chapter 10
Which behavior is most consistent with neutralization theory?
A juvenile drinks illegally on weekends but still maintains straight As in school.
Match the following techniques of neutralization with their description.
Criminals claim that due to outside forces, they cannot be held accountable for their behavior: DENIAL OF RESPONSIBILITY Criminals evaluate their wrongdoing in terms of whether anyone was hurt by it: DENIAL OF INJURY Criminals accept responsibility for their injurious actions but claim they were rightful: DENIAL OF VICTIM Criminals shift the focus from their acts to the motives and behavior of those who disapprove: CONDEMNATION OF THE CONDEMNERS Criminals sacrifice the rules of society for the rules of their particular social group: APPEAL TO HIGHER LOYALTIES
In contrast to biological theories that assume a person is born with offending tendencies, learning theories propose that individuals are born with ______.
a blank slate
Match Hirschi's social bond elements with their description.
affectionate relationships to others: ATTACHMENT an individual's investment in conventional society: COMMITMENT time spent doing conventional activities: INVOLVEMENT internalization of societal rules of laws: BELIEFS
Which of these is an example of negative reinforcement?
an inmate is released on parole due to good behavior
Control theories assume that individuals exhibit ______ tendencies until taught otherwise.
anti-social
______ is the most important element of Hirschi's social bond theory.
attachment
A former inmate meets a person who smells like the brand of soap he used while in prison. A sense of anxiety rises in the inmate at the scent, and he feels immediately wary of the new person, despite never having met him. This is an example of ______.
classical conditioning
Durkheim's concept of ______ can be seen as an early concept of social bonding.
collective conscience
An offender testifies that after he lost his job and his spouse filed for divorce, he felt that he had nothing left to lose and turned to criminal offending. This offender was low in which element of Hirschi's social bond theory?
commitment
According to learning theories, attitudes and behavioral decisions are acquired via ______.
communication
In contrast to social learning theories, ______ theories assume that all people would naturally commit crimes if not for restraints on their tendencies.
control
Which of the following theories is more concerned with explaining why most individuals refrain from committing crime?
control
A person pulled over for speeding tells the officer that they did not know they were driving so quickly and were only trying to match the flow of traffic. This is an example of which technique of neutralization?
denial of responsibility
An offender testifies that they downloaded thousands of movies illegally because the large media companies exploit small theaters and would never feel the loss of revenue anyway. This is an example of what type of neutralization technique?
denial of the victim
______ theory emphasizes relationships with significant others in learning criminal behavior.
differential association
______ proposes that learning also takes place through reference groups.
differential identification
______ theory emphasizes relationships with significant others as well as with persons and images presented in the media in learning criminal behavior.
differential identification
Which theory combines classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and imitation/modeling?
differential reinforcement
______ is a theory of criminal behavior that emphasizes various types of social learning, specifically classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and imitation or modeling.
differential reinforcement
______ control is formalized constraint on individual behavior, such as through sanctions or jail time.
direct
______ is a key construct of neutralization theory.
drift
What factor do many recent psychological studies of self-control attribute low self-control to?
emotional disposition
Control theories believe all people are born as blank slates.
false
Differential identification theory proposed that an individual must have a personal relationship with a reference group in order to learn from them.
false
In Reckless's containment theory, inner containment is analogous to external control.
false
The general theory of crime assumes that self-control must be established by age 12.
false
When Sutherland developed his theory, the idea that criminal behavior is learned was commonly accepted.
false
When a person is equally controlling of and controlled by others, that individual is most likely to offend.
false
Nye's control theory focuses on the strong influences that ______ have on an individual.
families
Match the following components of control from Nye's theory to their description.
formed through social interaction; assists in the development of a conscience: INTERNAL includes formal sanctions like jail; can restrict chances to commit crimes: DIRECT occurs when individuals are strongly attached to their early caregivers; establishes an attachment to conventional society: INDIRECT
A focus on low self-control as the primary explanatory factor in criminal offending is typical of the ______ theory of crime.
general
According to Reckless, which of the following would be considered a push into crime?
growing up in a community with limited opportunities
According to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, a person driven primarily by their ______ would most need to be controlled.
id
Markanthony illustrates Glaser's concept in that he recalls ______ the characters in the movies.
identifying with
A major criticism of Sutherland's differential association theory is that it ______.
ignored the influence of media
Reiss's control theory would most expect delinquency to occur in which scenario?
impulsive juvenile with criminal parents
Studies show women are more likely to experience ______ than men are.
inner emotional sanctioning
Feelings like shame, guilt and embarrassment are considered ______ sanctions.
internal
The superego component of Freud's psychoanalytic theory is most closely analogous to a(n) ______ control.
internal
According to Hirschi's social bonding theory, engagement in an after-school tutoring program is an example of what type of social bond?
involvement
Recent studies of self-control would most expect an individual who ______ to have low self-control.
is insensitive to anticipated shame
A program that is meant to help young children associate positively with conventional behavior and reward them for engaging in school would be most consistent with ______ theories of crime.
learning
______ models assume that criminal behavior is due to the process of understanding and internalizing values and techniques for engaging in crime.
learning
______ assumes that both people and animals learn through associations between stimuli and responses.
limitation
Hirschi and Gottfredson's general theory of crime focuses on ______.
low self-control
In contrast to Sutherland's propositions to the learning of criminal definitions, differential identification assumes that learning can take place through ______ role models.
media
An offender testifies in court that their mindset while committing the crime was that they had done so much good in their lives that they were entitled to embezzle some money from the company's profits. The neutralization technique being used is most likely ______.
metaphor of the ledger
A juvenile is caught sneaking out of the house late in order to go to a party. In response, a parent takes away the juvenile's driving privileges. This is an example of ______.
negative punishment
Bandura proposed that people learn many of their attitudes and behaviors from ______.
observation
Nonsocial reinforcement is reinforcement that ______.
occurs internally
______ argues that people learn based on the association between an action and feedback following the action.
operant conditioning
______ is concerned with how behavior is influenced by reinforcements and punishments?
operant conditioning
Sutherland's theory of differential association would most expect learning of criminal behavior to occur in which of the following scenarios?
parent speaking to a child
In classical conditioning, the person's role in the learning process is ______.
passive
Differential association theory was revolutionary at the time it was put forth because ______.
popular theories believed criminals were fundamentally abnormal
A child's parents are attempting to teach the child not to suck her thumb. For every day the child does not suck her thumb, she receives a favorite candy for dessert. This is an example of ______.
positive reinforcement
Which theory focuses primarily on patriarchal attitudes in the household?
power-control
______ theory assumes that opposite-sex parental households where the mother and father have relatively similar levels of authority will see fewer gender differences in children's criminal offending.
power-control
Both differential reinforcement theory and ______ theory focus on punishments and reinforcements incurred after an individual offends.
rational choice
Arguably the earliest form of a control theory was the 17th-century concept of the ______.
social contract
Sutherland's theory of differential association was heavily influenced by both imitation theory and ______ theory.
social disorganization
The primary distinction of differential association theory from the earlier positivistic theories is that learning from ______ is the primary factor in causing crime.
social interaction
Learning theories and control theories are both considered which of the following types of theories?
social process
Toby's theory of delinquency and gangs claimed that ______ was one of the most influential factors in individuals' decisions to offend.
stake in conformity
Negative reinforcement strengthens a behavior through ______.
subtraction of a negative stimulus
Control-balance theory and power-control theory are both integrated models of social control.
true
Differential reinforcement theory draws on modern and classical models of learning.
true
Nye argued that either no controls or too much control would predict the most chronic delinquency.
true
One of the concerns about the validity of neutralization theory is the idea that criminals may use techniques of neutralization prior to committing a criminal offense.
true
Reckless's containment theory examined factors that push and pull people into crime.
true
Tittle argued that the balance of the amount of control to which one is subjected and the amount that one can exercise can predict the ______ of an offense.
type
In contrast to most other theories of crime, control theory focuses on ______.
what prevents people from committing crimes
