Biology 1110 Exam 2 Study Questions

What is the source of energy during cellular respiration

ATP

How do we get back to ATP?

ATP goes in, releases energy, ADP exits and will travel to the mitochondria where cellular respiration occurs and ATP is converted back

What is the name of the last protein in the membrane that makes the ATP

ATP synthase

What are the input items of the Calvin cycle

ATP, NAPDH, CO2

Neurons contain a high concentration of potassium ions. How could a neuron acquire even more potassium?

Active transport

What happens in checkpoint G1

Apoptosis can occur if DNA is damaged beyond repair Checks DNA suitability

How do you get rid of the remnants of glucose during cellular respiration

CO2

What are the inputs of photosynthesis?

CO2 and H2O with light

What is the fixation of carbon dioxide stage in the calvin cycle

CO2 is attached to a sugar (ribulose biphosphate RuBP), produces a 6-C intermediate which is unstable and immediately splits into two 3-C molecules

Briefly describe what happens in the Calvin cycle reactions

CO2 is taken up from the atmosphere, using ATP and NADPH (from photo reactions) glucose is produced

Prior to enetering the Krebs cycle, pyruvate loses a _____ and is converted to _______

CO2, acetyl-coA

Carbon fixation is part of which process

Calvin cycle

What are two things true regarding carrier proteins?

Carrier proteins are specific to a single type of molecules, and carrier proteins aid in facilitated transport

What is an example of potential energy?

Chemical energy

Briefly describe what happens in the light reactions

Chlorophyll in the thylakoid membranes capture light energy, water is split, ATP produced and NADPH is produced and moves on

An unduplicated chromsomes has ______ chromatid while a duplicated chromosome has ______ chromatids

1,2

How many chromosomes are present in anaphase

12 UNreplicated chromosomes

Consider a bacterial cell that performs anaerobic respiration. If that bacterial cell had access to 6 molecules of glucose to use, how many ATPs would it be able to produce?

12ATPs

What is the total ATP produced in anaerobic respiration per glucose molecule

2

What is the net ATP gain from glycolysis

2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvates

ALL organisms perform glycolysis which essentially chops a glucose molecule in half to create what

2 molecules of pyruvate

CO2 is removed from a pyruvate to create what

2-C acetyl molecules

If starting with a cell that has a haploid of 10, during mitosis there will be ______ chromosomes at metaphase, _______ chromosomes at anaphase, and ______ chromosomes per daughter cell at telophase.

20, 40, 20

What is the net gain from the ETC

32-34 ATP per glucose molecule

What is the total net of ATP from aerobic respiration

36-38 ATP per glucose molecule

A human cell undergoes mitosis. The resulting cells have ______ chromosomes each

46

A normal human cell that is not dividing will contain _____ chromosomes. These chromosomes will each consist of _______ chromatids

46, 1

All human cells have _______ chromosomes. ______ came from mom and ________ came from dad. Each parent provides _______ unique chromosomes. The other parents gives their version of the same set.

46,23,23,23

What is the net ATP gain from fermentation

4ATP

From the citric acid cycle what moves onto the ETC

6 NADH, 2 FADH2

How many chromosomes are present in metaphase

6 replicated chromosomes

How many chromosomes are present in prophase

6 replicated chromosomes

What is the photosynthesis equation

6CO2 + 12H2O = C6H12O6 +6O2 +6H2O

What are the outputs of the citric acid cycle

6CO2, 2ATP, 6NADH and 2 FADH2

Once ATP is used, what are we left with?

ADP

Light hits the water-splitting photosystem which causes electrons to be excited to a high energy level. That electrons are picked up by an electron acceptor and passed through an electron transport chain where what is made

ATP

What are the two different fermentation options

Lactate and alcohol

What three things do we use ATP for?

Mechanical work (movement), chemical work (reactions such as the synthesis of polymers, and transport work (pumping substances across membranes

What are the two types of cell division for eukaryotic cells

Mitosis and Meiosis

What happens in checkpoint G2

Mitosis will not occur until DNA has replicated Makes sure DNA was accurately replicated Checking sequence- replication is completed

NAD+ is a carrier molecule that removes H+ and e- from molecules to become _____ which transports H+ and e- to the ETC. After the H+ and the e- are dropped off at the ETC, it is recycled to _________

NADH, NAD+

What is the reduction of CO2 and potential for sugar creation stage in the Calvin cycle

NADPH & ATP are used to rearrange each 3-C molecule, produces six G3P molecules and 1 is used by the plant and 5 continue in the cycle

What is Photosystem I

NADPH producing photosystem- electrons from CHL passed to electron acceptor, electron need to be replaced so taken from the ETC, and electron acceptor passes electron NAPP+ who also accepts H+ coming from water

Is the number of chromosomes related to an organisms complexity

NOT AT ALL

What are the three primary categories of ways in which substances can enter cells?

Passive transport, active transport and bulk transport

When is active transport performed?

Performed when cells need to maintain a higher concentration as compared to the outside solution. an example would be the iodine in thyroid cells, solutes and urine formation

What are the three forms of endocytosis?

Phagocytosis, Pinocytosis, and Receptor-mediated endocytosis

Coenzyme A is attached to each acetyl. What does this result in

acetyl-CoA

Which os these statements best explains why your body prefers to perform aerobic respiration as opposed to anaerobic respiration

aerobic respiration produces far more ATP than anaerobic respiration

Who does the process of cellular respiration?

all organisms

Stage of cycle- G1

also known as 1st growth- they physically grow in size and duplicating organelles

Stage of cycle- M

also known as mitotic phase, divide all components into 2 piles and seprate to form 2 daughter cells

Stage of cycle- G0

also known as resting phase, cells do not divide

Stage of cycle- S

also known as synthesis- DNA replication/synthesis

Osmosis always moves water from

an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration

Why is the aerobic pathway more efficient

anaerobic makes less ATP per glucose molecule

When can the calvin cycle happen

any time of the day

Who performs alcohol fermentation

bacteria and fungi (yeast)

Why does the cirtic acid cycle turn twice

because we have 2 pyruvates

What does glycolysis do

being the breakdown of glucose

Where are the high energy bonds in ATP?

between the 3 phosphates

What are some examples of alcohol fermentation

bread rising, beer/wine

What does the build up of lactic acid contribute to

burning sensations and muscle fatigue and it is also toxic

How is ATP regenerated

by attaching a P to ADP

Now that the plant has made glucose what does it do with it?

can be broken down for energy (cellular respiration), can be stockpiled as starch, or can be made into cellulose and used to maintain/build the cell wall

What happens if checkpoints fail

can result in mutation or disease

What happens in anaphase

cell elongates spindle fibers shorten and pull the sister chromatids apart chromosomes move toward opposite poles

Stage of cycle- G2

cell finishes growing and prepares to divide

During interphase our DNA is in the form of what

chromatin

What happens in telophase

chromosomes arrive at poles spindle fibers breakdown nuclear envelope reappears two daughter nuclei form (during cytokinesis)

What happens in prophase

chromosomes condense and sister chromatids are visible nuclear envelope breaks down and disappears centrosomes produce spindle fibers which attach/capture the chromosomes

What happens in metaphase

chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate (equator of cell) pulled by spindle fibers

what does the preparatory reaction/citric acid cycle do

completes the breakdown of glucose

Where does glycolysis take place

ctyosol/cytoplasm of the cell

Where does anaerobic respiration take place

cytoplasm

How are enzymes inhibited?

decrease substrate, feedback inhibition, competitive inhibition (blocks the action site), and non-competitive inhibition (changes the shape of the active site so the substrate cant bind)

A telomere is involved with what

determining how many times a cell can divide

The difference between diffusion and osmosis is that

diffusion moves small substance from high to low concentration while osmosis moves water from high to low concentration

When are carotenoids visible in a plant?

during the fall, day light shortens and temps decrease then chlorophyll breaks down or stored and then you can see them

How do telomeres relate to cellular aging

each time a cell divides, a little bit of telomere is lost when they are to short- the cell is old and will stop dividing and apoptosis will occur

What is the only part of aerobic respiration that utilizes oxygen

electron transport chain

What is potential energy?

energy an object possesses due to location or spatial arrangement (stored energy)

What is the 2nd law of conservation?

energy cannot be changed from one form to another wihtout a loss of usable energy

What is the 1st law of conservation?

energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can only be changed from one form to another

What is kinetic energy?

energy of relative motion

How are proteins converted to be used for cellular respiration

excess amino acids deamination ammonia produced and placed into urine and excreted remainder of amino acids enters into glycolysis, preparatory reaction or citric acid cycle

What type of transport across cell membranes involves the use of carrier proteins

facilitated diffusion

How are fats converted to be used for cellular respiration

fats are broken down into the glycerol and fatty acid groups glycerol enters into glycolysis fatty acids are broken down into fragments which enter citric acid cycle as acetyl CoA

What does cytokinesis look like for plant cells

form a cell plate to build a new cell wall which then divides the daughter cells No pinch for plants because of the cell wall

What do you need to start the process of glycolysis

gluce, ATP, NAD+

A cell contains 5% glucose, 20% starch, and 10% protein. The solution surrounding the cell contains 15% glucose, 5% starch, and 5% protein. ___________ will move by diffusion ________ the cell, while water will move _________ the cell due to the effects of osmosis.

glucose, into, into

What are the steps to the aerobic cellular respiration

glycolosis, preparatory reaction/citric acid cycle, electron transport chain

What are the steps to anaerobic cellular respiration

glycolysis, fermentation

When a person receives a blood transfusion, the blood type must be matched for substances that identify the red blood cells. These identifiers on the cell membrane of the cells would be

glycoproteins

Chromatin wrapped around special proteins called what

histomes

The nitrogenous bases of two DNA strands are held together by what kind of bonds

hydrogen

What is apoptosis

if a cell is worn out or the DNA is damaged, instead of replicating it will go into apoptosis (cell death)

Where does recycling occur as long as oxygen is present?

in the ETC

When is the anaerobic pathway used

in the absence of oxygen

where is the concentration of H+ ions the greatest

intermembrane space as compared to the matrix

What does it convery pyruvate to

into ethyl alcohol (drinking alcohol)

Glucose is not directly made in the photo or synthesis reactions of photosynthesis. Where does it come from

is is made from joining 2 G3P molecules that are made during the Calvin cycle

What does selectively permeable mean?

it allows some substances to cross more easily than others, small molecules and ions can freely cross the membrane in both directions, larger molecules or hydrophilic molecules cannot pass freely

Where is there no genetic diversity with binary fission

it essentially involves copying the circular loop of DNA in a parent cell and splitting in half to form two daughter cells

What are three possible reactions when chlorophyll is hit by a photon of light?

it is either absorbed, transmitted or reflected it also excited the electrons to either pass on to an electron acceptor or return to ground state

What happens to the CO2

it is exhaled

What happens every time the electron is passed down the transport chain

it lets off little bits of energy

The splitting of water in photosynthesis is critical to us as animals because

it produces oxygen

Turgor pressure is created by the force of the cell pushing against what

its cell wall

What does lactate fermentation convert pyruvate to

lactic acid

Lactate fermentation is what

lactic acid, our cells perform this during strenous exercise when blood oxygen levels are depleted.

What must be present for light reactions to occur?

light

Describe what happens in the photosystems

light capturing units- what absorbs solar energy

Eukaryotic cells contain DNA in the form of what

linear chromosomes

What function do phospholipids supply?

main component of the membrane, similar in structure to fats

Imagine that you are looking at a cell in the microscope. When you examine the cell, you see that the nucleus is not present and that the chromosomes are condensed and lined up in the center of the cell. What are the possible stages of division in which this cell might be?

metaphase

What is diffusion?

molecules move along a concentration gradient in order to reach equilibrium (high to low)

What is active transport?

movement of a solute against the concentration gradient

Where do the NADH from glycolysis move on to

moves on to the ETC and has the potential to make more energy

When we measure diffusion, we are actually measuring

net molecular movement

What cells are always in the G0 cycle

neurons, skeletal muscle and some white blood cells

Mitosis is done by all cells except

neurons, skeletal muscle, and some white blood cells

How much diversity if achieved in binary fission

none

What is secondary active transport?

one of the two substances is transported in the direction of its concentration gradients, using the energy derived from the transport of such substance down its concentration gradient

What are the plasma membrane malfunctions and applications?

organisms may acquire changes to the structure of their cell membrane via evolutionary adaptation, changes in structure results in change in properties

what are the output items of light reactions

oxygen, ATP (which moves on to the calvin cycle) and NADPH

Suppose an experiment is performed in which plant #1 is supplied with normal CO2 but with water that is labeled with radioactive oxygen atoms so that we can trace their location. Plant #2 is supplied with normal water but with CO2 that contains radioactive oxygen atoms. Each plant is allowed to perform photosynthesis and the oxygen gas and G3P molecules are analyzed for the presence of radioactive oxygen. Which plant will produce radioactive oxygen gas and which plant will produce radioactive G3P?

plant 1 and plant 2

What has both chloroplasts and mitochondria

plant cells

Binary fission is the method of cell division for who

prokaryotes and single-celled eukaryotes (protists)

Mitosis is subdivided into 4 phases, what are they

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase

What does a telomere do

protects your genetic information

What do you need to start the process of anaerobic respiration

pyruvate

What is the citric acid cycle

rearrangement and breakdown of the remnants of glucose.

Plants can only harvest certain wavelengths of solar energy. The wavelengths that plants can use correspond to what colors

red and blue

What is entropy?

refers to the relative amount of disorganization

What is mitosis used for

reproduction for some organisms (single cell eukaryotes) growth and development and repair- build and maintain our tissues

What does active transport require?

requires transport proteins and the expenditure of energy

Mitosis starts with a ____________ cell and ends with two _________ daughter cells

single parent, identical

Who performs lactate fermentation

some bacteria, fungi and animals

Before the cirtic acid cycle can begin what must happen

some modifications to pyruvate

What does glycolysis mean

sugar splitting

When does osmosis take place?

takes place when the solute molecules are to large to pass through the membrane

A living plant is exposed to water labeled with O18 (a radioactive isotope of oxygen that allows us to trace where it goes) and exposed to sunlight. The O18 will end up in where at the end of photosynthesis?

In released oxygen gas

what is fermentation

the partial degradation of sugars without the use of oxygen

The sodium-potassium pump acts alternately to move sodium and potassium in and out of animal cells by what means

the pump undergoes a change in shape

What is deamination

the removal of the amino group

The primary determining factor as to whether a substance can move across the cell membrane is

the size of the substance

How do enzymes work?

they are specific to their substrate, when they bind to their substrate they make it unstable, once unstable they rearrange chemical bonds

What does a plant do with the glucose they make?

Stockpile it until its needed for energy for cellular activities.

Give an example of a specific sitation where an organism might not be able to perform aerobic respiration

Strenuous exercise, CO poisoning, bacteria without mitochondria whos alternative is fermentation

The most important part of the first three steps of aerobic cellular respiration is

That NAD+ and FAD collect electrons and hydrogen ions for the ETC

The CO2 animals exhale is produced in

The Krebs cycle

What happens to the cell when it is placed in a hypotonic solution?

The cell will gain water and could lyse

What happens to the cell when it is placed in a hypertonic solution?

The cell will lose water or crenate

How do receptor-mediated endocytosis and pinocytosis differ?

Unlike pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis requires a specific receptor protein to recognize a specific molecule and unlike pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis allows cells to take in a specific molecule

What kind of light powers photosynthesis?

Visible light

What are the characteristics of an isotonic solution?

What the concentration of dissolved substances in the solution is the same as the concentration of dissolved substances inside the cell

CHL B

Yellow green in color

What does plasmolysis mean

a cell membrane that pulled away from a cell wall due to water loss

What is a chromosome

a cellular structure carrying genetic material

what is the electron transport chain composed of

a collection of molecules embedded within the inner membrane of the mitochondria

What is a chromatid

a copy of a chromosome

What is a photon

a discrete particle with a specific qunatity of energy

What is cytokinesis

a process that physically separates two daughter cells

What is a telomere

a repeating DNA sequence at the ends of a chromosome

What does cytokinesis look like for animal cells

a set of proteins at the equator pinch the cell into two daughter cells

What is mitosis

a single parent cell copies all components and splits to produce 2 daughter cell produces somatic cells- body cells cells are identical- no diversity

What do your cells perfer as fuel for cellular respiration

they prefer glucose as fuel

Your friends are trying their luck at making wine. They have added yeast and glucose to grape juice. A week later they notice that the sugar has been used up by the yeast but there is no alcohol in the mixture. The best explanation is

they should have lowered the oxygen supply to stimulate ethanol production

Cells cant progress from one stage of the cell cucle to the next without passing through special checkpoints. Why is this

this regulation ensures that only needed cells are produced , this can stop/continue based on internal signals

What is a hypotonic solution?

this solution has less solute relative to what it is being compared to. This means it has MORE water relative to what it is being compared to.

What is a hypertonic solution?

this solution has more solute relative to what is is being compared to. This means it has LESS water relateive to what it is being compared to

What is the function of these pigments

to absorb and reflect

A leaf on a plant is phtosynthesizing rapidly, capturing sunlight to perform the photo reactions. Why will this plant also need to perform the synthesis reactions?

to make glucose for the plant

Mitosis is a highly regulated process. Why would it be important to regulate this type of cell division

to prevent over production of cells to not get tumors- any cell that divides uncontrollably is cancerous

Why do plants split water molecules during the photo reactions of photosynthesis?

to provide electrons for the synthesis reactions

Why do our cells go through cellular respiration?

to release energy from the food we consume

What is the purpose of the Krebs cycle

to utilize NAD+ and FAD as much as possible so that there is potential to make ATP in the ETC

What is the function of protein?

transport, enzymatic activity, signal transduction, cell-cell recognition, intercellular joining and attachment of the cytoskeleton to the ECM

What is meiosis

used for reproduction a type of division that reduces the chromosome set of the daughter cells produces gamates- egg and sperm cells creates genetic variation

When do we use bulk transport?

used when items are too big to cross the plasma membrane by other means.

what does the electron transport chain do

uses e- carriers to produce ATP

What is primary active transport?

uses energy in the form of ATP to transport molecules across a membrane against their concentration gradient

Molecules that undergo exocytosis from a cell are enclosed in what

vesicles

What is exocytosis?

vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane in order to release contents outside the cell- molecules EXIT

NAD+ and FAD are essential to the process of cellular respiration. They are formed within our cells from what

B Vitamins

CHL A is what

Biggest proportion and blue green in color

What does the term coupled reaction mean?

Energy required by 1 process is supplied by another process

What happens in checkpoint M

Ensure chromosomes are properly aligned- mitosis stops until they are

Who does photosynthesis benefit?

Every organism on earth

FAD picks up H+ and e- to become ___________ which carried H+ and e- to the ETC; this is a different molecule from _________ but basically has the same job.

FADH2, NAD+

If oxygen is absent what will take the place of recycling

Fermentation

Brain cells and muscle cell lose the ability to perform mitosis at maturity. This means that these cells must be in the ____phase of the cell cycle?

G0

What are the output items of the Calvin cycle

Glucose

What is the end product of photosynthesis?

Glucose

What is needed to perform cellular respiration

Glucose and Oxygen (usually)

What are the products of photosynthesis?

Glucose, Oxygen, Water

What else is creates as a byproduct of this reaction

H2O

How many cell divisions occur for a typical cell

Human cells divide approximately 50-70 times before they enter senescence (old age/ not reproducing)

What happens to the cell when it is placed in an isotonic solution?

Nothing

What happens to oxygen during aerobic cellular respiration?

O2 is used in the ETC to accept elecgtrons and hydrogens to make H2O

At the end of the electron transport chain, the final acceptor of the electrons is ______, which will then produce a molecule of __________

O2, H2O

What is chlorophyll

Primary pigment- majority of the pigment

What are the steps of the preparatory reaction

Pyruvate is oxidized

People who have chronic swelling sometimes use baths with Epsom salts to reduce the swelling. In this case, they use pure water for the bath but then add large amounts of the Epsom salt to the bath water. Explain how this might reduce their swelling. Would the bath water by hypotonic, hypertonic or isotonic to the person?

The high concentration of salts in the bath water would lead to a higher concentration of solutes (and a lower concentration of water) outside the person as compared to inside the person. This would cause water to flow out of the person and into the bath water, reducing swelling. The bath water with Epsom salt is a hypertonic solution.

What is the unique property of phospholipids that makes them well suited to forming the cell membrane?

They contain polar and nonpolar regoins

What is the point of why organisms have to do cellular respiration?

To make ATP

Where do the pyruvates move on

the Citric acid cycle

What is the most important thing that must be copied before a cell divides

the DNA but everything must be copied

A geneticist allows a cell to replicate in the presence of radioactive nucleotides. What will occur?

the DNA in each of the daughter cells would be radioactive

What role do concentration gradients play?

the ETC is powered by a H+ gradient

What is a calorie?

the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degrees Celsius

What is endocytosis?

the cell takes in a substance by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane- molecules ENTER

The drug DNP destroys the H+ gradient that forms in the ETC. The most likely consequence would be

the cells will be forced to perform fermentation

What is an isotonic solution?

the concentration of solute and water on each side of the membrane is equal

What is facilitated diffusion?

the diffusion of molecules across the membrane with help of transport proteins (channel or carrier proteins)

What is the regeneration of RuBP stage in the Calvin cycle

the five G3P molecules are rearranged into three molecules of RuBP, RuBP can then accept CO2 OR continue on the metabolic pathway to become glucose

What is phagocytosis

the ingestion of bacteria or other material by phagocytes and ameoboid protozoans

What is pinocytosis

the ingestion of liquid into a cell by the budding of small vesicles from the cell membrane

what is receptor-mediated endocytosis

the inward budding of plasma membrane vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being absorbed

What is happening in the light that we see

the light we see is reflected, everything else is absorbed

What is ADP

the low energy result when a P is removed from ATP

Where does CoA come from

the matrix of the mitochondria

What is binary fission

the method of asexual reproduction in which the cell divides in half

What is osmosis?

the movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane

What are the input items of light reactions

water and access to sunlight

When two solutions that differ in solute concentration are placed on either side of a semi=permeable membrane and osmosis is allowed to occur, what will happen?

water will move from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration

What is Photosystem II

water-splitting photosystem- electrons from CHL passed to electron acceptor, electrons need to be replaced so taken from H2O (water splits) and then electron acceptor passes electrons to the ETC

What function does cholesterol supply?

wedged between phosopholipids, stabilizes position of phospholipids, and maintain optimum fluidity at different temperatures

Where does citric acid cycle take place

within the mitochondrial matrix

What is carotonoid

yellow orange or red in color