APUSH Foner Chapter 22
Servicemen's Readjustment Act/G.I Bill
(1944)- Legislation passed by Congress that provided college or vocational training for returning WWII veterans as well as one year of unemployment compensation. Also provided for loans for returning veterans to buy homes and start businesses. -Was one of the most far-reaching pieces of legislation in American history because aimed at rewarding members of the armed force for their service and preventing the widespread postwar unemployment and economic disruption from occurring as it did following WWI. Effects: -By 1946 over 1 million veterans were attending college under its provisions, making up for half of the total college enrollment. Almost 4 million received home mortgages, one of the main stimuli for the postwar suburban housing boom.
Bretton Woods Conference
1944, (FDR) , The common name for the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held in New Hampshire, 44 nations at war with the Axis powers met to create a world bank to stabilize international currency, increase investment in under-developed areas, and speed the economic recovery of Europe. Setting up a system of rules, institutions, and procedures to regulate the international monetary system, the planners at Bretton Woods established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which today is part of the World Bank Group. The chief features of the Bretton Woods system were an obligation for each country to adopt a monetary policy that maintained the exchange rate of its currency within a fixed value—plus or minus one percent—in terms of gold and the ability of the IMF to bridge temporary imbalances of payments. The conference also re-established the link between the dollar and gold. It set the dollar's value at $35 per ounce of gold and gave other currencies a fixed relationship to the dollar. *Created the framework for the postwar capitalistic economic system, based on freer international flow of goods and investment and a recognition of the US as the world's financial leader.
Gunnar Myrdal
A Swedish social scientist and author of An American Dilemma, where he exposed the contradiction between America's professed belief that all men are created equal and its terrible treatment of black citizens in his book An American Dilemma (1944). -The book offered frank insight into the depth of the presence of racism in law, politics, economics, and social behavior. -Coupled with this criticism, however, Myrdal also presented an admiration of what he called the American Creed- belief in equality, justice, equal opportunity, and freedom. He argued that the War made Americans even more aware of the disparity between this Creed an racial equality. -He concluded that, "there is bound to be a redefinition of the Negro's status as a results of this War." -This book identified a critical national problem and seemed to offer a simple path to peaceful change: the federal government taking an active leadership role in outlawing discrimination. The coupling of an appeal to American principles with federal social engineering established a liberal position on race relations that survived for several year.
The Good Neighbor Policy
A formalized policy initiated by Herbert Hoover repudiating the right of the US to intervene militarily in the internal affairs of Latin American countries. Results: Mixed Results. -Benefits: During the 1930s the US withdrew its troops from Haiti and Nicaragua; FDR also accepted Cuba's repeal of the Platt Amendment, which had authorized American military interventions on that island. Such steps represented a delayed recognition of the sovereignty of America's neighbors. -Controversy: However, this act also led FDR to support dictators abroad despite their undemocratic governments, ideals, and policies in order to effectively pursue America's international business interests.
Friedrich Hayek
An Austrian born economist who wrote The Road to Serfdom in 1944. Main claim: that even the best intentioned government efforts to direct the economy posed a threat to individual liberty, "planning leads to dictatorship." -Offered a new intellectual justification for opponents of active government, but he was not an advocate of laissez-faire. -He simply argued that a single person or group of experts did not have the capacity to fully or effectively understand a complex economy, and in turn, could/should not direct economic activity. -He suggested that the free market mobilizes the fragmented and partial knowledge scattered throughout society far more effectively than a planned economy. -He endorsed socialistic measures-minimum wage and maximum hours laws, anti-trust enforcement, and a social safety net guaranteeing all citizens a basic minimum of food, shelter, and clothing. -He was critical of conservative's traditional support of social hierarchy and authoritarian government. -Though not a proponent of laissez faire nor a conservative, he helped lay the foundation for the rise of modern conservatism and the revival of laissez-faire.
The United Nations
An organization of nations, which replaced the League of Nations, that was formed in 1945 to promote peace, security, and international cooperation. In a 1944 conference at Dumbarton Oaks, near Washington D.C., the Allies developed the structure of the United Nations (UN). Structure: There would be a General Assembly-a forum for discussion where each member enjoyed an equal voice-and a Security Council responsible for maintaining world peace. Members: Along with six rotating members, the Council would have five permanent ones-Britain, China, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States-each with the power to veto resolutions. In June of 1945, representatives of fifty-one countries met in San Francisco to adopt the UN Charter, which outlawed force or the threat of force as the means of settling international disputes. The Senate endorsed the Charter in July.
Reasons for American Intervention in WWII
Summary: -As the 1930s progressed Roosevelt became more and more appalled at Hitler's aggression as well as his accelerating plight against Germany's Jews, whom the Nazis had now stripped of citizenship and property and began to deport to concentration camps. -Roosevelt became more and more concerned that Hitler's victories over other countries posed a direct threat to US, but remained constrained by the strength of American's isolationism and Britain and France's strategy of "appeasement," hoping to prevent war by agreeing to abide my Hitler's demands. -Due to the strength of Roosevelt's convictions, he convinced Congress in 1940 to agree to allow the sale of arms to Britain on a "cash and carry" basis: the arms had to be paid for in cash and then transported to Britain. They also military rearmament plans at this time. -In 1941, the US became more and more closely allied with those fighting Germany and Japan. -Britain went bankrupt and could no longer meet the requirements of "cash and carry" so, due to Roosevelt's request, Congress passed the Lend Lease Act, authorizing military aid as long as the countries promised to somehow return it all after the war. -After Hitler renounced his non-agression pact and invaded the Soviet Union in June of 1941, the US provided billions of dollars worth of arms to that country as well as to Britain and China. -FDR also froze Japanese assets in the US, pausing essentially all trade between the countries, including the sale of oil vital to Japan. -Interventionists began to popularize slogans that became central to wartime mobilization. -In June of 1941, refugees from Germany and the occupied countries of Europe joined with Americans to form the Free World Association, with the purpose of bringing the US into the war against Hitler. The Freedom house was also formed during this same year, whose distinguished members described the war in Europe as an ideological struggle between dictatorship and the "free world." In October of 1941, it sponsored the "Fight for Freedom" rally at New York's Madison Square Garden, which ended with the people involved demanding an immediate declaration of war against Germany. -When Pearl Harbor occurred on December 7 of 1941, and Japanese planes bombed the naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii killing more than 2,000 American servicemen, and destroying 187 aircraft and 18 naval vessels, Roosevelt asked Congress for a declaration of war on Germany. Germany declared war on the US the next day. Foreign Policy: New Split * Liberals and Conservatives fight over government intervention in the economy * Internationalists and Isolationists differ over involvement in the world. * Wilson - Isolationist 1917 * Isolationism widely accepted at this time * Divisions overlap: * FDR is liberal and internationalist * Taft is conservative and isolationists Background: Origins of World War II * War starts September 31 (Manchuria) to September 39 (Poland) to December 41 (Pearl Harbor) * 1931-1939: Paris Peace Settlement undermined-- League fails to enforce peace * Great Powers, led by Britain, attempt appeasement of Germany * March 1939: Britain and France promise to defend Poland * July 1941: FDR blocks credits and oil to Japan Isolationism 1. Disappointment with WWI strengthens isolationism in US 2. German, Irish, Middle West opposes League of Nations and press for Neutrality Acts 3. Fortress America: Oceans and Navy will protect America 1. United States does not need to be involved in International affairs because it is safe 4. This Isolationism dies at Pearl Harbor-- but it leads to disputes over WWII strategy Internationalist Left- Democratic- (East): * FDR * WIlson * Wallace Isolationist (Midwest, West - Populist/Progressive Movement) * PC of US (Communist Party of the United States) * La Follette Right -Republican- Internationalists: * Wilkie * Eisenhower * Vandenberg (Shifts during Cold War) * Taft (Shifts during Cold War) Right Isolationists: * Chicago Tribune * Lindberg * Nazis Complications: * Divisions do not always hold * All agree that America is the best form of government * ROW (Rest of the World) is potentially evil and dangerous * Only in America was a new beginning established with the American Revolution * All agree that if war comes, US must strive to win * Regional, ethic, class, and party patterns do not always work * Many isolationists really want to avoid ties to Old World, but hope to "open" Asia (bring democracy and Christianity to Asia) * China and the Philippines are new civilizations, people ripe and willing to adopt American ways * Not concerned with Europe Roosevelt and the Coming of War War Preparations: Roosevelt enters the US in WWII in order to garner support for new reforms? Roosevelt was the head of the Isolationist group in Congress 1. Fall 1937: Quarantine Speech 2. US engaged in China from mid-1930s 3. Collapse of France changes BOP 4. America's New Strategic vulnerability 1. Modern technology could allow air attacks against US * In 1939, Hitler started to develop long range bombing weapons 2. US cannot allow Eurasia to fall to hostile power War Preparations: * Fall of 1939: "Cash and Carry" * This allows other countries, especially Britain, to purchase weapons on a "cash and carry" basis. * British have to send their ships to the US and pay cash. This means that the US will not be making loans to the British (will not be tied to them by economic interests), and will not risk our ships at sea delivering war materials to the British * September 40, 1939: Draft * Rearmament Bill: $37 Billion = 5x the New Deal Budget * Havana Conference: builds support in Latin America by attempting to "mend fences" Churchill and Roosevelt: * August 1940: Battle of Britain begins * Danger that Britain is going to fall, so US begins to provide assistance carefully * September 40: Destroyers for Bases Deal * November 40: FDR wins 3rd Term * March 41: Lend Lease approved * August 41: Atlantic Charter is signed which is a mixture between Wilsonianism and the New Deal * Self-determination (W) * Also meant that the US would push the British to release their colonies * Free trade (W) * Labor, Social Security (ND) * Collective Security (UN) Understanding Appeasement: * Many feel that Paris Peace was unfair and revision is inevitable * British face three main threats: US, Japan, and Germany * Politics: Stresa Front vs. Popular Front * Appeasement was also a strategy: * Buys time for rearmament * Occupation of Prague turns public against Germany Undeclared War: * July 1941: FDR provides destroyer escorts to Iceland * July of 1941: FDR cuts off fuel to Japan * September- October: destroyers attacked in Atlantic * November of 1941: Neutrality Act is gutted * Fall of 1941: US knows Japan wants war * December of 1941: Pearl Harbor initiates active war Conclusions: Democracy and Power Politics * FDR drew country away from isolationist tradition gradually, because he needed to * Linke Lincoln, he waits for his opponents to strike the first blow * LIke Wilson, he ties US economy to Allies * Above all, he was a politician, who worked by indirection and ambiguity Roosevelt's Political Goals: * # 1 Goal: To maintain a global balance of power * Attempts to avoid disrupting American society * Too much strain on AS would undermine support for the New Deal agenda * Strives to maintain public support and further civic nationalist agenda (?) * Uses a strategy that makes careful uses of American and Allied resources (industry, technology, sea and air power) - cf. Gaddis, p. 8
Japanese American Internment
The Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor unleashed suspicions of Japanese and Japanese Americans in the United States. As a result, in 1942 President Roosevelt succumbed to pressure and ordered the evacuation and internment of some 110,000 people of Japanese descent living in the Wes (California and parts of Washington, Oregon, and Arizona); most of these were U.S. citizens born in the United States. Japanese and Japanese American women in internment did what they could to carry on a semblance of family life, trying to make do with inadequate food and running water, and, most importantly, try to keep their families together despite the disruption of forced relocation. One ironic side effect for young Japanese American women is that they experienced some degree of equality within the strong patriarchal family. Some women obtained permission to leave the camps to attend college, and others were able to leave for jobs in the Midwest and East. Anxious to prove their loyalty to the United States , some women became WACs or military nurses.
The National Resources Planning Board
When: 1942 and 1943 What? It was called a "new bill of rights" offering all Americans an expanded Social Security system and guaranteed access to education, health care, adequate housing, and jobs for all those who were willing and able. This board offered a blueprint for a peacetime economy based on full employment, an expanded welfare state, and a widely shared American standard of living. Economic security and full employment were the words most frequently and fervently emphasized. -Represented the continuation of a shift in liberals' outlook from one reform of the institutions of capitalism, to reliance on government spending to secure full employment, social welfare, an mass consumption. They became more and more content to leave the operation of the economy in private hands. These views reflected the philosophy of John Maynard Keynes, who identified government spending as the best way to combat the Depression and stimulate economic growth, even though it caused extreme budget deficits. Results: -The NRPB proposed to continue Keynesianism in peacetime, as it's military implementation seemed to have had effectively ended the Depression; Congress was not willing to support this. Supported by: Labor and Farm organizations, church and civil rights groups, and liberal New Dealers who hailed the reports as embodying a "vision of freedom" for the postwar world.
The Bracero Program
When? 1942-1964 Who? An agreement between American and Mexican governments What? Initially intended as a temporary response to the wartime labor shortage but actually lasting much longer, tens of thousands of contract labors crossed into the US to take up jobs as domestic and agricultural workers. -During the bracero period, over 4.5 million Mexicans entered into the US under government labor contracts. These contracts were supposed to guarantee that they received decent housing and wages, but since they could not become citizens and could be deported at any time, it was virtually impossible for them to form unions or secure better working conditions when they were not provided. -Despite re-enforcing the status of Mexican immigrants as an unskilled labor force, wartime employment opened new opportunities for second-generation Mexican Americas. -A new "Chicano" culture- a blend of Mexican Heritage and American experience- emerged.
The Office of War Information (OWI)
When? Created in 1942 Purpose: To mobilize public opinion, and inform American's of the war's true purpose. OWI was concerned that Americans only had a vague understanding of the reasoning behind the war, and that the population seemed more fervently committed to paying back the Japanese for their attack on Pearl Harbor than on ridding the world of injustice (fascism). Comprised of: Mostly liberal Democrats who sought to make the conflict in Germany "a 'people's war' for freedom." Methods Used: They utilized radio, film, the press, and other media to give the conflict and ideological meaning, while also seeking to avoid nationalistic hysteria of WWI. They drew upon deeply rooted American traditions to bring American's focus to the disposition between "the land of liberty" and Germany, "the land where liberty is being oppressed." Critics: Promulgated the the OWI's true purpose was only to promote Roosevelt's Four Freedoms, and his New Deal social programs. Due to these concerns, Congress cut off the majority of its funding.