Attachment

Findings

1. Secure attachment was the most common attachment style in all nations 2. In Western cultures the dominant style of insecure attachment was avoiding 3. In non western cultures the dominant style of insecure attachment was resistant. 4. There was greater variation within cultures than between cultures.

Multiple Attachments

9 Months Onwards Shortly after infants show specific attachments they make multiple attachments. (29% within a month according to Schaffers study)This is usually towards friends, grandparents and childminders/nursery staff.

Methord

A logitionidual study using 60 babies from Glasgow, the majority from skilled working class backgrounds. They were visited at home every month for the first year and then at 18 months. Mothers were interviewed to measure the attachment level of infants.

Attachment

A two-way, enduring, emotional bond between two individuals, in which the following behaviours are displayed. 1. Seeking proximity, especially at times of stress. 2. Distress on separation and pleasure when reunited 3. Secure base behaviour-so infants are happy to explore but regularly return to attachment figure.

Insecure Avoidant Attachment

A type of attachment that describes children who tend to avoid social interaction and intimacy with others.

Insecure Resistant Attachment

A type of attachment that describes those infants that both seek and reject intimacy and social interaction.

Individual Differences Evaluation of Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis

Barrett reviewed various studies on separation and concluded that actually securely attached and more mature children my actually cope better and be less insecurely attached children.

Bowlby's Monotropic Theory

Based on the work by Lorenz and Harlow, Bowlby proposed an evolutionary explanation of attachment. Attachment is an innate system pre programmed into babies from birth in order to help them to survive. Babies eek proximity to carer (mother) for safety as it protects them from hazards; millions of years ago wild animals, today cars, ponds, electricity. So security and secure attachment equals survival.

Real World Applications Evaluation of Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis

Bowlby's theory and work by Robertson and himself had an enormous effect of childrearing and led to major social change in the way we care for children in hospital. Before the research parents were discouraged or even forbidden from visiting children who had to go into hospital but his research and footage showed how distressed thee children became from Robertsons changed this.

Ethical Issues Evaluation of Animal Studies

Harlow faced serve criticism for the ethical of his research. The species were considered similar enough to humans to be generalise them and so they suffering they encountered was presumably very human like, there were serve long term effects for all of the monkeys involved. Some argue the findings were important enough to justify the ethical issues though.

Procedure

Harlow placed 16 baby rhesus monkeys in cages with two surrogate mothers, a harsh wire mother of a soft towelling mother. 4 of the 16 monkeys were placed in each of the following conditions: - Wire mother producing milk, towelling mother no milk - wire mother no milk, towelling mother producing milk - Wire mother producing milk - Towelling mother producing milk The amount of time spent with each mother was recorded as well as feeding time. Monkeys were frightened with loud noise to test for mother preferences during stress. A large cage was also used to test degree of explorations.

Practical Applications Evaluation of Animal Studies

Harlows research has helped social workers to understand risk factors in child neglect and abuse and so interventions to prevent it. There has also been improvement in the care of captive monkeys and we now understand the importance of proper attachment figures for baby monkeys in zoo's and breeding programs.

Secure Attachment (66%)

Harmonious and cooperative relationship High willingness to explore (using caregiver as safe base) High stranger anxiety Enthusiastic on reunion with caregiver Some separation anxiety but maybe soothed

Follow Up Studies

In follow up studies when the children were 6 and 11, Rutter found that many had normal levels of functioning. However 54% of children who displayed disinhibited attachment at 6 years olds still displayed disinhibited attachment at 11 and many were receiving help from either special education and or mental health services.

Generalisability Evaluation of Stages of Attachment

In some cultures multiple caregivers are the norm so multiple attachments develop immediately instead of specific attachments and as child rearing practices vary from culture to culture and over time these results do not necessarily generalise well.

Animal Studies of Attachment History

In the early 20th century a number of ethologists conducted animal studies looking as attachment in animals to inform their understanding of human mother-infant attachments.

The Influence of Early Attachment on Childhood and Adult Relationships

Includes the internal working model; looks at childhood relationships, adult romantic relationships and relationships with own children.

Non Universal Evaluation

Interactional synchrony is not found in all cultures which weakens the support for the idea that it is important in the development of attachments. Le vine (1994) reported that Kenyan mothers have little physical contact or interactions with their children but have high proportions of secure attachments.

Research Methods - Interview Evaluation of Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis

Interviews used so issues with extraneous variables and other problems related to interviews. Interviews used so bowl by was able to go into depth and find out rich detailed information on what is a sensitive area. All of the negative points reduce the support for Bowlby's maternal deprivation hypothesis.

A Cross Cultural Study

Is one that compares different cultures.

Culture

Is the whole way of living your life, your religion, your language, your beliefs.

Results for Non Western Cultures

Israel: No. Of Studies = 2 % Securely Attached = 64 % Avoidant = 7 % Resistent = 29 Japan: No. Of Studies = 2 % Securely Attached =68 % Avoidant = 5 % Resistent = 27 China: No. Of Studies = 1 % Securely Attached = 50 % Avoidant = 25 % Resistent = 25

Ignores other Factors Evaluation of Learning Theory

It ignores reciprocity, interactional sychronony and other factors associated with forming attachments, Research (specifically Ainsworth) suggests that it is the sensitivity of the caregiver that is important and that he quality of the attachment is linked to developing reciprocity and interactional synchrony. If attachment was just purely about food then there would be no need for these complex interactions.

Differences in nature and complexity of the Bond Evaluation of Animal Studies

It is argued that it is not appropriate to generalise Lorenz's findings to humans as a mammal's attachment system is quite different to that of birds. Mammals have more emotional attachment to their young and may be able to form attachments at any time albeit less easily in infants so the bond in humans is much more complex.

Depends on Parent Evaluation of Ainsworth Stranger Situations

Main and Weston found that children acted differently depending on which parent hey were with so may appeared insecurely attached in the study to their mother but may be well attached to the father illustrating the attachment types are linked to individual relationships with carers and are not set characteristics of children.

Reliability Evaluation of Romanian Orphan Studies

Many other studies of Romanian orphans have found similar results to Rutter. Morison who studies orphans in Canada and O'Connor who found indiscriminate friendliness (part of disinhibited attachment - treating primary caregivers like a primary caregiver) was positively correlated to length of time spent in an institution. This suggests that Rutter's findings are reliable.

Real Life Application Evaluation of Romanian Orphan Studies

The findings of Romanian orphanages studies have led to improvements in the way child are cared for in institutions and so have been immensely valuable in practical terms. Children in institutions and now assigned a key worker and have perhaps only one or two other caregivers responsible for them so that the children have a chance to develop normal attachments, avoiding disinhibited attachments.

Procedure

They analysed the responses from 620 respondents of a 'love quiz' they published in an American small town newspaper. Sample: - 205 men - 415 women - 14-82 year old - 91% Hetrosexutal - 42% married - 28% Divorced or windowed - 9% cohabiting - 31% dating The questionnaire firstly asked question to assess current or most important relationship, secondly it asked questions about attitudes towards love as an assessment of the internal working model. Thirdly investigated attachment history to identify current and childhood attatchment types by asking respondent to pick which of three descriptions applied best to their inner feelings about romantic relationships.

Culture Bound Evaluation of Ainsworth Stranger Situations

There is the belief that the study is cultural bound i.e. does not have the same meaning outside of the USA and Western Europe because the children and caregivers may respond differently to the stranger situation depending on their cultural experiences. Takahasi found that the test does not work on Japanese children because Japanese children are so rarely speared from their child that they show very high levels of separation anxiety and in observations Japanese mothers tended to race to their children and scoop them up at the reunion stage meaning the repose was hard to observe.

Theoretic Value Evaluation of Animal Studies

Halow's findings have had a profound effect of psychologists understanding of mother - infant attachment. Most importantly Harlow showed that attachment does not develop as a result of being fed by a mother figure but as a result of contact comfort. He also showed us the importance of the quality of early relationships for later development.

Stage 8

(3 Minutes) People in the Room: Caregiver and Infant Procedure: Caregiver returns and interacts with the infant, stranger leaves.

Stage 2

(3 Minutes) People in the Room: Caregiver and Infant Procedure: Caregiver sits, infant free to explore room.

Stage 3

(3 Minutes) People in the Room: Caregiver, Infant and Stranger Procedure: Stranger comes into room, after a while talks to the cargiver and then to infant. Caregiver leave.

Stage 6

(3 Minutes) People in the Room: Infant Procedure: Infant left alone in room.

Stage 5

(3 Minutes) People in the Room: Infant and Caregiver Procedure: Stranger leaves as caregiver returns. At the end of this stage the caregiver leaves.

Stage 4

(3 Minutes) People in the Room: Infant and Stranger Procedure: Stranger keeps trying to talk and play with the infant.

Stage 7

(3 Minutes) People in the Room: Infant and Stranger Procedure: Stranger returns and tries to interact with the infant.

Stage 1

(30 Seconds) People in the Room: caregiver, Infant, Research Procedure: Researcher brings infant and caregiver into room then leaves.

What does evidence show us about Multiple Attachments?

- 29% of infants develop multiple attachments within a month of developing specific attachments (by 40 weeks) - By the age of one 78% of children have multiple attachments - By the age of one 33% of the 78% have 5 or more attachments. - Fathers are one of the key multiple attachments that children form and that this attachment is important for a Childs development.

Further evidence and Ideas of Multiple Attachments

- Bowlby developed the idea of monotropy, babies have one key attachment figure. This figure is usually but does not have to be the mother. Secondary attachments then follow, such as to the father and siblings. - Rutter saw all attachments as being equal, so there is not such thing as primary and secondary attachments. All a child's attachments give the child an idea of how relationships work (an internal working model) - In some cultures multiple gave givers are the norm so multiple attachments may develop immediately instead of specific attachments. E.g. Sagi et al looked at children raised in community children homes in Kibbutzim where they slept away from their parents, and compared them to children with family based sleeping arrangements. Attachment to the mother was twice as strong in the family based arrangements.

Evaluation of the Role of the Father Research

- Evidence by Grossman has suggested that the father has a different, unique role in attachment. One that is more to do with play and stimulation and less to do with nurturing. A longitudinal study was carried out looking at parents behaviour and its relationship to the quality of children attachment in their teens. It was the quality of the mothers attachment and not the fathers that was related to attachment in their teens but the quality of fathers play with infants was related. So this evidence shows that the father is still important in a child's development and their role does impact on the quality of their attachment in their teenage year but through play and not nothing and being their primary attachment figure. - There is evidence that supports the idea that the fathers can play the same role as the mother successfully. Field (1978) filmed 4 month old babies in face to face interactions with primary caregiver mothers, secondary caregiver fathers and primary caregiver fathers. They found that primary caregiver fathers like mothers spent more time smiling, imitating and holding infants than the secondary caregiver fathers and that this behaviour is important for building attachments. This suggests the father is as capable as the mother of being sensitive and caring primary caregiver if given the chance and that it is the level of responsiveness and not the gender of the parent that is key to the attachment relationship.

Supporting Evidence for Bowlbys Theory

- Evidence from Harlows research supports Bowlbys Theory. They found that baby monkeys would cling to a wire model covered in cloth rather than a wire model that could feed it. The monkeys spent most their time clinging to the towelling model, the monkeys went on to be bad mothers, attacking and even killing their children, suggesting the monkey didn't know how to look after infants because they had never learnt themselves.. These findings support the concepts of innate programming and Monotropy because the monkey instinctively sought to be close to one specific mother even if its fake and the fact it favoured the cloth monkey further supports the idea of monotropy. - Hazen and Shaver discovered infants who had been securely attachment when children went on to have happy, lasting and trusting relationships as adults, yet insecurely attached infants went onto have less successful adult relationships.

Key findings of the role of the fathers

- Fathers play interactions are more exciting and pleasurable than mothers - Mothers are more nursing and affectionate - Mothers are preferred when children are distressed and seeking comfort - Fathers are preferred when children are in a positive emotional state and want stimulation (Lamb 1987) - Fathers are less able than mothers to detect low levels of infant distress (Hardy 1999) - However when fathers do become the main care provider the quickly develop more sensitivity and become a safe bace (Lamb 1987) - Marital intermarry was link to security of father-infant interactions. So the father with secure father-infant interactions had secure and intermate relationships with the child's mother.

Practical Applications Evaluation

- Meltzoff and Moore (1983) demonstrated intentional synchrony with three day old babies. Which suggest that babies should be placed next to their mothers in hospital and should continue to remain in close contact for at least the first three months to improve the quality of attachment. - Music therapists and other therapists who work with parents and infants/children who have experiences disruptions in their attachment formation (e.g. the child was adopted) recognise the importance of reciprocity and interactional synchrony in their therapeutic work. E.g. caregivers are encourage to mirror and share their child's emotions by imitating facial expressions and engaging in reciprocal behaviour in response to music or other stimuli.

Research Methods Evaluation

- Observations of mother infant interactions (such as above) are generally well controlled procedures, with both mother and child being filmed, often from multiple angles. This ensures very fine details of behaviour can be recorded and later analysed and improves the validity of the research and the use of independent observers improves the reliability of the research. -Infants don't know or care that they are being observed so their behaviour doesn't change in a controlled observation which is generally a problem for observational research. This is a strength as means the research has good validity. However the behaviour of the mother may be subject to demand characteristics.

Research Methods - Bias Evaluation of Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis

- Sample bias - the sample were children who had all been referred to his clinic for issues with their behaviour so we can't generalise these results as what about children without issues that were separated. - Researcher bias - Bowlby carried out this research and came up with the term affectionless psychopaths and decided who fitted into each group so there is an issue objectivity.

Counter evidence Evaluation of Learning Theory

- Some animal studies have shown us that young animals do not necessarily attach to those who feed it. Lorenz geese imprinted before they were fed and maintained these attachments regardless of who fed them and Harlow's monkey study showed the monkey preferred comfort over food. - Human research by Schaffer also shows that foods not the key factor in attachment as they found that more than half of infants were not attachtched to the person who provided primary care (e.g. fed them) but instead were still attached to their biological mother rather than this caregiver and so there is no unconditioned stimulus involved.

Summer of the Effects of Institutionalisation

- Some of the negative outcomes shown by the Romanian children could be overcome through adequate substitute care. Remember at aged 11 just under half of the children in Rutter's study had normal levels of functioning. - But intervention should take place before 6 months of age as those adopted after tend to have lower IQ and be less physically developed. - Many children especially those who had been adopted later displayed disinhibited attachment. - Some research shows that the negative physical effects of institutionalisation can be reversed by 10 and 1/2. - Separation from mother alone is not sufficient to cause negative outcomes as British children had been separated but were not as developmentally delayed. - The effects of Romanian orphans are still not fully clear as they still need to be followed into adulthood to see if the negative effects can still be overcome with more time.

Other Evaluations of Bowlby's Theory

- The concept of monotropy also included In Bowlby's 1950's world health organisation report suggests that babies needed constant care of the mother for health social development which led to stay at home mothering and still has a negative impact on mothers today. There is still the idea amongst some that mothers should not work. Erica Burman and other feminists state that it places a terrible burden of responsibility on mothers pushing them into particular lifestyle choices and placing the blame on them if anything goes wrong in a Childs life. Further evidence shows that good substitute either in a nursery, the father or a family member does not have a detrimental effect on social development and so a mother can happily return to work after having a child and remain economically active contradicting Bowlby's theory. - Role of the Father, the concept of monotropy suggests that the father can play the role of the primary caregiver as Bowlby suggests its the mother or a female substitute which contradict research such as Lamb who fathers do become the main care provider quickly develop more sensitivity to children needs and become a safe base for children to explore suggesting that sensitive responsiveness is not necessarily a biological ability limited to women.

Issues with Cross Cultural Comparisons Evaluation of Cultural Variations in Attachment

1) Cultural Bias: There way be differences in how different cultures raise their children. It is possible that behaviours that are valued in collectivist cultures differ from behaviours that are valued in Individualistic Cultures. The strange Situation is based on the ideas about attachment from a Eurocentric viewpoint, so people in the UK and USA may not value over dependency on the caregiver (insecure resistant attachments) whereas this is valued in other culture such as Japan thus interpreting a behaviour as insecure when it is secure. 2) Culture does not mean country and each country will have a number of different sub-cultures. We must not conclude that all people from one country will act in a similar way. The few studies using the Strange Situation in only represent a very small proportion of the population, and results may differ when other samples are used. E.g. results in Tokyo seem to mirror findings from the US but more rural Japanese samples found an over representation of insecure resistant attachments. 3) Can we sure that the procedures are standard from one culture to the next. Can we be sure that the tools used to measure behaviour are standardised in each study. This make comparisons risky unless they are exact replications of each other.

Bowlbys Theory of Maternal Depreivation Hypothesis

1) In this hypothesis he suggested that 'mother love I infancy and childhood is as important for mental health as vitamins and proteins for physical health'. 2) If a child does not have a warm intermit and continuous relationship with his/her mother (or mother substitute) then they would have trouble forming relationships with others later on, and would be at risk of behavioural disorders such as affection less psychopathy but also risk of intellectual problem e.g. low IQ 3) If separation occrs before the age of two and a half (without a substitute) the effects on the emotional wellbeing of the child are particularly server. 4) Although children are at risk of deprivation up to the age of 5. 5) Bowlby identified circumstances in which maternal deprivation could occur, which included the mother being imprisioned, divorced or even working full time.

Rutter Procedure

111 Romanin children were assessed on a variety of measures of physical and intellectual ability on arrival in Britain. Most of them had been split in institutional care from shortly after they were born but they were naturally split into 3 conditions: 1) Adopted before 6 months 2) Adopted between 6 months and 2 years 3) Adopted after 2 years. The orphans were assessed for height, head circumference and cognitive functions on arrival in the UK and assessed again at 4. A control group of 52 British adopted children were also assessed to ascertain whether negative effects were due to separation from carers or the institutional conditions of the Romanian Orphanages.

Indiscriminate Attachment

3 Months to 7/8 Months Infants recognise and form bonds with carers through reciprocity and interactional synchrony however they show the same behaviour to animate and inanimate objects. Can be easily calmed by familiar adults however still allow strangers to handle and look after them.

Stages of attachment identified by Shaffer

4 stages: - Pre-attatchment - Indiscriminate Attachment - Discriminate Attachment - Multiple Attachments

What did Bowlby base his theory on?

44 Thieves study

Classical Conditioning

According to classical conditioning part of the learning theory attatchment is formed partly due to learning through association. Food (UCS) naturally produces a sense of pleasure in a child (UCR). The person who feeds the infant (NS) initially provides no natural response but over Tim the 'feeder; eventually produces the the pleasure associated with food. Now pleasure becomes a conditioned responses and the feeder becomes a CS. This associated between an individual and a sense of pleasure is the attachment bond.

Problems in exploration to Attachments in Human Infants Evaluation of Animal Studies

Although monkeys are more similar to humans than geese so making it slight more easy to generalise, they are still not human so it can be argued that we can not necessarily generalise Harlow's and Lorenz's research to human attachments.

Participants

American infants aged 12-18 months and their caregiver (usually their mother).

Conclusions

As secure attachment was the most common style of attachment, there may be universal characteristics in infant caregiver interactions. The variations in attachment between and within cultures may also show that child rearing practice varies between and within cultures.

Why?

As securely attached children tend to be more confident they are less likely to be the target of bullies for fear that they will stand up for themselves and as they have close friendships bullied risk them having the support of other children.

Natural Experiments and Extraneous Variables Evaluation of Romanian Orphan Studies

As the pieces of research had to be natural experiment there are of course going to be issues with extraneous variables and difficulties in establishing cause and effect. For instances Rutter Acknologes that it was dififult to find out information about the quality of care the children received in the institution and this privation levels. Some children coped much better than other and it is thought the some children may have received special attention in the orphanages if they maybe smiled more for instance and so did some early attachment experiences (extraneous variable).

Insecure-Avoidant (22%)

Avoid social interaction and intimacy with others and treat caregivers and strangers similarly High willingness to explore (independently from caregiver) Low stranger anxiety Indifferent/little/no separation anxiety Avoids contact on reunion with caregiver

Pre-Attachment

Birth - 3 Months Babies star smiling and becoming more sociable from 6 weeks. They can tell people apart and like human company so begin to form stronger attachments, however these do not progress much until the next stage as can be easily confronted by any individual. They do not show fear of strangers.

Insecure-Resistant (12%)

Both seek and reject intimacy and social interaction Low willingness to explore High stranger anxiety Very distressed on separation from caregiver (high separation anxiety) Seeks and rejects reunion from caregiver (angrily resisting being picked up but seek proximity in different ways)

Critical Period

Bowlby believed that if attachment hadn't occurred by the age of two then a child would have difficulties forming attachments later on in life.

Monotropy

Bowlby proposed that infant have one special emotion bond, normally biologically mother (but not always) and that this relationship was different and more important than any others. Bowlby believed the more time spent with the primary attachment figure the better.

Bowlby's 44 thieves

Bowlby studies 88 children aged 5-16 who had been referred to a child guidance clinic where he worked. 44 were referred for stealing the other half were a control group. Bowlby diagnosed 16 of the 44 as affectionless psychopaths - shameless and consciousness. The control group had been referred for other types of behaviour problems but non of them were diagnosed as affection less psychopaths. Bowlby interviewed the children and their family to build a record of their early life experiences. Bowlby discovered the 86% of the affectionless psychopaths had experiences early and prolonged separation from their mothers, only 4% of the control group had experienced such separation. He concluded that the separation had caused affectionless psychopathy.

Annogram to help remember Bowlbys Theory

CR.I.I.M.P.S Critical period Innate programming Innate working model Monotropy Proximity Social Releasers

Disinhibited Attachments

Charaterised by: - a lack of close, confiding relationships - rather indiscriminate friendliness - clingy, attention seeking behaviour - Relative lack of diffraction in response to adults (treating them all alike a tendency to go off with strangers and a lack of checking back with parent in anxiety provoking situations)

What have researchers said about Interactions between infants and caregivers?

Condon and Sander: Investigated interactions between infants and caregivers in particular in relation to responses to adult speech. In their paper they report "As early as the first day of life, the human neonate moves in precise and sustained segments of movement that are synchronous with the articulated structure of adult speech". Meltzoff and Moore: Infants as young as 3 days old imitate the facial expressions of adults. This implies that this ability to mirror is an innate behaviour.

The role of the father

Traditional research books at mother-child interaction and there is limited research into this area. The research that has been carried out focuses on different areas and so its hard to come up with a definitive answer however research suggests that the father plays a key role in the development of attachments.

Contradictory Findings Evaluation of the Role of the Father

Grossman suggests that father as secondary attachment figures have an important role in a Childs development however research by Golombok have found hat child growing up in a single or same sex household do not develop any differently and so questions the importance of the role off the father in attachment.

Evidence Criticising Bowlby's Theory

Evidence from Shaffer and Emerson which found that by 18 months old only 13% of babies were attached to one person and many of the infants had as many as five attchments. Also Lamb found that infants had different attachments for different purposes rather than certain attachments being more important than other e.g. father for play, mother for comfort.

The internal working model

First suggested by Bowlby that a Childs first relationship with their primary attachment figure forms a mental representation for the child and this relationship acts as a template and shapes all future relationships whether they be childhood, platonic, romantic or with their own children. The continuity hypothesis is based upon the internal working model and says that the specific attachment types of children are also reflected in their adult relationships.

Findings

Following are the behaviours observed in three types of attachment: Secure, Insecure Avoidant and Insecure Resistant.

Validity Evaluation of Stages of Attachment

Good external validity as infants were observed within there own home so behaviour was unlikely to be effected by observations. Low population validity as the babies studied were all from the same area and a similar social class.

Cultural Variation in Attachment

How attachment varies from Culture to Culture

Relationships with Own Children

If the internal working model is believed then childhood attachment type should affect patently style i.e. if you are a securely attached child then you should have a secure relationship with your children and vice versa. This idea is supported by Harlows studies as we looked at earlier as the motherless monkeys went on to become bad mothers. Bailey considered the attachments of 99 mothers to their babies and to their own mothers using stage situation and an adult attachment interview. They found the majority of women had the same attachment classification both to their babies and heir own mother. Quinton compared 50 women raised in institutions with 50 women raised at home and found that when the women were in their 20's the ex institutional women experienced extreme difficulties action as parents and more of their child had spent time in care.

Romanian Orphanages

In Romania many children were placed in orphanages, although they were not always orphans. The grim conditions in the orphanages become known worldwide in 1989 and became a tragic opportunity to look at the effects of institutionalisation.

Procedure

Lab experiment. The third individual involved in the strange situation was a stranger. The same stranger was used all the time. The procedure lasted for just over 20 minutes and the behaviour of the infants was closely observed to assess the infant's levels of exploring, playing and distress behaviours at separation and reunion with the caregiver and when left with the stranger.

Research Method Evaluation of Stages of Attachment

Longitudinal study, it looks at the same group of infants over a much longer period of time than a lab experiment or observation. So it can look at real development of attachment rather than a snapshot.

Procedure

Lorenz split a clutch of Greylag goose eggs into two batches, one naturally hatched by the mother and one in an incubator with Lorenz as the first moving object they saw. He then recorded their behaviour. He also asked the goslings and placed them under an upturned box, then removed it and recorded their behaviour.

Imprinting not always Permanent Evaluation of Animal Studies

Lorenz work has been replicated and in some cases it was found that imprinting was not always permanent. Tuition found that when chickens imprinted to a follow rubber glove they did imprint at first but learned with experience to prefer mating with other chickens eventually so it suggests that the impact of imprinting on mating behaviour is not as permanent as Lorenz believed.

Supporting Evidence of Caregiver-Infant Interactions

Meltzoff and Moore: Used 4 different stimuli; adults displayed one of three facial expressions and a hand gesture and the child's response was filmed and identified by independent observers who had no knowledge of what the children had just seen. The behavioural categories were mouth opening, termination of mouth opening, tongue protrusion, termination of tongue protrusion. Each observer scored the tapes twice so that inter-observer reliability could be calculated. All scores were greater than .92. An association was found between the expression or gesture the adult has displayed and the babies actions. Isabella et al: Observed 30 mothers and infants together and looked at synchrony and quality of attachment and found an association between high levels of synchrony and better quality attachments.

Monkeys in Adulthood

Monkeys in some of Harlows experiments were followed into adult hood and serve consequences were found - more aggressive, less sociable, predictions less often as were often unskilled at mating. As mothers some of the monkey neglected their young and others attacked their children even killing them in some cases.

Findings

Monkeys preferred contact with the towelling other when given a choice of surrogate mothers regardless of whether she produced milk; they even stretched across to the wire mother to feed while clinging onto the towelling mother. Monkeys with only the wire mother showed signs of stress as had diarrhoea. When frightened by a loud noise, monkeys clung to towelling mother in conditions where it was available. In larger cage conditions monkeys with towelling mothers explored more and visiting their surrogate mothers more often.

Research Methods Evaluation of Early Attachment on Childhood and Adult Relationships

Most of the research mentioned used questionnaires or interviews and largely self reported so encounter the common strengths and weaknesses of these methods.

Retrospective Data

Most studies rely on asking adults to recall their early lives in order to assess infant attachment but such recollections are likely to be flawed as our memories of the past are not always that accurate.

Isabella et al (1989)

Observed 30 mothers and infants together and looked at synchrony and quality of attachment and found an association between high levels of synchrony and better quality attachments.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is learning through reinforcement of behaviour. Crying is an automatic reponse to hunger. In an infant is fed every time they result, she learnt that crying results in food, which is rewarding, and so repeats this behaviour more often, this is an example of positive reinforcement. The caregivers attention results in food and so is also reinforcing. Primary Reinforcer = Food Secondary Reinforcer = Caregiver. The infant learns that crying will maintain the caregivers attention and food supply, so attachment behaviours such as separation distress are formed. The caregiver is also condition by the infant. The caregiver feeds the infant, who stops crying. Feeding is repeated to avoid the discomfort of hearing the infant cry, this is an example of negative reinforcement.

Plausible and Scientific Evaluation of Learning Theory

Plausible and scientific as found in an established scientific theory i.e likely that association between the provisions of needs and the person providing those needs can lead to strong attachment; reinforcers are clear shown.

Institutionalisation

Refers to when children are looked after some where other than home e.g. they may be in some kind of children home. Often children had to many carers in the institution that it was impossible for them to form any attachments. If the children had been in the institution since they were babies, privation may result where the child has formed no attachments.

Biological Evaluation of the Role of the Father

Research suggests that a sensitive male carer is as capable of effective child rearing as a female but why do men tend not to take on this role? It is of course to do with traditional gender roles but it could also be to do with the fact that female hormones create higher levels of empathy which biologically pre-disposes women to be the primary attachment figure.

Deprivation vs Privation Evaluation of Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis

Rutter claimed that Bowlby was actually mixing up the concepts of deprivation and privation. He claims Bowlby never made it clear weather the child attachment bond had actually been there in the first place and that in fact the server long term damage that Bowlby associated with deprivation is more likely to be associated with privation.

Findings

Secure: 56% of Respondents Responce: I find it easy getting close to others and am comfortable depending on them and having them depend on me. I don't worry about being abandoned or about someone getting close to me. Insecure Avoidant: 23% of Respondents Responce: I am uncomfortable being close to other; I find it difficult to trust them, , difficult to depend on them. I am never when anybody gets close to and love partners want me to be more intermit than I feel comfortable being. Insecure Resistant: 19% Respondents Responce: I find other are resultant to get close as I'd like. I worry my partner doesn't really love me or won't stay with me. I want to merge completely with another person and this desire scares me. - Attached respondents tended to have positive internal working model - They found a positive correlation between attachments type and love experience: more attached a person was the more positive they found their love experiences. Securely attached despondents describe their love experiences as happy, friendly, trusting and were able to accept and support their partner despite their faults. - Securely attached love relationships were more enduring - lasting on average 10 years compared to to 5 for resistant or 6 for avoiding and if married tended not to divorce. - Both insecure types were venerable to loneliness with resistant being the most vulnerable. - Avoidnet tended to reveal jealousy or fear of intimacy.

Childhood Relationships

Securely attached children have better friendships and are the least likely to bully and be bullied. Belsky found that 3-5 year old securely attchtched children were more curious, resilient, self confident, got along better with other children and were more likely to form close relationships.

Why?

Securely attached children have higher expectations that others are friendly and trusting and so enables easier relationships with others and closer relationships as they are prepared to be trusting and let people get close to them.

Adult Romantic Relationships

Securely attached children have longer lasting romantic relationships.

Supporting evidence of the stages of attachment

Shaffer and Emerson (1964) Study

Cultural Changes Evaluation of Cultural Variations in Attachment

Simonella conducted the strange situation in Italy very recently to see if attachment levels were similar to those recorded in the past. 76, 12 month olds were used and they found much lower rates of secure attachment than in previous studies 50% (original study 65%), 36% Insecure Avoidant (original study 22%). The researcher suggests it reflect the increasing number of mother of very young children working long hours and suggesting that cultural changes over time can make a dramatic difference to attachment patterns. Oumar studied the Dogs people of Mali using the strange situation and compared findings to North American Parents. They found no avoid attachments compared to 23% in North America and 67% secure attachments compared to 55% in North America. The style of child rearing is very different called natural parenting or attachment parenting with infants constantly in physical contact, breastfeeding on demand, co sleeping and responding immediately to distress signals, so children aren't left like many western to 'cry it out' sleep techniques. This study again results the differences in results to the strange situation depending on culture i.e. is culturally bold and asp highlights the differences in childrearing around the world. Attachment parenting is becoming increasingly popular in the west and so research needs to be carried out here to see if this style of parenting in the west provided different results.

Attachment type of Bullying

Smith assessed attachment type and bullying involvement with standard questionnaires in 196 children aged 7-11 fro London and found that secure children are unlikely to be involved in bullying. Insecure avoiding children were most likely to be victims and insecure resistant were more likely to be bullies.

Social Releasers

Social releasers are important for the development of this parent-infant attachment as they elicit caregiving from the parent. Social releasers are innate mechanism so narwal characteristics of behaviours such as: -Crying -Smiling -Clinging

ERA studies

Some of the Romanian orphans were adopted by British families. A team of psychologists called the English and Romanian Adoptees Study Team led by Micheal Rutter have studies these children and the effects of their early experiences. The studies are known as the ERA studies and they are a series of natural experiments that have been published at various times. It was also a longitudinal study as they take place over time.

Social Desirability Bias Evaluation of Early Attachment on Childhood and Adult Relationships

Some of the problems to consider are social desirability bias especially in Hazen and Shavers as participants may be reluctant to admit for instance that they begin to find themselves falling love often. This mean the validity of the research is limited because it depends on respondents being honest and having realistic view of relationships.

Inflexibility of stages theory Evaluation of Stages of Attachment

Stage theories are inflexible. If a child doesn't fit at the 'right' time then they may be judged as abnormal or parents might become worried if these stages are a standard by which families are judged.

Low Correlation Evaluation of Early Attachment on Childhood and Adult Relationships

Steele found only a small correlation of 0.17 between having a secure attachment type in childhood and early adult hood. Fraley conducted a review of 27 samples where infants were assessed in infancy and reassessed up to 20 years later and found correlations ranging from 0.50 to as low at 0.10. So such correlations suggest that attachment is not very stable.

Conclusion

The Strange Situation is a controlled way of measuring individual differences in attachment behaviour, and these can be categorised into three broad types - secure (A), insecure avoidant (B) and insecure resistant (C). Secure attachment is likely to be the most common and preferred type of attachment in North America; Ainsworth and Bell argued that it linked to later healthy emotional and social development. They also said that there was an association between the mothers' behaviour and the infant's attachment.

Ainsworth and Bell's (1979)

The Stranger Situation

Example of Interactional Synchrony

The baby giggles because they are being tickled and the caregiver laughs too.

Example of Reciprocity

The baby points to an object so the caregiver looks and make a surprised face.

What do behavioural Explanations Believe

The behavioural explanation proposes that all behaviour is learnt rather than innate. When children are born they are likely blank slates and everything they become can be explained in terms of the experiences they have. Learning theory is put forward by behaviourists who focus solely on behaviour, what people do rather than what they might be thinking. Behaviourists suggest all behaviour and so attachment can be explained using the concepts of classical and operant conditioning.

Findings

The children IQ was tested upon arrival in the UK and the average score for Romanian Orphans was 63. For those adopted when over 6 months, the average was 45. Physical development was also poor, 51% or them being in the bottom 3% of the population for weight. They were also shorter in height than was normal for their age and had smaller head circumferences. The romanian orphans were tested again at the age of 4 and compared to the control group, all aged four, who had shown none of the negative effects suffered by the Romanians. At the age of 4 orphans adopted before 6 months showed no significances in either intellectual or physical development with the control group. All the children had improved though with the average IQ of the Romainans increasing from 63 to 107. However those adopted after 6 months, it had gone from 45 to 90. The older opts tended to do less well in terms of physical development too.

Longitudinal Studies Evaluation of Romanian Orphan Studies

The children were followed over many years and so we are able to see the real life, long term effects of instionalasation. These studies are also continuing into the future so we will be able to see even longer term effects.

Real World Application Evaluation of Ainsworth Stranger Situations

The circle of security project teaches caregivers to better understand their infants distress signals and to increase understanding of what it is to be anxious. The project showed an increase in infants classified as securely attatched from 32% to 40% which supports the research on attachment types because such research can be used to improve children lives which is a strength.

Reductionist Evaluation of Learning Theory

The focus on basic processes is too simplistic to explain complex attachment behaviours.

Internal Working Model

The importance of monotropy is that, for a child, this special relationship forms a mental repression or a model for what relationships are life. It can therefore have a powerful effect on the nature of a child's future relationships and their ability to be a parent themselves. Individuals who are strongly attached as a child continue to be socially and emotionally competent in relationships and with their own children whereas infants with poor attachments have more social and emotional difficulties in childhood and in adulthood.

Findings

The incubator group follow Lorenz everywhere whereas the control group followed their mother. When the two groups were mixed up the incubator group till follow Lorenz and the control group still followed the mother. There was a critical period of between 4-25 hours (depending on species_ and if imprinting did not occur the chicks did not attach to a mother figure. Lorenz subsequently reported that the goslings imprinted on humans would later attempt to mate with humans.

Interactional Synchrony

The interaction is rhythmic and can include infant and caregiver mirroring each other's behaviour and emotion. The infant and caregiver's behaviours are synchronised because they are moving in the same, or a similar, pattern.

Hazen and Shaver

The love quiz

Learning Theory and Drive Reduction

The primary drive for the baby is hunger; babies are driven to have their hunger reduced Attachment is a secondary drive learned by an association between the caregiver and the satisfaction of the primary drive. Hence the learning theory predicts that babies want to be close to the caregiver who feeds them.

Practical Applications Evaluation of the Role of the Father

The research can be used to help develop the quality of attachments within the whole family as it shows that the parents relationship can impact on the father-child relationship. it can also be used to try and validate/increase the role that fathers play in families as it shows how important it is to a Childs development.

Causation Evaluation of Early Attachment on Childhood and Adult Relationships

The research linking the internal working model to relationships is correlational rater than experimental so therefore we can't claim that the reasons for the later relationship wstsyke is the easier attachment, there may be other reasons such as the child's temperament. It also means fortunately that if you have a poor relationship as a child you can still have good health and secure relationships as an adult. So these factors limit the internal working model.

Procedure

The results of 32 studies that used the stranger situation to measure attachment behaviours were analysed. Research from 8 countries was used including western culture e.g. UK, USA, Germany and non western culture e.g. Japan, Israil, China. The 32 studies yielded results from 1990 children.

What Happened if the infant become severely distressed?

The stage would be shortened.

Links and Supports other Concepts Evaluation of Stages of Attachment

The stages link to reciprocity and interactional synchrony particularly at the inter discriminate stage and so further support the stages and existence of these two concepts.

Inter-rater reliability Evaluation of Ainsworth Stranger Situations

The study has inter rater reliability. Different observes watching the same children tend to agree on what attachment type to classify infants. Back found it to be as high as 94% which means we can be confident that the attachment type on an infant observed in the study does not depend on who is observing them. Therefore it is reliable.

Insecure Attachment

This is a form of attachment between infant and caregiver that develops as a result of a caregiver's lack of sensitive responding to the infant's needs. It may be associated with poor subsequent cognitive and emotional development. There are two types of insecure attachments: Avoident and Resistant.

Secure Attachment

This is a strong and contented attachment of an infant to their caregiver, which develops as a result of sensitive responding by the caregiver to the infant's needs. Securely attached infants are comfortable with social interaction and intimacy. Secure attachment is related to subsequent healthy cognitive and emotional development.

General Research Methods Evaluation of Ainsworth Stranger Situations

This study is a laboratory experiment. Link it to the study and then evaluate using strengths and weaknesses of a lab experiment from research methods.

Findings

Timings - specific attatchments (signs of separation anxiety) 50% of infants by 7 months, 80% by 40 weeks and almost 30% displayed multiple attachments. By one year 78% had developed multiple attachments. 33% had five or more attachment figures.

Aim of Harlow's Animal Study

To determine weather food or close comfort was the important factor in attachment.

Aim

To investigate the formation of early attachments, when they started their intensity and to whom they were directed.

Aim of Lorenz Animal Study

To investigate the mechanisms of importing, where bird species from birth follow and form attachment to the first moving object they see.

Aim of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenbergs Cultural Variation in Attachment Styles Study

To investigate vacations in attachment styles between different culture, using the results of studies carried out in various countries. These studies always used the stranger situation; hence this study is a meta-analysis of those ones.

Aims

To produce a method for assessing the security of an infant's attachment by placing the infant in a mildly stressful situation and observing the attachment behaviours that result.

Ainstworth's 'Stranger Situation'

Types of attachment: secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant.

Results for Western Cultures

UK: No. Of Studies = 1 % Securely Attached = 75 % Avoidant = 22 % Resistent = 3 West Germany: No. Of Studies = 3 % Securely Attached = 57 % Avoidant = 35 % Resistent = 8 USA No. Of Studies = 18 % Securely Attached = 65 % Avoidant = 21 % Resistent = 14

Discriminate Attachment

Unusually 7/8 Months Onwards Infants begin to show separation anxiety and protest usually by crying when their primary attachment leaves. By now they have formed a specific attachment. (Biological mother in 75% of cases) The second key behaviour is that they begin to show fear of strangers.

Reciprocity

When communication is equal so the Infant and caregiver are both active contributors in the interaction and are responding to each other. The baby is very active and that mother child interactions are like a "dance". Mother and child take turn to initiate interactions.

Some Longitudinal Research Contradicts the Model Evaluation of Early Attachment on Childhood and Adult Relationships

When people were tracked from childhood and followed to adult hood (rather than self reported) then the results contradicted the internal working mode. Zimmerman studies 44 German children at 12-18 months to assess attachment style then again at 16 and found that childhood attachment was not a good predictor of adolescent attachment and that life events often altered secure attachments to insecure. Rutter also found the change could occur in the other direction and in his study found that a group of people who had experiences problematic relationships with their parents went onto achieve secure, stable and happy adult relationships.