalists to publish the truth without restriction or penalty
freedom of speech
the right to express any opinions without censorship or restraint.
suffrage
the right to vote
racial segregation
the separation of people based on their race
political science
the systematic study of government and politics
Republican Revolution
the term used to describe the Republican Party's 1994 electoral victory, which gave the party control of both the House and the Senate for the first time in 40 years.
political advertising
the use of ad techniques to promote a candidate's image and persuade the public to adopt a particular viewpoint
fiscal policy
the use of government spending and revenue collection to influence the economy
party-in-electorate
the voters who consider themselves allied or associated with the party
paraphrase
to restate in other words
interstate commerce
trade among the states
unitary system of government
type of government that centralizes all the powers of government into one central authority
underground economy
unreported legal and illegal activities that do not show up in GDP statistics
public opinion
what the public thinks about a particular issue or set of issues at any point in time
issue voting
when voters cast their vote in elections based on political issues
party dealignment
when voters move away from both parties
necessary and proper clause
which delegates legislative powers to the Congress. aka elastic clause
white flight
working and middle-class white people move away from racial-minority suburbs or inner-city neighborhoods to white suburbs and exurbs
Miller test
The current judicial test for obscenity cases that considers community standards, whether the material is patently offensive, and whether the material taken as a whole lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value.
reprieve
The delay of the execution of a court's legal sentence. Reprieves are usually granted for humanitarian reasons, or to await the collection and presentation of new evidence.
political ward
The division of a city for purposes of electing members to the city council.
nullification
The doctrine that a state can declare null and void a federal law that, in the state's opinion, violates the Constitution.
bureaucratic reform
The effort to make bureaucracies operate more efficiently.
deregulation
The elimination of government controls, especially over private companies.
school desegregation
The elimination of the separation of races in public schools; racial integration.
racial equality
The equal treatment of all persons regardless of their race.
sampling error
The estimated difference between the results of a poll using a sample of the population and the true results that would have been found if the entire population had been polled.
Office of Personnel Management
The federal agency that administers civil service employment.
policy evaluation
The fifth stage of the policy cycle, in which the results of the implemented policy are studied by public officials and private organizations.
elastic clause
The final paragraph of Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution, which authorizes Congress to pass all laws "necessary and proper" to carry out the enumerated powers.
Hamilton, Alexander (1755 - 1804)
The first U.S. Secretary of the Treasury. He established the National Bank and public credit system.
New Hampshire primary
The first primary of the presidential election season. It is watched closely and contested strongly.
Bill of Rights
The first ten amendments to the Constitution
party organization
The formal structure and leadership of a political party, including election committees; local, state, and national executives; and paid professional staff.
policy implementation
The fourth stage of the policy cycle, in which a law or regulation is put into effect with the goal of obtaining public compliance.
independent executive agency
The government not accounted for by cabinet departments, independent regulatory agencies, and government corporations. Its administrators are typically appointed by the president and serve at the president's pleasure. NASA is an example.
limited government
The idea that certain restrictions should be placed on government to protect the natural rights of citizens.
consent of the governed
The idea that government derives its authority by sanction of the people.
merit principle
The idea that hiring should be based on entrance exams and promotion ratings to produce administration by people with talent and skill.
Kitchen Cabinet
The informal advisers to the president.
Civil Service Commission
The initial central personnel agency of the national government, created in 1883.
government
The institution through which a society makes and enforces its public policies
policy agenda
The issues that attract the serious attention of public officials and other people actively involved in politics at the time.
original jurisdiction
The jurisdiction of courts that hear a case first, usually in a trial. These are the courts that determine the facts about a case.
civil law
The law regulating conduct and allowing for the settlement of disputes between private persons over noncriminal matters such as contracts, domestic relations, and business relations.
minority leader of the House
The leader of the minority party in the House of Representatives. The minority leader directs his or her party's policies and political strategies.
inevitable discovery exception
The legal principle that illegally obtained evidence can be admissible in court if police using lawful means would have "inevitably" discovered it.
amendment process
The means spelled out in Article V by which formal changes in, or additions to, the Constitution are made.
national convention
The meeting of party delegates every four years to choose a presidential ticket and write the party's platform.
politics
The method in which decisions are made, either by or for a society, to allocate resources, distribute benefits, and impose costs.
quorum
The minimum number of members who must be present for business to be conducted in Congress
Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
The office that prepares the president's annual budget proposal, reviews the budget and programs of the executive departments, supplies economic forecasts, and conducts detailed analyses of proposed bills and agency rules.
outer Cabinet
The outer Cabinet refers to Cabinet departments that are less important to the day-to-day functioning of the government and were created to look after the needs of various constituencies. It includes the Departments of Agriculture, Labor, and Veteran's Affairs.
"beyond the beltway"
The part of the U.S outside of Washington DC. The "beltway" is a highway circling Washington D.C
Reconstruction period (1865-1877)
The period following the Civil War during which the states of the Confederacy were controlled by the federal government before being readmitted to the Union.
White House Office
The personal office of the president, which tends to presidential political needs and manages the media.
individualism
The political, economic, and social concept that places primary emphasis on the worth, freedom, and well-being of the individual rather than on the group, society, or nation.
gatekeeper function
The power of national media to control the public agenda by deciding what the public will learn about. It gains this power by choosing which topics to report on.
bundling
The practice of adding together maximum individual campaign contributions to increase their effect.
front-loading
The practice of scheduling presidential primary elections during early parts of election campaign to increase the amount of influence that certain states or regions exert on the nomination.
income transfer
The practice of taking income from some (usually the wealthy) and giving it to others (usually the poor).
Keynesian economics
Theory based on the principles of John Maynard Keynes, stating that government spending should increase during business slumps and be curbed during booms.
Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)
These acts authorized the president to deport "undesirable aliens" and made it a crime to criticize the government or its officials.
Judiciary Act of 1791
This act ended the "circuit riding" by Supreme Court justices and established the courts of appeal.
NLRB v. Jones and Laughlin Steel Corp.
guarantees labor the right to organize and bargain collectively and established the NLRB to regulate labor-management relations.
contracting out
hiring a private organization to deliver a public program or service
laboratories of democracy
idea that different states can implement different policies, and the successful ones will spread
good faith exception
if a police officer thought he or she was operating under a legal warrant, the evidence obtained could be kept even if it later turned out that the warrant wasn't completely legal.
exclusionary rule
improperly gathered evidence may not be introduced in a criminal trial
fireside chat
informal radio broadcast in which FDR explained issues and New Deal programs to average Americans
judicial restraint
judges should restrain their own opinions and desires and defer policy decisions to legislators and the executive branch-elected officials who are accountable to voters
constitutional law
law that involves the interpretation and application of the U.S. Constitution and state constitutions
term limits
legally prescribed limits on the number of terms an elected official can serve
gridlock
legislative gridlock
inalienable rights
life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness
Twenty-Sixth Amendment
lowered the voting age to 18
Communications Decency Act (1996)
made it illegal to make indecent sexual material on internet accessible to anyone 18 or under. It was unconstitutional because of the 1st amendment.
Council of Economic Advisers (CEA)
members advise the president on economic policy and prepare the Annual Report of the CEA.
Interstate Commerce Act (1887)
monitors the business operation of carriers transporting goods and people between states - created to regulate railroad prices
sit-in
nonviolent protests in which a person sits and refuses to leave
liberal
open to new behavior or opinions and willing to discard traditional values.
crossover voting
participation in the primary election of a party with which the voter is not affiliated
wage discrimination
people getting paid less based on gender/race/age ex: wage gap for women
freedom of religion
people shall be free to exercise their religion, and government may not establish a religion
elector
person appointed to vote in presidential elections for the major candidates
latency
political opinions that are held but not yet expressed
police power
power reserved to the state government to regulate the health, safety, and morals of its citizens
inherent power
powers that are not directly stated in the Constitution but belong to the national government
implied powers
powers that congress has that are not stated explicitly in the constitution
plebiscitary presidency
president seeks to govern through direct support of people
Fifth Amendment
provides equal protection under the law and imposes restrictions on the national government with respect to the rights of persons accused of crime.
electronic media
radio, television, and the internet
political spectrum
range of political views
probable cause
reasonable cause for issuing a search warrant or making an arrest; more than mere suspicion
sedition
rebellion or resistance against the government
redistricting
redrawing of congressional district boundaries by the party in power of the state legislature
Government in the Sunshine Act
requiring all multi-headed federal agencies to perform their duties in open sessions. Closed meetings are permitted for only specific subjects, such as national defense, but participants must keep minutes of those meetings.
Consumer Product Safety Act (1972)
responsible for protecting consumers from injury caused by products sold to them.
National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act
set federal safety standards for the auto and tire industries
Taft-Hartley Act (Labor-Management Relations Act)
sought to equalized the power of employers and labor unions. It placed limitations on labor union practices and strengthened the position of the individual worker
conference committee
special joint committee created to reconcile differences in bills passed by the House and Senate
slander
spoken defamation
democracy
A system of government placing the ultimate political authority in the people
spoils system
A system of public employment based on rewarding party loyalists and friends.
remand
Sending a legal case back to the court that heard it previously.
congressional campaign committee
a party committee in Congress that provides funds to members and would-be members
litigant
a person involved in a lawsuit
plaintiff
a person who brings a case against another in a court of law.
Communist
a person who supports or believes in the principles of communism.
constituent
a person whom a member of Congress has been elected to represent
Fascist
a person with extremely nationalistic views
federal budget
a plan for the federal government's revenues and spending for the coming year
regulatory policy
a policy that regulates companies and organizations in a way that protects the public
spin doctor
a political campaign adviser who tries to convince journalists of the truth of a particular interpretation of events
splinter party
a political party that has split off from a major party because of major disagreement.
power to persuade
a president's ability to convince Congress, other political actors, and the public to cooperate with the administration's agenda
caucus
a private meeting of party leaders to choose candidates for office
media consultant
a professional who produces candidates' television, radio, and print advertisements
material incentive
a reason or motive having to do with economic benefits or opportunities
random sample
a sample in which every element in the population has an equal chance of being selected
platform
a series of statements expressing the party's principles, beliefs, and positions on election issues
domestic policy
a set of plans for dealing with national problems
power elite
a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources
majority opinion
a statement that presents the views of the majority of supreme court justices regarding a case
concurring opinion
a statement written by a justice who votes with the majority, but for different reasons
federal system of government
a system in which power is shared among state and national authorities
common law
a system of law based on precedent and customs
hierarchy
a system or organization in which people or groups are ranked one above the other according to status or authority.
seniority system
a system that gives the member of the majority party with the longest uninterrupted service on a particular committee the leadership of that committee
filibuster
a tactic for delaying or obstructing legislation by making long speeches
hyperpluralism
a theory of government and politics contending that groups are so strong that government is weakened
plurality method
a voting method that ranks candidates based on the number of first-place votes they receive
statute
a written law passed by a legislative body
Thirteenth Amendment
abolished slavery
party-in-government
all of the elected and appointed officials who identify with a political party
public debt
all of the money borrowed by the government and not yet repaid, plus the accrued interest on that money; also called the national debt or federal debt
Seventeenth Amendment
allowed americans to vote directly for U.S senators
personal attack rule
an FCC requirement that broadcast stations provide free air time to persons subjected to a character attack during a presentation on a public issue
bureaucracy
an administrative system that executes policies and carries out specific functions by using standardized procedures in a hierarchical structure.
price fixing
an agreement among firms to charge one price for the same good
military-industrial complex
an alleged alliance between military leaders and corporate leaders
Shays's Rebellion
an armed revolt by farmers in Massachusetts in 1786 - 1787, seeking relief from debts and possible foreclosure of mortgages. It's credited with being a major factor in the demand for revision of the Articles of Confederation
whip
an assistant to the party floor leader in the legislature
capitalism
an economic system based on individual and corporate ownership of the means of production and a supply-demand market economy.
presidential primary
an election by which voters choose convention delegates committed to voting for a certain candidate
primary election
an election held to choose candidates for office
direct primary
an election in which voters choose party nominees
winner-take-all
an election system in which the candidate with the most votes wins
whistleblower
an employee who exposes unethical or illegal conduct within the federal government or one of its contractors
precedent
an example that may serve as a basis for imitation or later action
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
an independent federal agency established to coordinate programs aimed at reducing pollution and protecting the environment
defendant
an individual or group being sued or charged with a crime
opinion leader
an individual who influences the opinions of others
public interest group
an organization that supports causes that affect the lives of Americans in general
Engel v. Vitale
banned formal prayer in schools, goverment whould not make any religion the 'official' religion.
Motor Voter Law (1993)
citizens could register to vote when they registered for their license plate or drivers license
sexual harassment
comments, gestures, or physical contacts of a sexual nature that are deliberate, repeated, and unwelcome
Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)
constitutional amendment passed by Congress but never ratified that would have banned discrimination on the basis of gender
grandfather clause
created taxes and literacy laws with the intent of keeping African Americans from voting. These laws had the unintended effect of preventing some white Americans from voting, too. The grandfather clause restricted the right to vote to those who could prove their grandfathers had voted before 1867, allowing the disenfranchised whites to vote again while preventing African Americans from doing so.
Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC)
decides how monetary policy should be carried out by the Federal Reserve and is the most important body within the Federal Reserve System.
national committee
delegates who run party affairs between national conventions
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)
determined that state courts are required by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to provide counsel to indigent defendants in criminal cases.
Federalist No. 10
discusses factions (or single interest groups) that seek to dominate the political process.
Federalist No. 51
discusses the structural features of American government, including separation of powers and federalism.
reinventing government
driven by four guiding principles: (1) increase customer satisfaction, (2) institute less centralized management, (3) empower front-line employees, and (4) cut government services back to basics.
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
ensures the political, educational, social and economic equality of African Americans and other minority group citizens of the United States. It's the oldest, largest, and strongest civil rights organization in the United States.
Gitlow v. New York (1925)
established that the freedoms of speech and press are protected against state impairment by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Occupational Safety and Health Act (1970) (OSHA)
federal law setting and enforcing guidelines for protecting workers from unsafe conditions and potential health hazards in the workplace
Fifteenth Amendment
forbids a state to deny a person the right to vote because of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
AARP
formerly known as the American Association of Retired Persons, a national organization open to all adults age 50 and over, offering a wide range of informational materials, discounted services and products, and a powerful political lobby
liberty
freedom of choice
consensus
general agreement
prior restraint
government censorship of information before it is published or broadcast
means-tested programs
government programs providing benefits only to individuals who qualify based on specific needs
food stamps
government-issued coupons that recipients exchange for food
Nineteenth Amendment
granted women the right to vote in 1920
Omnibus Crime Bill (1997)
A bill with what appeared to be a wide-ranging ban on assault weapons that, under close inspection, was ineffective due to numerous loopholes.
liberal democracy
A political system that promotes participation, competition, and liberty and emphasizes individual freedom and civil rights.
elite theory
A political view that society is ruled by a small number of people who exercise power in their self-interest.
tracking poll
A poll taken on a nearly daily basis for a candidate as election day nears.
Dred Scott v. Sandford
1857 Supreme Court decision that stated that slaves were not citizens
muckraker
1906 - Journalists who searched for corruption in politics and big business
Kennedy-Nixon debates
1960 presidential debate; Kennedy looked better, more confident; first truly national television event
Twenty-Fifth Amendment
A 1967 amendment to the Constitution that establishes procedures for filling presidential and vice presidential vacancies and makes provisions for presidential disability.
Unfunded Mandate Reform Act
A 1995 act passed by Congress requiring federal agencies to consult with state and local governments before imposing a mandate.
Enlightenment
A European cultural movement that emphasized rationality and individualism.
United Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls Inc.
A Supreme Court decision stating that employers could not base hiring decisions on pregnancy or the possibility of pregnancy.
Romer v. Evans (1996)
A Supreme Court ruling benefitting gay and lesbian rights. In this case, the Court struck down a Colorado constitutional amendment that denied protection from discrimination to homosexuals
United States v. Virginia (1996)
A Supreme Court ruling holding that a state-supported school could not exclude women.
Washington County, Oregon v. Gunther
A Supreme Court ruling that stated women employees could sue their employers under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 for wage discrimination, even if they weren't performing the same jobs as men.
Super Tuesday
A Tuesday in early March in which many presidential primaries, particularly in the South, are held.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
A U.S. agency created to gather secret information about foreign governments.
conservatism
A belief that limited government insures order competitive markets and personal opportunity.
popular sovereignty
A belief that ultimate power resides in the people.
megabill
A bill with many provisions attached, with the aim of appealing to many legislators.
merit system
A system of public employment in which selection and promotion depend on demonstrated performance rather than political patronage.
amicus curiae brief
A brief is a document filed with a court containing a legal argument supporting a desired outcome in a particular case. An amicus curiae brief is filed by a party not directly involved in the litigation but with an interest in the outcome of the case. Amicus curiae is Latin for "friend of the court."
monopolistic model
A bureaucratic model that compares bureaucracies to monopolistic businesses. Without competition, the bureaucracy results in inefficiency and higher costs. And since there's no penalty for its inefficiency, the bureaucracy has no incentive to reduce its costs or use its resources more efficiently.
mission duplication
A bureaucratic pathology in which the roles of different agencies within the bureaucracy are the same, or overlap
mission conflict
A bureaucratic pathology in which the roles of different agencies within the bureaucracy interfere with one another.
McCleskey v. Kemp (1987)
A case in which the Court ruled that in the absence of clear proof of purposeful discrimination, the death penalty is valid.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
A case in which the Court upheld the power of the national government to establish a bank and denied the state of Maryland the power to tax a branch of that bank.
Miller v. California (1973)
A case that established a major reformulation of the legal test for determining obscenity.
Furman v. Georgia (1972)
A case that resulted in the death penalty being declared cruel and unusual punishment in violation of the Eighth Amendment.
symbolic politics
A cause of incrementalism, whereby politicians give the appearance of taking decisive action, in order to please the voting public, while they're actually avoiding making substantive policy changes in order to please specific interest groups.
eligible voter
A citizen that is legally eligible to vote in a government election
civil rights movement
A citizen's action movement during the 1950s and 1960s led mainly by African American religious leaders in support of equal rights and the end of racial discrimination and segregation.
Reagan coalition
A coalition supporting Ronald Reagan that included the traditional core of Republican Party voters, middle-class suburbanites and migrants to the Sunbelt states, blue-collar Catholics, and a large contingent of southern whites, an electorally key group of former Democrats that had been gradually moving toward the Republican Party since 1964.
political ideology
A coherent set of beliefs about politics, public policy, and public purpose, which helps give meaning to political events.
Federalist Papers
A collection of 85 articles written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison under the name "Publius" to defend the Constitution in detail.
New Deal coalition
A collection of groups who joined together to support Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal, including Catholics, Jews, union members, Southerners, people of lower income, middle-class urban liberals, and African Americans
bureaucracy problem
A collection of incentives and constraints facing those working to make government more efficient. They include accountability, equity, responsiveness, efficiency, and fiscal integrity.
national newspaper chain
A collection of newspapers owned by one individual or company that are distributed to many cities nationally. In theory a chain allows wider distribution of political news and ideas. They have also given increased power to those publishers aiming to influence politics.
interest group
A collection of people who share a common interest or attitude and seek to influence government for specific ends. Interest groups usually work within the framework of government and try to achieve their goals through tactics such as lobbying.
civil service
A collective term for the body of employees working for the government. Generally, civil service is understood to apply to all those who gain government employment through a merit system.
joint committee
A committee composed of members of both the House of Representatives and the Senate; such committees oversee the Library of Congress and conduct investigations.
political action committee (PAC)
A committee set up by a corporation, labor union, or interest group that raises and spends campaign money from voluntary donations
credentials committee
A committee used by political parties at their national conventions to determine which delegates may participate. The committee inspects the claim of each prospective delegate to be seated as a legitimate representative of his or her state.
agency imperialism
A common problem with governmental bureaucracies (and other bureaucracies as well), in which the agencies grow with no limit and without an eye to the benefits they're intended to provide.
legislative gridlock
A complete lack of movement or progress in the passage of legislation, typically resulting from conflicts between political parties or between the Congress and president.
coerced confessions
A confession brought about by force, threats, or promise of leniency.
Sixth Amendment
A constitutional amendment designed to protect individuals accused of crimes. It includes the right to counsel, the right to confront witnesses, and the right to a speedy and public trial.
Fourteenth Amendment
A constitutional amendment giving full rights of citizenship to all people born or naturalized in the United States, except for American Indians.
Senate
A council of representatives
Barron v. Baltimore
A court case (1833) holding that the Bill of Rights limits only the federal government not state governments.
Harris v. Forklift Systems Inc. (1993)
A court ruling that helped establish guidelines for sexual discrimination cases. The ruling stated that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act prohibits sexual discrimination even when promotions are not an issue and that employees deserved to work in a environment free of hostility.
appellate court
A court that hears appeals on points of law decided by trial courts.
justiciable dispute
A dispute growing out of an actual case or controversy and that is capable of settlement by legal methods.
safe seat
A district that returns a legislator with 55 percent of the vote or more.
incrementalism
A doctrine that holds that change in a political system occurs only by small steps, each of which should be carefully considered before proceeding to the next one.
expanding electorate
A factor contributing to low-voter turnout. Since voter turnout rates are based on statistics counting all potential or eligible voters, rather than registered voters, an expanding electorate negatively impacts the overall voter turnout rate.
Medicaid
A federal and state assistance program that pays for health care services for people who cannot afford them.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
A federal commission established by the 1964 Civil Rights Act that (1) sets regulations, investigates, mediates, and brings suit against private employers, unions, or community organizations to end employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, gender, national origin, and age, and (2) promotes voluntary action to foster equal job opportunities.
Medicare
A federal program of health insurance for persons 65 years of age and older
republic
A form of government in which citizens choose their leaders by voting
executive agreement
A formal agreement between the U.S. president and the leaders of other nations that does not require Senate approval.
stability
A gauge for determining the consistency of public opinion on a certain issue over time.
stereotype
A generalized belief about a group of people
in-kind subsidy
A good or service-such as food stamps, housing, or medical care-provided by the government to low-income groups.
government corporation
A government agency that operates like a business corporation, created to secure greater freedom of action and flexibility for a particular program.
tyranny
A government in which a single ruler is vested with absolute power; absolute power, especially when exercised unjustly or cruelly.
line organization
A government or corporate unit responsible for providing services or products to the public, in contrast to a staff agency, which serves other agencies
subsidy
A government payment that supports a business or market
Social Security
A government program that provides economic assistance to persons faced with unemployment, disability, or age, financed by assessment of taxes on employers and employees.
political party
A group of individuals with broad common interests who organize to nominate candidates for office, win elections, conduct government, and determine public policy
electoral college
A group of people named by each state legislature to select the president and vice president
legislature
A group of people who have the power to make laws
faction
A group or clique within a larger group, party, or government
peer group
A group whose members share common relevant social characteristics. These groups play an important part in the socialization process, helping to shape attitudes and beliefs.
safety net
A guarantee, as of professional, physical, or financial security.
judicial activism
A judicial philosophy in which judges make bold policy decisions, even charting new constitutional ground. Advocates of this approach emphasize that the courts can correct pressing needs, especially those unmet by the majoritarian political process.
grand jury
A jury of 12 to 23 persons who, in private, hear evidence presented by the government to determine whether persons shall be required to stand trial. If the jury believes there is sufficient evidence that a crime was committed, it issues an indictment.
Federal Election Campaign Act
A law passed in 1974 for reforming campaign finances. The act created the Federal Election Commission, provided public financing for presidential primaries and general elections, limited presidential campaign spending, required disclosure, and attempted to limit contributions.
War Powers Act (1973)
A law specifying certain conditions the president must meet to commit U.S. troops without the approval of Congress. The War Powers Act attempted to close a loophole by which presidents were able to get around the constitutional requirement that only Congress can declare war.
criminal law
A law that defines crimes against the public order.
class-action suit
A lawsuit filed by an individual seeking damages for "all persons similarly situated."
loophole
A legal method by which individuals and businesses are allowed to reduce the tax liabilities owed to the government.
authorization
A legislative action establishing or continuing a certain amount of funding for an agency. Some authorizations terminate in a year; others are automatically renewed without further action.
representative democracy
A system of government in which citizens elect representatives, or leaders, to make decisions about the laws for all the people.
majority leader of the House
A legislative position held by an important party member in the House of Representatives. The majority leader is selected by the majority party in caucus or conference to foster cohesion among party members and to act as spokesperson for the majority party in the House.
trustee
A legislator who acts according to her or his conscience and the broad interests of the entire society.
instructed delegate
A legislator who is an agent of the voters who elected him or her and who votes according to the views of constituents regardless of personal beliefs.
lifetime appointment
A length of term in office granted to most federal judges as required by Constitution. Once appointed, these judges can stay in office as long as they wish. Judges are granted lifetime appointments in order to free them from partisan battles and the possibility that the fear of losing their jobs will influence their legal decisions.
government agenda
A list of issues the government chooses to address, as distinct from the public agenda, the list of items the public would like the government to address.
Democratic Party (Democrats)
A major American political party that evolved from the Democratic-Republican group supporting Thomas Jefferson.
Clayton Anti-Trust Act
A major antitrust act aimed at increasing competition in business.
party caucus
A meeting of party members in one of the houses of a legislature to make decisions on selection of party leaders and on legislative business.
veto message
A message from the president to Congress stating that he will not sign a bill it has passed. Must be produced within ten days of the bill's passage.
glass ceiling
A metaphor alluding to the invisible barriers that prevent minorities and women from being promoted to top corporate positions.
plurality runoff method
A method used in some Southern states. If no candidate receives a majority vote, a second, runoff election is held between the two highest vote-getters.
Weberian model
A model of bureaucracy developed by the German sociologist Max Weber, who viewed bureaucracies as rational, hierarchical organizations in which decisions are based on logical reasoning.
acquisitive model
A model of bureaucracy in which top-level bureaucrats seek to expand their budgets and staff to gain greater power and influence in the public sector.
garbage can model
A model of decision making whereby, problems, solutions, participants, and choices flow throughout an organization. A decision process is not viewed as a sequence of steps that begins with a problem and ends with a solution
purposive incentive
A motivation that's dependent on ethical beliefs, values, or ideological principles.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
A national agency charged with safeguarding consumers from impure food and medications.
spin-off party
A new party created when a faction within an earlier party becomes dissatisfied with that party and forms their own.
super-delegate
A party leader or election official who's granted the right to vote at a party's national convention due to the leader's political position, not due to an election at state level.
standing committee
A permanent committee within the House or Senate charged with considering bills within certain, specific subject areas.
delegate
A person appointed or elected to represent others
Anti-Federalist
A person opposed to the adoption of the Constitution because of its centralist tendencies and who attacked the Constitution's framers for failing to include a bill of rights.
reactionary
A person who advocates substantial political, social or economic changes, favoring a return to an earlier, more conservative system
conservative
A person who believes government power, particularly in the economy, should be limited in order to maximize individual freedom.
ideology
A person's or group of people's political or economic beliefs, ideas, values, concerns, and goals.
gender gap
A phrase frequently used to describe the different voting patterns of men and women.
National Partnership for Reinventing Government
A plan for bureaucratic reform launched under President Clinton and headed by Vice President Al Gore. It's commonly known as "the plan to reinvent government."
affirmative action
A policy in hiring that gives consideration or compensatory treatment to traditionally disadvantaged groups in an effort to overcome the present effects of past discrimination.
franking
A policy that enables members of Congress to send material through the mail by substituting their facsimile signature (frank) for postage.
third party
A political party organized in opposition to the major parties in a two-party system
party platform
A political party's statement of its goals and policies for the next four years. The platform is drafted prior to the party convention by a committee whose members are chosen in rough proportion to each candidate's strength. It is the best formal statement of a party's beliefs.
confederation
A political system in which states or regional governments have ultimate authority except for those powers expressly delegated to a central government. Member governments voluntarily agree to limited restraints on their actions.
discharge petition
A procedure by which a bill in the House of Representatives may be forced (discharged) out of a committee that has refused to report it for consideration by the House. The petition must be signed by an absolute majority (218) of representatives and is used only on rare occasions.
cloture
A procedure used in the Senate to limit debate on a bill
realignment
A process in which a substantial group of voters switches party allegiance, producing a long-term change in the political landscape.
equal protection clause
A provision of the Fourteenth Amendment, which says that states may not arbitrarily discriminate against persons.
Federal Register
A publication of the U.S. government that prints executive orders, rules, and regulations.
minority
A racial or ethnic group smaller than and differing from the majority race or ethnicity in a particular area or region.
environmental impact statement (EIS)
A report that must show the costs and benefits of major federal actions that could significantly affect the quality of the environment.
writ of certiorari (cert)
A request from a higher court to a lower court to send up a case's record so that the higher court can review it. Most cases come to the Supreme Court in this manner instead of through an appeal. A party must petition a court to issue a writ of certiorari, and fewer than 5 percent of the petitions are granted.
poll tax
A requirement that citizens pay a tax in order to register to vote
first budget resolution
A resolution passed by Congress in May that sets overall revenue and spending goals for the following fiscal year.
second budget resolution
A resolution passed by Congress in September that sets "binding" limits on taxes and spending for the following fiscal year.
executive order
A rule or regulation issued by the president that has the effect of law. Executive orders can implement and give effect to provisions in the Constitution, to treaties, and to statutes.
bad-tendency rule
A rule stating that speech or other First Amendment freedoms may be curtailed if there is a possibility that such expression might lead to some "evil"
Miranda v. Arizona (1966)
A ruling on criminal procedures to secure the privilege against self-incrimination. It held that criminal suspects must be informed of their rights.
Australian ballot
A secret ballot printed by the state.
death penalty (capital punishment)
A sentence of punishment by execution, generally now limited to the crime of murder.
dissenting opinion
A separate opinion in which a judge dissents from (disagrees with) the conclusion reached by the majority on the court and expounds his or her own views about the case.
Miranda warning
A series of statements informing criminal suspects, on their arrest, of their constitutional rights, such as the right to remain silent and the right to counsel: required by Supreme Court's 1966 decision in Miranda v. Arizona
low voter turnout
A situation in which only a small percentage of eligible voters actually cast their votes in an election. This is seen as a problem in the American political system.
focus group
A small group of individuals who are led in discussion by a professional consultant in order to gather opinions on and responses to candidates and issues.
federal circuit court of appeal
A special court established by Congress in 1982 to be on the same footing as the existing twelve Courts of Appeals but with nationwide jurisdiction based on subject matter rather than geographic area. It covers, in particular, business, trade, and civil service.
Appropriations Committee
A standing committee in the House of Representative that recommends how much money to provide to federal agencies.
finance committee
A standing committee in the Senate, in charge in taxes.
Rules Committee
A standing committee of the House of Representatives that provides special rules under which specific bills can be debated, amended, and considered by the house.
Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC)
A state-administered program providing financial assistance to families in which dependent children do not have the financial support of the father, owing to the father's desertion, disability, or death. The program is financed in part by federal grants.
general election
A statewide election usually held shortly after a primary election to fill state and national offices.
Madisonian model
A structure of government proposed by James Madison in which the powers of the government are separated into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.
theory
A supposition about how or why events occur.
patronage system
A system in which elected officials make appointments to office or to confer contracts or other special favors based on party affiliation.
federalism
A system in which power is divided between the national and state governments
confederal system of government
A system of government consisting of a league of independent states, each having sovereign powers. The central government created by such a league has only limited and delegated powers over the states
dual federalism
A system of government in which both the states and the national government remain supreme within their own spheres, each responsible for some policies.
tyranny of the majority
Abuse of the minority by the majority through excessive use of power
Freedom to Farm Act (1996)
Act that phased out price supports for American farmers and left agricultural prices to be determined by market forces.
age discrimination
Action taken based solely or primarily on a person's age, without regard to actual qualifications or abilities. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act protects persons age 40 and over from employment discrimination based on age.
social movement
Activation of a segment of the public for political, economic, or social change.
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)
Affirmed federal control of interstate commerce under commerce clause of the Constitution.
plea bargain
Agreement between a prosecutor and a defendant that the defendant will plead guilty to a lesser offense to avoid having to stand trial for a more serious offense.
judicial review
Allows the court to determine the constitutionality of laws
Tenth Amendment
Amendment stating that the powers not delegated to the federal gov. are reserved to the states
ACLU
American Civil Liberties Union, a nonprofit interest group with 275,000 members (in 1998) dedicated to preserving the liberties guaranteed in the Bill of Rights.
Hearst, William Randolph (1863-1951)
American newspaper and magazine publisher. He eventually had the world's largest publishing empire.
fairness doctrine
An FCC requirement that broadcasters who air programs on controversial issues provide time for opposing views
National School Lunch Act (1946)
An act passed in 1946 that provided lunch for school children who couldn't afford their own.
Americans with Disabilities Act (1990)
An act providing protection against discrimination in employment, pubic service, transportation, and telecommunications for disabled people.
Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act (1993)
An act requiring a five-day waiting period before a person can buy a handgun. Named after James Brady, who was injured during John Hinckley's assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan, the "Brad Act" required law enforcement agencies to run background checks on people applying for handguns.
Gun-Free Zones Act (1990)
An act that banned the possession of handguns within one thousand feet of any school. In 1995, the Supreme Court ruled that Congress exceeded their authority in passing this law.
Pendleton Act (Civil Service Reform Act)
An act that established the principle of employment on the basis of merit and created the Civil Service Commission to administer the personnel service.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
An act that forbids discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, and sex.
Civil Rights Act of 1991
An act that reaffirmed and expanded protection against discrimination in employment.
Civil Service Reform Act (1978)
An act that reformed the federal bureaucracy. It established the Office of Personnel Management and the Merit Systems Protection Board.
Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act (1946)
An act that sought to regulate the lobbying activities of pressure groups
impeachment
An action by the House of Representatives to accuse the president, vice president, or other civil officers of the United States of committing "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors."
National Security Council (NSC)
An agency in the Executive Office of the President that advises the president on national security
independent regulatory agency
An agency outside the major executive departments charged with making and implementing rules and regulations.
administrative agency
An agency that is part of the executive branch, an independent agency, or an independent regulatory agency (for example, the Federal Trade Commission, the Securities and Exchange Commission, and the Federal Communications Commission). State and local governments also have administrative agencies.
calendar
An agenda, or list, that contains the names of bills or resolutions to be considered before committees or in either chamber of a legislature.
interstate compact
An agreement among two or more states. Congress must approve most such agreements.
matching fund
An agreement between two levels of government in which each level agrees to contribute funds to a specific project. These agreements can be between federal and state governments, federal and local governments, or state and local governments. The "match" usually isn't dollar for dollar. In some cases the smaller government contributes as little as 10 percent.
logrolling
An agreement by two or more lawmakers to support each other's bills
cost-plus contracting
An agreement with the Department of Defense in which the DOD guarantees to the private company repayment of all costs involved in producing the hardware or service, plus an agreed upon amount or percentage of costs as profit.
State of the Union message
An annual message to Congress in which the president proposes a legislative program. The message is addressed not only to Congress but also to the American people and to the world.
state
An area organized into a political unit and ruled by an established government with control over its internal and foreign affairs.
mandatory set-aside
An aspect of affirmative action programs in which a specific number of construction contracts are allocated to minority-owned businesses. Ruled illegal in 1989.
rational ignorance effect
An effect produced when people purposely and rationally decide not to become informed on an issue because they believe that their vote on the issue is not likely to be a deciding one; a lack of incentive to seek the necessary information to cast an intelligent vote.
politico
An elected representative who acts as a trustee or as a delegate, depending on the issue
indirect election
An election in which voters do not vote to fill the office but vote for the people who will cast the votes to fill the office.
sustaining election
An election in which voters reaffirm their support for the party in power and its policies.
critical election
An election that establishes the dominance of a particular political party that lasts for a period of time.
single-member district
An electoral district in which voters choose one representative or official.
proportional voting system (proportional representation)
An electoral system that allocates seats in the legislature to each party or group approximately equal to its popular voting strength.
two-party system
An electoral system with two dominant parties that compete in national elections.
Senior Executive Service
An elite cadre of about 9,000 federal government managers at the top of the civil service system.
institution
An established organization that performs a role within society, especially one related to education, public service, or culture
symbolic speech
An expression of beliefs through means other than speech, such as picketing or wearing items that signify protest.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
An independent federal agency that regulates interstate and international communication by radio, television, telephone, telegraph, cable, and satellite.
Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC)
An independent regulatory commission that regulates business operations, services, and rates of interstate carriers.
emergency power
An inherent power exercised by the president during a period of national crisis.
direct technique
An interest group technique that uses direct interaction with government officials to further the group's goals.
private interest group
An interest group working in the interests of a small group of people, as opposed to a public interest group.
political question
An issue the Supreme Court will allow the executive and legislative branches decide
Speaker of the House
An office mandated by the Constitution. The Speaker is chosen in practice by the majority party, has both formal and informal powers, and is second in line to succeed to the presidency should that office become vacant.
gag order
An order issued by a judge restricting the publication of news about a trial or a pretrial hearing to protect the accused's right to a fair trial.
Executive Office of the President (EOP)
An organization established by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to assist the president in carrying out major duties.
elastic clause
Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution, which allows Congress to make all laws that are "necessary and proper" to carry out the powers of the Constitution.
supremacy clause
Article VI of the Constitution, which makes the Constitution, national laws, and treaties supreme over state laws when the national government is acting within its constitutional limits.
rule of four
At least four justices of the Supreme Court must vote to consider a case before it can be heard
appellate jurisdiction
Authority of court to review a decision of a lower court or administrative agency.
General Service (GS) system
Basic pay system for the federal government's white collar employees.
soft money
Campaign contributions unregulated by federal or state law, usually given to parties and party committees to help fund general party activities.
plurality
Candidate or party with the most votes cast in an election, not necessarily more than half.
deserving and undeserving poor
Categorization of poor by many Americans into poor who deserve welfare help because they can't help themselves and those who don't deserve welfare help because it's assumed they can help themselves but choose not to.
Greenspan, Alan
Chairman of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors.
formal presidential roles
Chief diplomat, chief executive, chief legislator, chief of party, chief of state, commander in chief.
veto
Chief executive's power to reject a bill passed by a legislature
establishment clause
Clause in the First Amendment that says the government may not establish an official religion.
commerce clause
Clause stating that Congress can regulate interstate and international commerce.
commercial speech
Communication in the form of advertising. It can be restricted more than many other types of speech but has been receiving increased protection from the Supreme Court.
First Amendment
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.
subcommittee
Congressional committees formed as a means of easing the legislative workload and dispersing some of the power amassed by long-serving committee chairs.
congressional oversight functions
Congressional responsibility to determine if the laws they've passed are being enacted and enforced in the way Congress intended them to be.
affirm
In an appellate court, to reach a decision that agrees with the decision reached in a lower court.
busing
In the context of civil rights, the transportation of public school students from areas where they live to schools in other areas to eliminate school segregation based on residential patterns.
Washington community
Individuals regularly involved with politics in Washington, D.C.
agents of socialization
Institutions through which people learn the core values of their society and political culture. They include family, educational institutions, peers, media, gender, and religion.
linkage institutions
Institutions, such as political parties, that provide a link between citizens and the government.
red scare
Intense fear of communism and other politically radical ideas
actual malice
Intent to have another suffer by one's actions. In libel cases, actual malice generally consists of intentionally publishing a statement that's injurious to the character of another, knowing that the statement is false or acting with reckless disregard of the truth.
single-issue group
Interest group concerned with a single issue
National Labor Relations Board (NLRB)
It regulates unfair labor practices and labor-management relations, and guarantees labor's right to organize and bargain collectively through representatives of their choosing.
Democratic-Republican
Jefferson's political party; feared a strong central government
mark up (session)
Joint action by a committee of House and Senate members in which a bill is approved or revised on a section-by-section basis.
investigative journalism
Journalism in which writers actively seek to uncover detailed descriptions of wrongdoings.
yellow journalism
Journalism that exploits, distorts, or exaggerates the news to create sensations and attract readers
statutory law
Law passed by the U.S. Congress or state legislatures
sunset legislation
Laws requiring that existing programs be reviewed regularly for their effectiveness and be terminated unless specifically extended as a result of these reviews.
registration requirements
Legal barriers enforced on all potential voters
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
Legalized segregation in publicly owned facilities on the basis of "separate but equal."
resolutions
Legislative opinions on a matter that do not require Presidential signature.
hecklers' veto
Loud and unruly behavior intended to disrupt a public speaker and therefore "veto" his or her right to speak.
double security
Madison's belief, expressed in Federalist No. 51, that federalism and the separation of powers would protect citizens from governmental abuses of power by dividing power both within the branches of the national government and between the national government and the state governments. For more discussion of this concept, refer to the chapter on the Founding and the Constitution.
mischiefs of faction
Madison's reference, in Federalist No. 10, to his concern about the dangers posed by "factions," or groups, who might attempt to dominate the political process. He warned such dangers could take place if political parties misused their freedom and created conflict by pitting their interests against one another. While factions will always exist, Madison argued, a republican (or representative) system could control them.
rage for paper money
Madison's reference, in Federalist No. 10, to the decision by some state governments to print currency that was not backed by gold. This meant the money was essentially worthless, yet it would allow farmers and other debtors to pay off their debts. This action was perceived as a threat by creditors and other members of the propertied class, of which Madison was one.
Republican Party (Republicans)
One of the two major American political parties at the moment, along with the Democrats. The Republican Party emerged in the 1850s as a party opposed to slavery. It succeeded two former parties, the Federalists and the Whigs. Presently the Republican Party is generally conservative in nature. Voter support for Republicans tend to increase with increased levels of income, education, and property ownership.
horse race coverage
Media coverage of electoral campaigns that concentrates on who is ahead and who is behind, and neglects the issues at stake.
solidary incentive
Motivation based on shared associations, hobbies, or interests.
Progressive Period
Movement that began after the Civil War and peaked during the early 20th century. Most progressives wanted to remove corruption and partisanship from politics. The progressives can be seen as a reaction against the Jacksonian model.
entrepreneurial government
New model of government advocated as a replacement for our current bureaucratic government system. Promotes competition among service providers, empowerment of citizens, focusing on outcomes, reaching goals and missions, redefining clients as customers, preventing problems before they surface, earning money, decentralizing authority, use of market mechanisms, and serving as a catalyst to promote action in the public, private, and voluntary sectors of communities.
managed news
News the government produces that's designed more to make the government and its interests, policies, and action look good (or less bad, as the case may be) than to deliver complete, truthful, and accurate information to the public.
Whig party (Whigs)
One of most influential and important U.S. political organizations during the first half of the 19th century. The Whig party was formed in 1836 and was dominated by the forces opposed to Andrew Jackson (the same forces that organized the National Republican faction of the Democratic (Jeffersonian) Republicans). The Whigs fell apart as a party in the early 1850s because they were not as effective at capturing anti-slavery sentiments as the Republicans were.
platform plank
One of the articles, or statements, in a party platform.
unicameral legislature
One-house legislature
aggregate opinion
Opinion shared by group of people.
due process rights
Protection against arbitrary deprivation of life, liberty, or property.
Fourth Amendment
Protects against unreasonable search and seizure
spin
Public-relations campaign interpretation of events or election results that are intended to help a candidate or elected official.
opinion poll
Questioning a selected sample of people that are considered representative of a population (the entire United States or a smaller group, for example) on a given topic or topics.
de jure segregation
Racial segregation that occurs because of laws or administrative decisions by public agencies.
"with all deliberate speed"
Reference made in the Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education about undertaking racial integration of schools quickly. The term "deliberate" was used as a loophole by some officials who wanted to delay desegregation.
Community of Memory
Refers to a community's history and the steps taken to remember and learn from its past. Such communities seek to honor the men and women exemplifying the meaning of the community through the retelling of its story.
indirect regulation
Regulation that's not written to target a specific firm or industry but affects them anyway.
White House press corps
Reporters from various news organizations with the full-time assignment of covering and reporting on the presidency.
delegate to ratifying convention
Representatives from each of the 13 original states who attended their state conventions to ratify the Constitution. These delegates were chosen by special elections. Nine of the 13 states had to vote to ratify for the Constitution to become the law of the land.
Equal Pay Act (1963)
Requires that men and women be paid the same amount for doing the same job
direct quote
Restating someone else's words exactly as they appeared in the original source. Direct quotes should be indicated by quotation marks.
Second Amendment
Right to bear arms
informal presidential roles
Roles not assigned by the Constitution that the president fills along with the formal roles that come with the position, including party chief, economic chief, and chief of public opinion.
full faith and credit clause
Section of Article IV of the Constitution that ensures judicial decrees and contracts made in one state will be binding and enforceable in any other state.
de facto segregation
Segregation resulting from economic or social conditions or personal choice.
Declaration of Independence
Signed in 1776 by US revolutionaries; it declared the United States as a free state.
gender discrimination
Singling out or excluding a person based on gender
collective good
Something enjoyed by all members of a society or community, such as clean air.
policy cycle
Stages through which policy passes, including, in order : agenda setting, policy formulation, policy adoption, policy implementation, and policy evaluation.
privileges and immunities
States are prohibited from unreasonably discriminating against residents of other states (article 4)
Near v. Minnesota (1931)
The Supreme Court decision holding that the First Amendment protects newspapers from prior restraint.
United States v. Lopez (1995)
The Supreme Court ruling stating that Congress exceeded its authority under the commerce clause of the Constitution when it passed the Gun-Free School Zones Act in 1990, which banned the possession of handguns within 1,000 feet of any school.
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas
The U.S. Supreme Court decision establishing that segregation of the races in public schools violates the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution.
legitimacy
The acceptance of a government's right to rule by the people the government rules. It rises from a shared belief that the government is operating as it should, that is, making decisions by following correct decision-making policies and using power appropriately within a justly defined constitutional role. By granting legitimacy to a government, people regard the government as valuable, its decisions and actions as valid and binding, and worthy of a certain level of obedience and compliance.
Welfare Reform Act (1996)
The act that eliminated the federal AFDC (Aid to Families with Dependent Children) program and replaced it with block grants to the states so they could administer their own welfare programs as they saw fit.
Twelfth Amendment
The amendment (1804) that calls for separate ballots to be used by the electoral college when voting for president and vice president. Before that, the president was the candidate who received the most votes, and the vice president the candidate who received the second most.
Emancipation Proclamation
The announcement issued by President Lincoln freeing the slaves.
fall review
The annual process in which the Office of Management and Budget, after receiving formal federal agency requests for funding for the next fiscal year, reviews the requests, makes changes, and submits its recommendations to the president.
policy adoption
The approval of a policy proposal by the people with the requisite authority, such as a legislature.
chief of staff
The assistant to the president who directs the White House Office and advises the president.
legislative veto
The authority of Congress to block a presidential action after it has taken place. The Supreme Court has held that Congress does not have this power
Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890)
The basic federal antimonopoly law that prohibits monopolies in trade, or commerce.
liberalism
The belief that people are rational beings who can use their intelligence to create a better world, overcoming social and natural obstacles.
"leader of the free world"
The belief that the United States, and in particular the president, is responsible for safeguarding the freedom and liberty of all nations. This belief grew from hostilities between the U.S. and U.S.S.R. during the Cold War.
executive budget
The budget prepared and submitted by the president to Congress.
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
The case that held invalid a state medical school admissions program based on a specific racial quota, but upheld the use of race as a factor in admissions decisions.
New York Times v. Sullivan (1964)
The case that held that a public official could not recover civil libel damages for criticism of his or her official conduct by a newspaper or other persons.
Schenck v. United States
The case that upheld a conviction against Schenck, who circulated materials urging men to resist the call to military service during World War I.
fluidity
The changing of public opinion as time passes.
pocket veto
The chief executive's special veto power exercised after the legislative body adjourns. By not signing a passed bill within a specific time, the chief executive in effect "vetoes" the bill.
Articles of Confederation
The compact made among the 13 original states to form the basis of their government. Officially adopted in 1781.
Great Compromise
The compromise reached during the Constitutional Convention of 1787 between the New Jersey and Virginia plans, creating a bicameral government with states represented equally in the senate and by population in the House of Representatives.
marketplace of ideas
The concept that government has no role in managing or controlling the flow of ideas, arguments, or opinions that occur naturally in a society, and that this flow, if left unhindered, will eventually result in the best ideas rising to the top.
committee chair
The congressional member who heads a particular committee.
Rehnquist Court
The conservative justice who was on the Burger Court that became chief justice; as chief justice he led a conservative revolution that left power up to the states over Congress; ruled on Bush v. Gore
Twenty-Fourth Amendment
The constitutional amendment passed in 1964 that declared poll taxes void in federal elections.
appointment power
The president's authority to fill a government office or position. Positions filled by presidential appointment include those in the executive branch, the federal judiciary, commissioned officers in the armed forces, and members of independent regulatory commissions.
Cabinet
The president's core advisory group.
chief of state
The president's role as ceremonial head of the government.
front runner
The presidential candidate who appears to be ahead at a given time in the primary season
Economic Chief
The presidential role involving management of the national economy. In this role, the president is responsible for smoothing out the rough edges of the capitalist business cycle by taking action to curb inflation, lower unemployment, and adjust the international trade balance.
president pro tem (or pro tempore)
The presiding officer of the Senate when the vice president is absent. They are nominated by the leading party of the Senate and are elected by the Senate. They are the fourth in line for the presidency in the event that the president, vice president, and Speaker of the House have all died or are unable to fill the office. The position usually goes to the majority's party's senior member.
selective incorporation
The process by which provisions of the Bill of Rights are brought within the scope of the Fourteenth Amendment and so applied to state and local governments.
incorporation theory
The process by which the provisions of the Bill of Rights were applied as limitations on state government action.
political socialization
The process by which we develop our political attitudes, values, and beliefs.
lawmaking
The process of establishing the legal rules that govern society
reapportionment
The process of reallocating seats in the House of Representatives every 10 years on the basis of the results of the census.
rights of the accused
The protections that the Constitution guarantees to citizens who are accused of crimes.
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act (1964)
The provision that allows the federal government to cut off funds to state and local programs that discriminate against women or minorities.
relevance
The quality of information that indicates the information makes a difference in a decision.
congressional reapportionment
The reallocation of legislative seats, based on population.
representation
The responsibility that congressional members have as elected officials to represent the views of their constituents.
universal suffrage
The right of all people to vote.
executive privilege
The right of officials in the executive branch to refuse to appear before, or to withhold information from, a legislative committee or judicial proceeding.
chief executive
The role of the president as head of the executive branch of the government.
commander in chief
The role of the president as supreme commander of the military forces of the United States and of the state National Guard units when they are called into federal service
political party chief (chief of party)
The role of the president as the nation's partisan political leader.
chief legislator
The role of the president in influencing the making of laws.
chief diplomat
The role of the president in recognizing foreign governments, making treaties, and effecting executive agreements.
vice president
The second highest executive officer of the United States, who is also the presiding officer of the Senate.
policy formulation
The second stage of the policy cycle, in which government officials consider various policy proposals and attempt to respond to the concerns of interest groups and other segments of the public.
self-incrimination
The situation occurring when an individual accused of a crime is compelled to be a witness against himself or herself in court. The Fifth Amendment forbids self-incrimination.
horizontal federalism
The state-to-state relationships created by the U.S. Constitution.
intensity
The strength with which one feels for or against a public policy or issue.
telescoping effect
The tendency to displace recent events backward in time and remote events forward in time, so that recent events appear more remote, and remote events, more recent.
Tuesday-Thursday Club
The term refers to the House members who go home to their districts for long weekends. Often criticized for not doing "real work" in Washington
iron triangle
The three-way alliance among legislators, bureaucrats, and interest groups to make or preserve policies that benefit their respective interests.
spring review
The time every year when the Office of Management and Budget requires federal agencies to review their programs, activities, and goals and submit their requests for funding for the next fiscal year.
indirect technique
The use by interest groups of third parties to influence government officials and their decisions.
Civil War
The war between the Northern and the Southern states — the Union and the Confederacy — from 1861 to 1865.
Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson (1986)
This case held that sexual harassment can be considered a form of sex discrimination.
Marbury v. Madison (1803)
This case that struck down for the first time in U.S. history an act of Congress as unconstitutional. It declared the Constitution to be the supreme law of the United States, and that it is "the duty of the justice department to say what the law is."
Iran-Contra affair
This involved high officials in the Reagan administration secretly selling arms to Iran (in return for the release of Western hostages in the Middle East) and illegally using the proceeds to finance the Contra rebels in Nicaragua.
position taking, credit claiming, and advertising
Three activities that political scientist David Mayhew claims legislators engage in to satisfy their main goal: reelection. The legislator introduces legislation (position claiming), takes credit for the legislation (credit claiming), and advertises his or her success and hard work in the reelection campaign.
reverse
To annul or make void a court ruling on account of some error or irregularity.
litigate
To take part in a legal action or attempt to settle dispute in a court of law
bureaucratic waste
Unnecessary bureaucratic spending of money without providing real benefits.
Gregg v. Georgia (1976)
Upheld new Georgia death penalty laws requiring dual-phase trial and special circumstances; capital punishment does not constitute cruel & unusual punishment of 8th Amendment.
swing voters
Voters who frequently swing their support from one party to another.
ticket splitting
Voting with one party for one office and with another party for other offices. It has become the norm in American voting behavior.
non-contributory welfare
Welfare programs that don't require a contribution to receive a benefit. Examples include AFDC and Medicaid.
contributory welfare
Welfare programs that provide benefits to individuals who have also contributed to the programs. Examples include social security and Medicare.
public debt financing
When the national government spends more than it brings in, and pays for the difference by issuing U.S. Treasury bonds, which increase the debt.
fighting words
Words uttered by a public speaker that could provoke the average listener to immediate acts of violence. The words are usually derogatory or offensive to someone's race, religion, or ethnicity. These utterances are not protected by the First Amendment.
defamation of character
Wrongfully hurting a person's good reputation. The law imposes a general duty on all persons to refrain from making false, defamatory statements about others.
entitlement
a benefit provided by the government to which recipients have a legally enforceable right.
selective incentive
a benefit that a group can offer to potential members in exchange for participation as a way to encourage that involvement
sound bite
a brief, memorable comment that can easily be fit into news broadcasts
quota system
a certain number of educational or employment positions are reserved for minority group members.
party identification
a citizen's self-proclaimed preference for one party or the other
appropriation
a congressional act or bill that sets aside funds for a specific purpose
policy
a course or principle of action adopted or proposed by a government, party, business, or individual.
unanimous opinion
a court opinion or determination on which all judges agree
subpoena
a court order requiring appearance and/or testimony
bill
a draft of a proposed law presented to parliament for discussion.
precinct
a geographic area that contains a specific number of voters
economic interest group
a group with the primary purpose of promoting the financial interests of its members
Voting Rights Act (1965)
a law designed to help end formal and informal barriers to African-American suffrage
bicameral legislature
a lawmaking body made up of two chambers or parts
political agenda
a list of issues that need government attention
political consultant
a paid professional hired to devise a campaign strategy and manage a campaign
oral argument
stage in Supreme Court procedure in which attorneys for both sides appear before the Court to present their positions and answer questions posed by justices
socioeconomic status
status in society based on level of education, income, and occupational prestige
cooperative federalism
system in which both federal government and state governments cooperate in solving problems
New Federalism
system in which the national government restores greater authority back to the states
plagiarism
taking credit for someone else's writing or ideas
narrowcasting
targeting media programming at specific populations within society
clear and present danger test
test to determine whether speech is protected or unprotected, based on its capacity to present a "clear and present danger" to society
Warren Court
the Supreme Court during the period when Earl Warren was chief justice, noted for its activism in the areas of civil rights and free speech
power
the ability of one person to get another person to act in accordance with the first person's intentions
indictment
the act of accusing; a formal accusation
capture
the act of gaining direct or indirect control over a regulatory agency's personnel and decision makers by the industry that is being regulated.
Federal Reserve Bank (the Fed)
the central bank of the United States
demographics
the characteristics of a population with respect to age, race, and gender.
comparable worth
the concept that women and men should receive equal pay for jobs calling for comparable skill and responsibility
public interest
the concerns of society as a whole
incumbent
the current officeholder
separate but equal doctrine
the doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) that African Americans could constitutionally be kept in separate but equal facilities
gerrymandering
the drawing of legislative district boundaries to benefit a party, group, or incumbent
monopoly
the exclusive possession or control of the supply or trade in a commodity or service.
trial court
the first court to hear a criminal or civil case
inner Cabinet
the four original departments (State, Defense, Treasury, and Justice) whose secretaries typically have the closest ties to the president
U.S. Supreme Court
the highest court of the United States; it sits at the top of the federal court system
natural rights
the idea that all humans are born with rights, which include the right to life, liberty, and property
coattail effect
the influence of a popular presidential candidate on the election of congressional candidates of the same party
generational effect
the influence of an important external event in shaping the views of a generation
