Bio 200, Final Exam Bio 200
What can we use phylogenies for?
-Identifying unknown samples -Test hypotheses
oldest fossils of life
3.5 billion
age of planet
4.6 billlion
The P site of the ribosome usually holds
A tRNA with a polypeptide attached to it
n the light dependent reactions _____ is produced during cylic electron flow
ATP
What is a polyribosome?
An mRNA being translated by more than one ribosome at a time
A chromosome consists of 1 DNA molecule during which of the following?
Anaphase
Primers are synthesized where on the lagging strand?
At the beginning of every Okazaki fragment
Human Genome Project
Began 1990, complete 2003
DNA and associated proteins form a structure called
Chromatin
Developmental genes often highly conserved
Only minor differences in sequence or regulation But small changes can lead to very different body forms
Remember environment acts on
PHENOTYPE directly and genotype indirectly
SYMPATRIC SPECIATION
POLYPLOIDY -Multiplying sets of chromosomes -Nondisjunction in meiosis -Gives rapid reproductive isolation HABITAT DIFFERENTIATION -Subdivide or move into new part SEXUAL SELECTION
RETROTRANSPOSONS (element)
RNA intermediate
ADAPTIVE RADIATIONS
Rapid increases in species number Usually spreading into new roles/sub-habitats Often after mass extinction or in new area
PHYLOGENETIC
Smallest group of individuals sharing a common ancestor
TAXONOMY
Study of naming and classifying
Which of these steps happens earliest in the translation process?
The mRNA attaches to the small subunit of the ribosome.
mate choice
Traits usually "honest" signal of quality
MORPHOLOGICAL
Uses appearance characters
what amino acids would this sequence code for? ...GGAAGAUCCUAA...
Gly-Arg-Ser-stop
The two strands of DNA are held together by___.
Hydrogen bonds
At what stage of the Calvin cycle is NADPH used?
In the reduction phase, giving electrons to the carbohydrates
Some proteins are biological catalysts which means that they
Make chemical reactions proceed more quickly
Colorblindness is an X-linked disorder where Xc represents an X chromosome that has a colorblindness allele. A mother has the genotype XcX. Will her son be colorblind?
Maybe - there is a 50% chance she'll pass the Xc allele to her son.
If a virus has an envelope, it is usually made out of:
Membrane taken from host cells
AUTOPOLYPLOIDY
one ancestral= species 2n =6 to 4n =12
SIMPLE SEQUENCE DNA
repetitive many copies of a sequence repeated in tandem A lot at telomeres and centromeres
GENOMICS
studies whole sets of genes & their interactions
Found in a protein
threonine tyrosine lysine histidine
Natural Selection genetic change that is
adaptive
In a lipid bilayer, ___________ fatty acid tails face each other within the bilayer and form a region that excludes water.
hydrophobic
BIOINFORMATICS
is the study & management of biological information
ATP hydrolysis is required for RTK signaling. The ATP __
is used for receptor phosphorylation.
An electron that moves from the second shell (energy level) into the first shell (energy level) has...
lost energy
Genome size
Prokaryotes 1 -6 million (Mb) Eukaryotes larger Plants & animals usually >100 Mb Humans have 3000 Mb No systematic relationship between genome size & phenotype
Imagine that a bacterial toxin destroys ribosomes. What cellular process would stop first?
Protein synthesis
How is transcription terminated in eukaryotic cells?
Proteins cut the RNA free from the RNA polymerase II
_____ is the process that makes new copies of DNA molecules.
Replication
A rare toxin prevents ribosomes from docking at the endoplasmic reticulum. Which of the following would be made?
Ribosomes Mitochondria Steroid hormones
What would happen if a cell was missing SRP?
Ribosomes could not be attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
Term describes the fact that not all molecules cross the membrane?
Semipermeability
Which amino acid ha a polar side chain
Serine
If a single base pair mutation in the DNA changes the mRNA, but there is no change in the amino acid that is coded for, it is considered a ____ mutation
Silent
Why is the total amount of ATP actually made per molecule of glucose by cellular respiration less than the amount that is theoretically possible?
Some protons slip directly through the membrane instead of going through ATP synthase
PROTEOMICS
Study full protein sets encoded by a genome Deducing protein function based on similarity in sequences Biochemical and functional studies for unknown sequences
correct about telomeres?
Telomere length appears to be connected to cell aging.
Altering Gene-sized regions
"Errors" in crossing over -Transposons lead to unequal pairing -Duplicates regions of genes Slippage in replication -Produces duplications or deletions
WHOLE-GENOME SHOTGUN APPROACH
1. Cut the DNA into overlapping fragments 2. Clone the fragments in plasmid or other vectors. 3. Sequence each fragment. 4. Order the sequences into one overall sequence with computer software.
DNA function
1.5% coding for protein/tRNA/rRNA in humans 25% coding for introns & regulatory sequences Much more transcribed than used for proteins
first eukaryotes
1.8 billion
What is the probability that an AABBCC x AaBbCc cross will produce an AaBbCc offspring (assuming independent assortment of all gene pairs)
1/8
first flowers
160 million
true about the Citric Acid Cycle?
2 CO2 are released for every turn of the cycle 1 ATP is made for every turn of the cycle Both NAD+ and FAD are reduced during the cycle
What is the probability of Aabb x aaBb parents producing a child who is homozygous recessive for at least one of the genes?
3/4
In a di-hybrid test cross from a wild-type blue-flowered, long-stigma plant with a double-mutant white-flowered, short-stigma plant, the resulting offspring were: 300 blue flower, long stigma 325 white flower, short stigma 200 blue flower, short stigma 175 white flower, long stigma What is the recombination frequency in this test-cross?
37.5%
Cambrian explosion
525-535 million
rise of mammals
65 million
summary reaction for Photosynthesis given in lecture?
6CO2 + 12H2O + light => 2C3H6O3 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Transcription in eukaryotes begins when transcription factors attach to:
A TATA box in the promoter region
How can reproductive barriers evolve
ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION- geographical isolation SYMPATRIC SPECIATION- new without geographical isolation
RTK signaling pathway
ATP hydrolysis results in receptor phosphorylation.
In eukaryotic cells, the addition of ____ groups to chromatin is correlated with increased transcription rates.
Acetyl
Requires ATP?
Active transport
Support for Selection
Artificial selection
Lowest level of organization in biological systems?
Atoms
Rubisco is the enzyme that :
Attaches CO2 to RuBP
How is the building of RNA strands in transcription similar to DNA replication?
Both processes use polymerase enzymes Template strands are read in the 3' > 5' direction. New nucleotides can only be added to the sugar at the 3' end of the nucleic acid strand Pairing of nucleotide bases is complementary
MICROEVOLUTION
Change in allele frequency across generations -Ground finch beak changes during Galapagos drought
Genome Evolution
Change in genetic make-up over time- Ultimate source of change is mutation Many ways to change genome -Duplicate entire chromosome sets **POLYPLOIDY -Alter chromosome structure -Alteration of gene-sized regions -Alterations within genes
MULTIGENE FAMILIES
Collections of identical or similar genes Identical genes - usually RNAs (plus histones) e.g. 3-in-1 rRNA molecules Similar genes e.g. Human Globin genes - different forms expressed at different times produce variations on oxygen affinity of hemoglobin
Genotype frequencies can be affected different ways
DIRECTIONAL, DISRUPTIVE & STABILIZING SELECTION BALANCING SELECTION- HETEROZYGOTE ADVANTAGE FREQUENCY DEPENDENT
During the copying of DNA, which action happens first?
DNA Helicase attaches at a site of origin
Distal Control Elements have an influence on genes that are not close to them in the DNA when
DNA bending proteins bend the DNA to bring the control elements close to a gene and its promoter.
TRANSPOSABLE ELEMENTS
DNA moves to different sites in genome
Darwin's definition
Descent with modification
TRANSPOSONS (element)
Direct DNA move Cut & paste or copy & paste
Evidence for Evolution
Direct observations of change -antibiotic resistance Genome Evolution Homology -Similarity from common ancestry & convergent evolution Fossil record biogeography
true of tRNA
Each tRNA attaches several types of amino acid
"A substance that cannot be broken down to any other substance by ordinary chemical means" defines
Element
X and Y can form a covalent bond resulting in the molecule XY. XY is soluble in water, but Y alone in not. This is an example of
Emergent properties
During a chemistry lab, you observe a reaction that requires a constant supply of heat to keep the reaction going. This reaction is most likely:
Endergonic, because energy is being put into the reaction
Structures involved in the process through which membrane proteins are synthesized and inserted into the plasma membrane?
Endoplasmic reticulum transport vesicles Golgi apparatus
Major functions of proteins
Enzymatic activity Structural Support Transport of substances Contraction
Which of the following does not happen during post-transcriptional processing in eukaryotes?
Exons are proof-read using the peroxisome
Genetic Drift
FOUNDER EFFECT -New population has different ratios than source BOTTLENECK EFFECT -Change after drastic decline Can lead to losing alleles And thus variation Can allow harmful recessives to increase
ALLELE FREQUENCY
For a given gene, what proportion for a single allele All alleles for one gene add up to 1.00 (or 100%) For each allele type, count 1 for heterozygote and 2 for homozygotes
Natural Selection Requires:
Genetic basis to traits (inheritability) Variety in traits Something in environment favors some forms over others Differences in survival and/or reproduction
According to Wikipedia, an allele of the CLPG gene in sheep produces large muscular buttocks with very little fat. The large-buttocked phenotype only occurs when the allele is present on the copy of chromosome 18 inherited from a sheep's father. The phenotype does not occur if the allele is on the copy of chromosome 18 inherited from that sheep's mother. This is an example of:
Genomic imprinting
Example of a polar covalent bond
H-O
Gene topic correct pairs
Heterozygous - two different alleles Gene - factor or basic unit of inheritance Trait - a form that a character can take in an organism Phenotype - the appearance of characters in an organism
In the LYTIC cycle of bacteriophages -
Host DNA is degraded
Which of the following was part of an experiment that demonstrated that proteins could move laterally within the lipid bilayer?
Hybrid mouse-human cells
true about photorespiration?
It is a recovery pathway of reactions to regenerate RuBP
If an operon is under positive repressible regulation:
It is normally transcribing and removing an activator turns it off.
During gamete formation the segregation of the alleles of one gene is independent of the segregation of the alleles of another gene. What did Mendel call this phenomenon?
Law of independent assortment
Which of the following would result in greater activity of the enzymes in a metabolic pathway
Lower levels of ubiquitin
Disappearance of species
MASS EXTINCTIONS
Build tree by looking for shared DERIVED characters
MAXIMUM PARSIMONY
Homologous chromosomes are separated during ___.
Meiosis 1
Under normal conditions, as electrons flow down the electron transport chain of the mitochondria:
NADH and FADH2 are oxidized.
Darwin's idea on change
NATURAL SELECTION
CH3, OH, NH2 which is an amino acid
NH2
A.R. Wallace came up with similar explanation of diversity
Natural Selection Malay Islands in South Pacific
ECOLOGICAL
Niche, or role in the ecosystem
general structure of the nucleotides found in DNA & RNA?
Nitrogenous base Ribose sugar Phosphate group
Errors made during the replication of DNA can be corrected using:
Nuclease, DNA polymerase and ligase
Surrounded by a membrane
Nucleus Chloroplast
Intelligent, friendly aliens have donated cells to cell biologists to study. The scientists discover that the cells contain a nucleus with DNA, ribosomes and mitochondria. The alien cells are most similar to which cell types found on earth?
Plant and animal cells
The difference in leading- vs. lagging-strand synthesis is a consequence of:
The anti-parallel configuration of DNA DNA polymerase III synthesizing only in the 5'-3' direction
In eukaryotic cells, the signal that often tells the machinery to degrade a protein is:
The attaching of ubiquitin to the protein.
concentration of 1.7 mM is placed in a culture solution with a solute concentration of 1.5 mM. Which of the statements below is true if we assume that only water and none of the solutes can move?
The cell will gain water because the solution is hypotonic to the cell.
Negative feedback is a common regulatory mechanism in biological systems. In a biochemical pathway this feedback occurs when
The end product of the pathway binds to an allosteric site on an enzyme used earlier in the pathway.
true of ALL viruses?
They contain nucleic acid They have a protein coat They must use the machinery of a living cell to copy themselves They are considered infectious particles
Atom X and atom Y are isotopes. They are both neutral atoms. This means that
They contain the same number of protons and electrons
true about enzymes?
They stress the bonds of substrates, to decrease activation energy
Darwin Inferred natural selection
Traits that lead to greater survival & reproduction result in more offspring in next generation Favorable traits will increase in population over generations (due to unequal survival & reproduction)
Darwin influenced by HMS Beagle's journey
Travelled most of coast of South America Patterns- Range of diversitySimilarities to other SA species
An artificial membrane is inserted into a beaker divides the beaker into side A and side B. The membrane is permeable to water only. The solute concentration in side A is 0.1 molar and the solute concentration on side B is 0.2 molar.
Water moves from side A to side B because the solute concentration is higher in B.
Where is oxygen made during photosynthesis?
When water is split to give replacement electrons to photosystem II
FREQUENCY DEPENDENT SELECTION
Which phenotype favored changes depending on what is common ex: attack style
If the DNA content of a diploid cell in the G1 phase of the cell cycle is X, then the DNA content of a single cell at Metaphase II would be
X
In the ZW system for determining sex:
ZW is female and ZZ is male
Which pattern of diploid and haploid phases reflect the life cycle in some fungi and protists, but not plants or animals?
a life cycle that limits the diploid state to a single cell produced by fertilization
Variation in continuous traits typically forms
a normal curve
BIOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT
a species as all organisms that can produce viable offspring with each other
C4 photosynthesis differs from C3 photosynthesis by
adding extra reactions in between CO2 entering the leaf and the start of the Calvin Cycle
Genome definition
all the genetic material in an organism
Correct association
anaphase: chromosome move to cell poles prophase: spindle assembles S:: DNA replication telophase: spindle disappears
evolutionary theory
any change in the genetic makeup of a group (population) over time
An alien cell replicates its circular chromosome and divides without a mitotic spindle. It most closely resembles a ___
bacterial cell
Receptor-mediated endocytosis:
brings about the selective uptake of materials by enclosing them in membranous vesicles.
Dideoxy method
ddNTPs Terminate chains when added Create pieces of difference length that can be separated by gel electrophoresis
Genome sequencing
determines all nucleotide bases
A physicist creates an atom with an additional proton. He now has a
different element
During anaphase the nonkinetochore microtubules are responsible for?
elongating the cell
According to the first law of thermodynamics
energy cannot be created or destroyed.
ATP hydrolysis is
exergonic and produces an inorganic phosphate
Choose the pair of terms that correctly completes this sentence: Catabolism is to anabolism as ___ is to ___
exergonic; endergonic
Radiography replaced by
fluorescence
How often does speciation occur
fossil record - 6.5 million years Range 4000 - 40 million
evolution
genetic change in GROUPS typically population
------ is polysaccharide used to store energy in animal cells
glycogen
A process common to all living organisms, aerobic and anaerobic, is
glycolysis
Prezygotic
habitat isolation temporal isolation behavioral isolation mechanical gametic
After telophase I of meiosis, the chromosomal makeup of each daughter cell is
haploid, and the chromosomes are each composed of two chromatids
At the beginning of G2 as cell __
has twice the amount of DNA present in one telophase nucleus
The table below shows the recombination frequencies for four genes located on chromosome 5 of mythical unicorns. Using this information, choose the correct order of the genes on the chromosome. Rf hrn gl wh pur hrn X 5.1% 45.5% 89.7% gl X X 40.4% 78.4% wh X X X 44% pur X X X X
hrn --- gl --- wh --- pur
Which type of bond forms a protein's secondary structure?
hydrogen
To use molecular data, must find sequences that are similar but not
identical
Role of transposons
increasing change
I artificially replaced some unsaturated hydrocarbon chains in a membrane with only saturated chains. The new membrane ___.
is less fluid
Recessive
it can skip generations
An atom becomes a cation if
it loses one or more electrons
Which spindle microtubules are responsible for chromosome movement?
kinetochore
SHOTGUN approach
larger sequences
Biological polymers is defined by a physical property instead of a chemical structure
lipids
"Next-Gen" methods sequence
many fragments at once Higher throughput = more rapid analysis
Sister chromatids are separated during ____
meiosis II and mitosis
Proteins called RNA polymerases are required for transcription and are synthesized on ribosomes. In order for these enzymes to carry out their function they ____.
must move into the nucleus through nuclear pores
Cell A releases molecule B via exocytosis. Molecule B diffuses locally and binds to receptors on nearby cells. This is an example of
paracrine signaling
You have two different functional proteins. Protein A is composed of a single polypeptide chain, while Protein B is composed of 4 different polypeptide chain. Protein B can be discussed in terms of ____ whereas Protein A cannot.
quaternary structure
In fermentation, the steps after glycolysis serve to
re-oxidize NADH, so there is NAD+ for glycolysis to continue
postzygotic
reduced hybrid viability, fertility, hybrid breakdown
When electrons move closer to a more electronegative atom the more electronegative atom is _____.
reduced, and energy is released
Which of the following is found in a prokaryote?
ribosomes plasma membrane DNA
Relationships between cell structures and their respective functions
ribosomes; protein synthesis mitochondria; energy production cytoskeleton; cell shape nucleus; production of ribosomal RNA
STR
short tandem repeat = 2-5 nucleotides # of repeats highly variable Genetic profile = unique set of STR genetic markers Use for forensic DNA analysis
Polysaccharides may be used for
short-term energy storage
CONVERGENT EVOLUTION
similar adaptations in similar environments
Study Evolution
similarities and differences across organisms close relatives have more DNA in common More time since had common ancestor = more time for genetic differences to arise
part of, or derived from, the endomembrane system
smooth endoplasmic reticulum nuclear membrane lysosomes Golgi apparatus
Categorizing life (smallest to largest)
species genus family order class phylum kingdom Animalia domain- archaea, eukarya, bacteria
The chemical characteristics or reactivity of an element depends primarily on
the number of electrons in the outermost shell
Taxol is an anticancer drug extracted from the Pacific yew tree. In animal cells, Taxol disrupts microtubule formation which stops mitosis. Taxol must affect _____.
the structure of the mitotic spindle
Phosphorylation cascades that involve a series of protein kinases are useful for signal transduction because
they amplify the original signal.
In class we used the lac operon as an example of bacterial gene regulation. If glucose levels are high and the CAP activator is not attached, and lactose levels are low, so the repressor protein is attached to the operon:
transcription will not occur.
The trans face of the Golgi complex is most directly involved in
transporting molecules out of the Golgi
ALLOPOLYPLOIDY
two ancestral species
As electrons move during linear electron flow in the light dependent reactions of photosynthesis, they go from which substance to which substance?
water > P680 > P700 > NADP+
The adhesiveness of water allows
water to form hydrogen bonds with other polar molecules
HYBRID ZONES
where similar species overlap and may mate
start of oxygen revolution
2.7 billion
start of dino
232 million
Atom X has an atomic number of 13. How many electrons are in its valence shell?
3
colonization of land
500 million
How many molecules are present in one mole of C6H12O6?
6.02 x 10^23 molecules
Appearance of new species
ADAPTIVE RADIATIONS
happen during the process of glycolysis?
ATP is produced ATP is used Carbohydrates are oxidized 2 pyruvate are produced
natural selection Can lead to increased 'match" between organisms and environment
Adaptation
HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE
Allele and genotype frequency in a population will remain constant generation to generation IF only Mendelian segregation and recombination occurring
Where is O2 used during cellular respiration?
At the end of the Electron Transport Chain
MOLECULAR CLOCKS
-Assume consistent rate of nucleotide substitution -Match known changes to known dates from fossil record or other known sample
A diploid cell has 36 chromosomes at the beginning of mitosis. How many chromatids does it have at telophase?
0
What does miRNA do?
B) Blocks translation of mRNA C) Breaks down or degrades mRNA Either B or C, depending on how many complementary bases match between the mRNA and the miRNA
REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION
Barriers to successful reproduction
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy can be
Both transferred and transformed
What else happens during pyruvate oxidation, besides the making of Acetyl CoA?
CO2 is released NAD+ is reduced
Building a phylogenetic tree
Choosing groups Choosing characteristics avoid convergent evolution
Associated with motor proteins?
Cilia
true about DNA?
Hydrogen bonds hold the two strands together
METAGENOMICS
Identify all species in an environment based on DNA found in sample
Altering gene frequencies
If not in H-W equilibrium, then change is happening Can be caused by -NATURAL SELECTION -GENETIC DRIFT -Change due to random chance -More like to have an impact in small populations -GENE FLOW -Movement in or out of population
Natural Selection
Individuals with certain inherited traits survive & reproduce better because of those traits
sequencing of other species
Many bacteria (1st organism) Yeast (1st eukaryote) Arabadopsis thaliana (1st plant)
Atom A is more electronegative than atom B. Molecule AB3 is made when A forms covalent bonds with each of the B atoms. AB bonds are
Polar bonds and the result of electron sharing. The region of the molecule around atom A has a partial negative charge.
What is the job of DNA polymerase I in the process of DNA replication?
Replacing RNA primers with DNA nucleotides
In a G Protein mediated signal transduction pathway what occurs following the replacement of GDP with GTP?
The G protein activates an enzyme.
ATP is often referred to as the "energy currency" of a cell because
The phosphate-phosphate bonds are high energy The bond between phosphates is easy to make and break There is usually a pool of ATP and ADP+Pi available for cell reactions to utilize.
What is the function of the regeneration phase of the Calvin cycle?
To regenerate RuBP
Comparing Genomes
close relatives have fewer genome differences Distantly related species -Highly conserved genes
Hydrocarbon chain, carboxyl group
lipid structure
A cell in G0 is
not in the cell cycle
Taxonomy categories overlap with
phylogeny
_____ breaks down cohesin.
separase
C4H10
structural isomers
PHYLOGENY
trees organize life by evolutionary history
Which of the following is the smallest? A) transport vesicle B) plant central vacuole C) mitochondria D) nucleus E) membrane protein
Membrane protein
When the last product of a metabolic pathway can attach to the first enzyme in the pathway and shut it off, this is called:
Negative feedback inhibition
If homologous chromosomes fail to separate during Meiosis I, it results in _____ and an abnormal number of chromosomes may occur in the gamete.
Nondisjunction
Characteristic of living things
Order, growth and development
VARIATION
Phenotype, whole gene, DNA sequence New alleles / forms causing mutation -Changing nucleotides Gene or exon duplications/deletions/relocations Higher occurrence when more rapid reproduction
In tigers, the absence of fur pigmentation is caused by a recessive allele that also causes the tigers to be cross-eyed. This is an example of:
Pleiotropy
Which type of bond must be broken in order for water to ionize?
Polar covalent
Darwin Observed natural selection
Population members vary in traits Species produce more offspring than survive
In the figure above the starting molecule is a ___ and the process illustrated is ___
Protein Hydrolysis
Receptors for hydrophobic signaling molecules
are located in the cytosol or the nucleus
Receptors for hydrophilic signaling molecules
are located in the plasma membrane
Sister chromatids do not remain identical in meiosis due to ____?
crossing over at prophase I
proteins is synthesized during a restricted period of time during the cell cycle and is essential for passage through check points?
cyclin
VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES
'useless' parts that were useful in ancestors
true of a species that has a chromosome number of 2N=16?
A gamete from this species has 8 chromosomes
Non-Coding DNA
A lot of DNA is repetitive like TRANSPOSABLE ELEMENTS Enzymes to copy, cut, reverse transcribe and insert
POPULATION
All organisms of one kind in one area Breed together
GENE POOL
All possible alleles in a population
Sexual life cycles
All sexual life cycles require meiosis
Gene Flow
Allele movement between populations Can undo or enhance natural selection
Where do non-competitive inhibitors attach to an enzyme?
Allosteric site
summary reaction for the entire process of cellular respiration is:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 => 6H2O + 6CO2 + energy
SEXUAL SELECTION
involves traits related to mating - competition and mate choice
Electrons are transferred from one atom to another in
ionic bonds
CH3
lipid
Facilitated transport requires
membrane proteins
At which stage are chromosomes aligned at the equator of the cell?
metaphase
Terms associated with the cytoskeleton
microtubule actin centriole desmosome
telophase
nuclear membrane reforms
Genomes are made up of
nuclear, mitochondria, chloroplasts, intracellular symbionts
Genes are considered to be linked if they:
occur on the same chromosome
PROTEOME
often larger than genome Alternative splicing Post-translational processing -Protease -Glycosylation or phosphorylation -Alternative promoters
A molecule containing thymine and cytosine could be a
polynucleotide
What contains DNA?
prokaryotic cells eukaryotic cells chloroplasts
A high body temperature can break weak chemical bonds resulting in
protein denaturation
Anabolic process
protein synthesis
C H OH
Carbohydrates
A+B =
Energy in the reactants
HOMEOTIC genes
HOX genes important for regulating segmentation & other aspects of development
Fossil record
Trace patterns and changes across time
Describes polygenic inheritance
When multiple genes contribute to the phenotype of a single character.
RELATIVE FITNESS
contribution to the gene pool of next generation relative to other individuals in the population
HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE 5 conditions
-No mutations -No natural selection -No gene flow (immigration/emigration) -Mating must be random -Populations must be large
Biogeography
-Role of continental drift -Predictions of fossil locations -Similarities between island species and nearest mainland
Limits to Natural Selection
-Selection only acts on variation that exists -Possibilities limited by historical constraints -Rate limited by generation time -Tradeoffs faced -Random chance -not constant
Limitations to Biological Species Concept
-Viable hybrids -Variation extremes e.g. dogs -Asexual groups -Fossils
Chromosomal alterations
-fusion of two chromosomes -Duplications and inversions **Blocks of genes staying together, even as chromosomes change
Steps to get first cells
-Abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules and macromolecules -Packaging into protocells -Self-replicating molecules (RNA
HETEROZYGOTE ADVANTAGE
-Both types of homozygote have lower fitness -Preserves genetic variation
A substance entered a cell via passive transport?
The substance moved from an area of high concentration to low concentration.
considered a 2nd messenger
cAMP Ca++ IP3
All viruses have a coat made out of protein, called a:
capsid
Metabolic pathways which break down molecules are considered:
catabolic
A new bird species is discovered in the rainforest. Back in the lab, a scientist crosses a yellow variety with a red variety. The result includes some birds with red feathers, some birds with yellow feathers, and some with both red and yellow feathers. What type of inheritance do these birds display?
codominance
_____ holds sister chromatids together
cohesion
part of the extracellular matrix of animal cells?
collagen
SYSTEMS BIOLOGY
combine and model behavior of whole system based on interactions between parts Test how genome leads to activities in cells
Homologous structures
common ancestry; similar but different structure and function similarities early in development
EVO-DEVO
compares developmental processes across groups to understand how evolved