Chapter 11: Stress and Health

How Social Networks influenced you study

1. A landmark study that followed more than 12,000 people over 32 years examined the role of social networks in quitting smoking, Social Networks influenced the likelihood that a person would stop smoking, but not all social connections had the same effect, If a spouse stopped smoking the chance the other spouse would also stop went up by 67%, If a friend stopped smoking the chance another friend stopped went up by 36% and if a coworker stopped smoking, the chance another worker stopped went up by 34% so the effect of the other person's behavior on any given person depend to some extent on how close they were to each other.

Cellular Immunity

1. Acquired Immune Responses take longer to initiate than natural immune responses Because the former involve recognition processes and the duplication of cells. On subsequent exposure to a specific Antigen, However, Acquired Immune Response can be rapid and efficient, vaccines, for examples, provide a safe initial exposure and an acquired Immune Responses that protect us against disease. 2. Acquired Immunity involves two classes of Lymphocytes, called B and T Lymphocytes. in response to specific Antigens, B lymphocytes release Antibodies into the bloodstream. Antibodies destroy antigens directly. The T Lymphocytes or " T cells" fight antigens not by releasing Antibodies but by means of Cellular processes, collectively known as Cellular Immunity.

drinking alcohol

1. Alcohol is a depressant, which means it slows down the Central Nervous System functions. Alcohol can cause liver damage, and severe Alcoholism can lead to a serious liver condition known as Cirrhosis. Heavy alcohol consumption also increases the likelihood of liver cancer and cancers of the digestive tract, not to mention an increased risk for accidental due to Alcohol's effect on motor and cognitive performance. 2. Not all the news regarding Alcohol is bad, However, considerable data indicate that regular but moderate alcohol consumption ( one to two drinks) especially with food, may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease, the number one killer in the developed world.

buffering hypothesis

1. Alternatively, social support may serve to protect us from the effects of stress under certain conditions. This is known as the Buffering Hypothesis. How well a person is integrated into a Social Network influences health, A social network is simply a cluster of related people, such as family members, spouses, Friends, Coworkers, or neighbors. 2. This web of friends and acquaintances is related to but not the same as an electric social network, such as the kind you might have on Instagram. When people are well integrated into a social network, social support can buffer the effects of stress by providing interpersonal resources for emotional support and problem-solving. The health benefits of social connectedness include longer life, and reduced susceptibility to colds, and a greater likelihood of following doctor's treatment recommendations in health care.

Animal Research in Stress

1. Animal Research shows that excessive stress in a pregnant mother can affect the development of several brain areas including the Amygdala, Hippocampus, Hypothalamus, and Corpus Callosum in her offspring.

How can Major Life Events

1. Any situation that creates a major upheaval in a person's life might lead to stress one approach to measuring stress as a stimulus focuses on Major Life Events. In the late 1960s, Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe developed the social readjustment scale. An instrument to quantity stress in terms of major life changes. 2. The SRR is easy to administer and score, But it has some drawbacks, First, it ignores the fact that people's view similar events differently. Second, by measuring stress in terms of life events, The SRRS fails to consider differences in people's emotional responses to stressors. Never the less, the SRRS is still widely used in research on stress and health and it relates to measures of mental and physical health.

The Health Behavior Approach

1. As such this model is rooted in psychosomatic Medicine by contrast, the Health Behavior Approach focused on the behaviors in which people engage, such as diet, exercise, or substance abuse, which may make them more susceptible to illness or may enhance health. These Explanations are not mutually exclusive. For example, a person might experience sustained blood pressure elevation due to stress and drink heavily durning a time of intense stress, both of which would affect the person's health.

Relationship between person and situation

1. As we saw with emotion, when we first encounter a situation in our environment, we quickly appraise what it means for us. Lazarus and Folkmen (1984) talk about two kinds of appraisal. Primary and Secondary appraisal.

Pessimists

1. By contract, emphasize the negative, For them, the glass is always half empty and the future uncertain.

Relational view of Stress

1. Clearly, stress is much more than being in certain challenging situations, and it is much more than physiological responses. Stress emerges from people's interpretations of the relevance of certain stressors to their lives and their ability to deal with them. This relational view of stress defines stress as a particular relationship between people and the situations in which they find themselves, that is, how stressful a situation is for you depends on what the situation means for you. 2. For Instance, For someone who has not studied or attended class regularly, A final exam might create severe stress. For someone who prepared carefully and attended most classes, the exam carefully and attended most classes, the exam might be a challenge, but not unduly stressful.

Natural Immunity

1. Consists of a number of inborn processes that help remove foreign substances from the body. These responses typically are very quick, and they provide the first line of defense upon exposure to Antigens. Forms of Natural Immunity include Phagocytosis and Inflammation. Phagocytosis is a process by which white blood cells engulfs a substance ( Usually an antigen or another cell and digests it or moves it to a place where it will be destroyed.)

How coping can affect stress

1. Coping plays a Big Role in the duration of stress responses and whether they develop sufficiently to become harmful to the Brain and Body. 2. In Monkeys, more effective coping with stress increases Neurogenesis in the Hippocampus, which offers the hopeful suggestion that the adverse effects of stress on the Brain may be reversible. In a fascinating study of rats, researchers found that increased experience with sex-even chronic exposure to sex also increases neurogenesis in the Hippocampus.

Eating and Stress

1. Eating and stress some people eat to cope with stress. Research now supports the connection between eating and distress reduction: Stress increases eating and in turn eating reduces stress reactivity in the HPA Axis. 2. When a person eats in response to stress, stress-related physiological activity decreases, and reward pathways in the brain are stimulated these areas are release endorphins, which make people feel better. Thus, people eat under stress because they get a " good feeling" reward like a drug high from the brain. The relationship between stress and eating might vary across individuals, however, found that people who eat more under stress eat less under stress might be more likely to eat more when the stress subsides.

Diet and Eating

1. Eating well promotes Health. Eating saturated fats, such as those found in meats and dairy producers, increases risk for heart disease, while eating other essential fats, such as those uncertain kinds of fish and nuts, may have protective effects. The Consumption of high-fiber, less-fatty food, such as whole grains and plenty of leafy green vegetables, may protect against cancers of the colon and rectum, Although the data are somewhat inconclusive.

How Emotional Events may cause stress

1. Emotional Events may escalate into stress when we cannot deal with the demands that the event entails. According to Lazarus and Folkmen we asses that resources available to cope with stress in a process called secondary appraisal. When we find ourselves in a stressful situation, we try to figure out what to do about that situation, how to resolve it. Or how to make the unpleasant feeling it creates go away.

How Excerise affects the Brain

1. Exercise helps your brain. An exercise promotes the growth of new neurons (Neurogenis) in the Hippocampus, the area of the Brain most involved in learning and memory. Compared to mice that did not exercise, Mice that exercised showed increased activity in their Hippocampus. After excreting for 2 weeks, they also developed new neurons in the same region of the Hippocampus increased activity was directly related to neural growth. 2. In fact, similar treadmill studies in rats show that exercise can offset age-related memory loss due to a reduction in neurogenesis in the Hippocampus and may decrease depressive-like behavior. In chronically stressed rats. Similar effects have been found with humans as well. Being Physically fit appears to make the brain fit, and it may offset an age-related cognitive decline in the elderly

Exercise

1. Exercising regularly reduces the risk of heart diseases, stroke, and certain types of cancer. Exercise helps keep diabetes under control and slows the rate of bone loss in older women. Data show that moderate exercise, even as little as walking 20-25 a day 3 or 4 times per week, can extend life by 3 to 4 years. 2. In addition, exercise offers a healthy way to regulate mood, as it reduces anxiety and depression. One of the best ways to affect your metabolism, and as a result change your weight, is by exercising regularly. Did you know that introducing just a brief 10 min or so exercise regime can make a difference in your metabolism? Such Metabolic changes can change your genes. This lends credibility to the idea that you can change your set point with exercise and thereby eating less. 3. Excercise improves fitness. Regular exercise helps prevent heart disease, reduces the risk of type II Diabetes, offsets certain cancers, and improves mood.

The Adrenal-Medullary System

1. First in line is the Adrenal-Medullary System, in which the Hypothalamus sends instructions to the Brain Stem to activate Sympathetic Neurons. Then Sympathetic Neurons tell the Adrenal Gland to release the important Catecholamine Norepinephrine. Norepinephrine activates the Sympathetic Response, increasing heart rate, rate of respiration, and blood pressure to make the body ready for action. 2. The Sympathetic Response evolved because rapid mobilization of the body's resources in Emergency Situations had clear survival and reproductive benefits In cases of stress however this activation is prolonged. Moreover, If we live with prolonged stress-inducing situations, our bodies remain in " Emergency Mode" for long periods of time. 3. Thus, a response that is adaptive in the short term can take a toll on the body in the long term, leading, for example, to sustained increases in blood pressure and Heart Rate. Think about how you feel when some things startle you: Your heart races, you start breathing heavily, you're in a state of high alert, Now imagine what it would be like to remain in that condition for several days.

Coping: The Management of Stress

1. Generally, coping refers to anything people do to deal with or manage stress or emotions. When we walk away from someone who is making us angry or complain about our boss to a friend, we are coping with stresses in our lives. In this section we explore various ways people cope with stress.,

Meditation

1. Given the harmful effects of stress, strategies designed to reduce stress can benefit both mental and physical health. One such strategy is meditation. Mindfulness mediation involves both paying attention to the present moment and being aware that everything that may arise in one's mind, be it a thought, an emotion, or a sensation, will eventually fade away. The editor is trained to note experiences as they occur, without cloning to or ascribing value to them. These skills allow one to keep thoughts and emotions in perspective and help unhealthy obsession with negative emotions. 2. Researchers have approved mindfulness mediation training for stress reduction, pain relief, and the treatment of Physical disorders.

The Response View Of Stress

1. In Contrast, Stress can be internal to us, we can think of it as the feeling we experience when events are too much to handle. The Response view of stress focuses on the physiological changes that occur when someone encounters an excessively changing situation.

Emotion-Focused Coping

1. In contrast, Emotion-Focussed coping aims to regulate the experience of distress. Lazarus and Folkman describe several forms of Emotion-Focused coping including Reappraisal, the revaluation of a situation in light of new information, or additional thought: distancing, or attempting to separate oneself from an emotional experience, Escape-Avoidance: Wishful thinking or doing something to get one's mind off the situation. ( Such as going to the movies) seeking social support: by talking with friends for purposes of emotional support, self-control: trying to regulate one's feelings or actions regarding the problem and Accepting Responsibility: Acknowledging one's role in the stress- eliciting situation.

The Birth of Psychoneuroimmunology

1. In the late 1970s and early 1980s science discovered that the ANS is linked to Immune System Structures such as the Thymus Gland and that Immune Cells have receptors. For and can produce certain stress hormones. The field of PNI examines the relationships among the Brain, thought, feeling, Endocrine changes, and Immune System Functioning. 2. As a Discipline, PNI is concerned with any kind of connection between Psychological processes and Immune System changes. Chemicals involved in the stress response, such as Cortisol and Norepinephrine, influence the number of Immune Cells produced in the body. This is a means by which stress can affect the Immune System. 3. Furthermore, Connections between the Central Nervous System and Immune System are Bi-directional. Just as Stress can change immune function, certain Immune changes (such as the release of chemicals called Cytokines, which regulate Immune Responses) can feedback and influence Brain areas involved in Mood Regulation. The Relationship between Cytokines and mood may play a role in the development of depression and their mood-related psychological disorders.

Inflammation

1. Inflammation is a process by which tissues are restored following injury. After you cut your finger, for example, blood vessels at the injured area contract and dilate to increase blood flow to the area, creating warmth and redness. The damaged cells release Enzymes to destroy invading microorganisms.

Smoking

1. Many smokers say they have a cigarette when they are stressed because it calms them down, however, Nicotine, the active drug component of Tobacco, is a stimulant. Nicotine activates the Sympathetic nervous system, increasing heart rate and blood pressure, But relaxes the skeletal muscles, which probably why some people find it calming. They use Nicotine for emotional regulation, But cigarette smoking is harmful to health in many ways. 2. Cigarette smoking reduces life expectancy by an average of 10 years, increases one's risk for lung disease, emphysema, and male impotence. An increased risk of Mortascy associated with smoking in several cultures. Although the rates of smoking in the USA have dropped, still about 20% about 20% of the U.S. population smokes cigarettes. We are exposed to second-hand smoke by being near someone who is smoking. A person who breathes secondhand smoke regularly is at increased risk of all the same health problems that the smoke is.

How We Adapt To Stress according to Homeostasis

1. Most accounts of the Physiology of Stress think of stress as a deviation from balance. Recovery from stress occurs when all systems return to normal. This view stems from the notion of Homeostasis the idea that, unless we are being provoked by something, we are humming along at an even-kneeled baseline state and we return to the same state after the stress. Moreover, Homeostasis implies that just one system in the body struggles to return to baseline at a time ( Homo means the same) 2. Suppose you were walking in a desert: The Homeostasis view says that you would sweat to cool your body to return to an ideal temperature, If you think about it for a minute, you'll realize that this is not ideal. If your body did this, you would become dehydrated. Thus, a new concept was needed to explain the more complex and dynamic changes that occur when the body is stressed.

Stress and Genes

1. No single " Stress Gene" dictates how the body responds to stress in the way a cancer gene might turn cancer cells on and off. Instead, several complex processes involving stress, genes, and Endocrines regulate the relationship between stress and disease. 2. From this complex area of research, we can distill out a few key points. First, the effects of chronic social isolation on illness appear to be regulated y genetic factors. Also, those genes associated with the human stress response seem critical to certain chronic diseases. 3. Finally, genes appear to play a role in the relationship between the stress of social isolation and diseases that involve inflammatory processes, such as heart disease and cancer.

How being Optmistic can affect your health

1. Optimists are less likely to feel helpless or depressed, Adjust better to negative life events, and show better general mental health than pessimists. Optimism may also benefit physical health. By seeing the world positively, optimists may appraise events in such a way that negative emotions are less likely and positive emotions more likely. They are more likely to see potentially stressful situations as challenges rather than threats. 2. Research shows that the more optimistic a person is the less likely it is that he or she will die from cardiovascular disease. 3. Furthermore, changes in Optimism are related to changes in positive emotion that predict immune function. Surprisingly, believing that you have some control over situations in life, especially traumatic situations, can improve your psychological health.

Optimists

1. Optimists tend to emphasize the positive. See the glass as " Half Full" rather than " Half empty " and believe that things will turn out well.

Coping Strategies

1. People don't like feeling bad, so they try to get out of situations that create unpleasantness or look for ways to change their negative feelings. There are two types of coping strategies labeling them problem-focused and emotion-focused coping. And the strategy of social support combines problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies.

Research on Health-Relevant Behavior

1. People engage in behaviors that either increase risk for disease or help prevent disease. Some Health behaviors are conscious lifestyle choices, such as how and what to eat or whether or not to exercise. Others may began as conscious choices but overtime become habits with serious health implications, such as smoking, drinking, alcohol, and taking other drugs. Sometimes, when stressed, people may turn to Tobacco, Alcohol, or food to calm themselves down or cheer themselves up. This is emotion-focussed coping. Long term use of some of these substances can create health problems and may increase the likelihood of major, sometimes fatal, illness.

Finding Meaning

1. Perhaps the key to Psychological health is to be open enough to notice other things going on in life, even in the midst of tragedy, positive Psychological Traits and states do play a big role in whether people are able to find meaning in stressful and tragic events. People with terminal illnesses who notice beauty amidst their pain and find opportunities for positive experiences are happier than those who don't and they may even live longer. Resilient people who managed to experience positive moods amidst their despair in the wake of September 11, 2001, Terrorist attacks were more likely to thrive and less likely to fall into depression than those who were less resilient.

Primary Appraisal

1. Primary Appraisal is an assessment of what a situation means to us. The outcome of this appraisal determines whether an emotional response might occur. If we view the event as personally irrelevant, we feel no emotion, if we view it as personally relevant, the event may be either contrary to or consistent with our goals or welfare. 2. If we appraise it as contrary to our welling being, we feel a negative emotion, which might cause stress. If er appraise it as consistent with our well-being, we feel a positive emotion. Even though both pleasant and unpleasant events might lead to stress, stress emerges from negative emotional responses to events that we cannot get under control. Any kind of event pleasant or unpleasant-might lead to such emotional reactions. For example, a wedding is a pleasant event that can be stressful.

Problem-Focused Coping

1. Problem-focused coping strategies aims to change the situation that is creating stress. If your roommate plays a stereo loudly while you are sleeping, you might choose to discuss it with her, buy earplugs, or cut. the speaker wires. Each of these choices is a form of problem-focussed coping, Each is geared toward changing the situations that created the stress, Examples of problem-focused coping strategies include devising a plan to solve the problem, seeking social support as a way to gather information, and taking assertive action. 2. Problem-focused coping focuses attention on the stress-provoking situation, and we are most likely to use it when think we can change the situation.

Resilence

1. Resilience is a personality trait that means being more flexible and able to bounce back from difficult situations. Resilient people experience quicker recovery, in part because they are more likely to find some positive meaning in a difficult situation.

Social Support

1. Social Support is a coping strategy that combines problem and emotion-focused coping. Our friends and loved ones provide advice, give hugs, or simply listen when we are under stress. Social support is not only is one of the most frequently used ways of coping But also benefit physical health.

Stress as a Stimulus

1. Some events demand an overwhelming amount of our energy and time. Any number of things can be stressors. Obviously unpleasant situations, such as divorce, financial troubles, or illness. But also pleasant situations, such as a wedding or the birth of a child. Psychologists measure stress as a stimulus by quantifying the number of stressors a person experiences during a given period. Two major categories are major life events and daily hassles.

Positive Traits, Postion Emotions

1. Some people approach the world in a positive way, and as a result, their experience of distress is reduced compared to that of others. This usually results in optimistic and permistics.

Allostasis

1. Some researchers offer an alternative explanation to how we adapt to stress. Rather than a state of balance, they say our normal state is one of actively responding to the world around us. This more dynamic, responsive " Resting" state is known as Allostasis which means that the body achieves stability through change. 2. Back to the example of walking in the desert: The concept of Allostasis emphasizes that your body would respond in many ways, not simply by sweating. Your kidneys would start producing less urine, the mucous membrane in your eyes and skin would dry out, even your veins and arteries would constrict to maintain blood pressure with a smaller volume of blood. 3. The Concept of Allostasis makes clear that our bodies can respond adaptively to challenge for only a short period of time. If we are pushed too long, the body's active attempts to adapt are sustained and we are taxed.

Stress as Stimulus or Response

1. Stress has different meanings in different contexts, we often think of stress as something that happens to us, as situations that push us to the limit or threaten our safety or well being. Or stress can be the relentless onslaught of difficulties, such as being late on a term paper, the car breaking down, realizing there is no money in the bank, and then getting into an argument with a roommate all in one week. We call these events that push us to the limit or exceed our ability to manage the situation at hand stressors. The Focus on the situations that cause stress as the Stimulus View of Stress.

When does Stress occur?

1. Stress occurs when a situation overwhelms a person's perceived ability to meet the demands of that situation. As with emotions, we evaluate our experiences of stressful situations and attempt to cope with the challenges they pose. 2. Suppose you are doing poorly in a class, and you have the final exam in one week. First, you may feel stressed, But then you realize that, with more review of that material, study group meetings, and more sleep, you could do better. You resolve to make these changes to improve your chances. For a good final exam grade. As a result, the feeling of stress may decrease.

How Stress can the Brain

1. Stress related Brain changes appears increase the risk of Depression and other Psychological Disorders. Severly adverse experiences early in life what we would consider serious stressors can affect the amount of Cortisol Receptors in the Hippocampus. 2. They also show increased susceptibility to chronic diseases of aging and such early life stress can have lasting Neurological Effects.

How Stress can cause damage (Allostasis)

1. The Body starts to wear down, as the Allostatic load the amount of wear and tear on the System to which the body must adapt becomes too much to bear. This is how stress causes illness. Indeed, scientists are just beginning to get a handle on the complex relationship among nervous, Endocrine, and Immune Systems that can sometimes lead to susceptibility to disease.

The Cardiovascular System

1. The Cardiovascular System which consists of the heart and all the blood vessels of the body is especially susceptible to the effects of sustained arousal. During activation, heart rate and blood pressure remain elevated or activated repeatedly over extended periods frequent blood pressure elevations can damage arteries by reducing their elastically and increasing the likelihood of fatty build, then process set the stage for heart disease.,

The Direct Effects Hypothesis

1. The Direct Effects Hypothesis states that social support is beneficial to mental and physical health whether or not the person is under stress. 2. Our social networks may offer guidelines for health-related behaviors, help us regulate our emotions, and give us a sense of identity. Examples of social connectedness include being married, bellowing to social groups such as churches or clubs, and having many friends. Friends provide an outlet for sharing emotional distress, offering comfort as well as advice.

How Stress and Coping affect Health

1. The Discussion so far has implied that stress increases a person's susceptibility to diseases, this idea is one of the oldest expressions of the interplay between nature and nurture, and it forms the central tenet of psychosomatic theory. Psychosomatics deal with how emotional factors can increase the likelihood of certain disorders or worsen.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

1. The General Adaptation Syndrome consists of three stages: Alarm, Resistance, and Exhaustion, upon exposure to a stressor, an animal enters a state of Physiological Shock, called the Alarm Stage, which is the body's emergency response to a threat. The Alarm Stage mobilizes the body's resources to act via the effects of Adrenal-Medullary Activation of the Sympathetic Nervous System. 2. Durning this stage the HPA Axis is active as well, and the sustained release of Cortisol from the Adrenal Gland may move from being helpful ( By making more fuel available) to be harmful in the long run ( By suppressing certain aspects of immune function.) Animals, However, cannot persist in the Alarm stage for long with continued exposure to the stressor, they will either die or find other ways of coping with the enduring threat. 3. When they develop other ways to cope, they enter the second stage of Adaptation, The Resistance Stage. Resistance implies that the organism tries to manage the threat. This extended effort, however, takes it's toll physically and Psychologically by diverting resources from the maintenance of normal bodily functions.

The Hassles and Uplifts Scale

1. The Hassles and Uplifts scale measures the frequency and intensity of minor irritations (Hassles) and the positive events of daily life that may counteract their hassles and self-reported health symptoms. Some data indicate that hassles are more strongly related to health outcomes that are major-life events. 2. A major limitation to measuring both major life events and Hassles is that not all people view situations in the same way. A poorly prepared student might dred an exam, a student who has studied thoroughly might welcome it as a challenge. People differ in their responses to situations. 3. Using this logic, Lazarus and Folkman (1984) argued that, because people do not view similar situations in the same way. It is misleading to examine stress solely in terms of the situations, in the same way, a poorly prepared student might dred a but a student who has studied thoroughly might welcome it as a challenge. People differ in their responses to situations

Overview of the Immune System

1. The Human Immune Systems defends the body against invasion by disease, inspects the body for cells that may take on dangerous mutations, and performs basic housekeeping functions, such as cleaning up cellular debris after an injury, there are two basic lines of defense: Natural Immunity and Acquired Immunity.

The Physiology of Stress Part 2

1. The Hypothalamus, The Pituitary Gland, and the Adrenal Glands are key structures in the Neuroendocrine regulation of stress responses. The Hypothalamus links the nervous system to parts of the Endocrine System relevant to emotions and stress: Hypothalamic Neurons release chemicals that stimulate the release chemicals that stimulate the release of hormones from the Pituitary Gland, which sits just beneath it and is connected to Brain stem structures that control the ANS. 2. The Pituitary Releases Hormones that play a key role in the stress response. The Adrenal Glands which sit atop the kidneys, release several stress-related hormones: the Catecholamines, which maintain the activation of Physiological Systems during Emergencies. Once activated, the Hypothalamus Initiates a series of Endocrine events that profoundly affect the body. 3. Two Major Neuroendocrine pathways are activated: The adrenal-Medullary System and the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis.

Acquired Immunity.

1. The Immune System comprises several kinds of white blood cells, including those responsible for phagocytosis. Other White Blood Cells, called Cymphocytes, control acquired immunity. Acquired Immunity involves a number of endocrine and cellular processes that recognize specific antigens and then reproduce specialized cells or circulating proteins to fight those Antigens. 2. Acquired Immunity is so-called because It involves experience an effective Immune Response that occurs only after prior exposures to a particular antigen. Every cold we get leads to an acquired Immune Response. As a result, we are less likely to get sick if we encounter that particular virus again.

How does the Immune System get affected by stress?

1. The Immune System suffers from the effects of sustained arousal as well, and impaired function increases susceptibility to disease. How does this work? Sustained Release of Cortisol, which inhibits production of certain immune cells. In the short term, the suppression of immune cell production makes sense, because in an emergency immune cells might not be immediately necessary over the long term, however, Immune Supression makes a person more susceptible to certain diseases.

Immune System and the Rats

1. The Job of the Immune System is to defend the body against foreign substances. Before the 1970's the prevailing view was that the Immune System operated independently of the Central Nervous System, which implied that the Immune System was invulnerable to though, feelings, and stress. 2. As far as anyone knew at the time, there were no anatomical or chemical connections between immune systems structures and any aspect of the Nervous System that would allow them to communicate. Even though most Physicians believed that stress made people sick, or at least sicker, they did not consider it physiologically possible, for Psychological conditions to have any effect on the Immune System, However, that was about to be challenged. Ader remembered that the Toxin he was using to induce Nausea in the rats also happened to be an Immunosuppressant that is, something that inhibits Immune System function.

The Physiological Reactivity Approach

1. The Physiological Reactivity Approach examines how stress creates sustained Physiological Activation associated with the stress response can affect body systems in such a way as to increase the likelihood that illness or disease will occur

Research on Stress, Immune Function, and Health

1. The Physiological Reactivity model predicts that the Physiological effects of stress, when sustained over time, will eventually weaken the Immune System. Theorists have extended the model a step further. Reasoning that Immuunosupression increases susceptivity to disease by reducing the body's ability to fight bacteria or viruses or it's the ability to fight of penitentially cancerous cells, or both. Results from Animal Research show that a variety of Chronic Stressors can weaken immune responses. Some such stressors tested in Animal Studies are maternal separation, inescapable shock, abrupt temperature change, and loud noise. 2. One Longitudinal study of children whose parents underwent a divorce, during thier childhood reported that if the kids perceived their mothers to be warm toward them in Adolescence it was related to lower Cortisol responses to a challenging situation in adulthood. Type A and B Anger ( Type A Behavior Pattern) (TABP)

Grit

1. The concept of Grit has received attention in Psychology and the popular press. Grit is related to resilience, But is not identical with it, the two major components of grit are having a resilient response to adverse situations and a stick-to-it-ness or preserving one's passions and interests over a long period of time. 2. Having the same interest for years and being a hard worker are examples of being gritty. Research has demonstrated that being "gritty" predicts who does well in school, who stays with rigorous military training, and who does well in spelling bees over and above intelligence, personality, or talent.

Health Psychology

1. The field of Health Psychology grew out of Psycho Somatic Medicine. Health Psychology is the study of psychological factors related to health and illness. It includes disease onset, prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation and involves clinical practice as well as research. Two major approaches can explain the relationship between stress and illness. Both illustrate the dynamic interplay among environmental situations. People's interpretations of them, and changes in body functioning.

hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis

1. The other major Neuroendocrine pathway in stress responses is the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis recall that the Hypothalamus releases substances, called releasing factors, that tell the Pituitary when to release various hormones. 2. Durning emotional arousal and stress, the Hypothalamus releases a substance called the Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) which stimulates the Pituitary to release Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH). ACTH then stimulates the cortex of the Adrenal Gland to release Cortisol, The major Glucocorticold produced in humans, which is commonly known as the "Stress Hormone" when the level of Cortisol in the blood adequately meets the body's metabolic needs, the Hypothalamus stops releasing CRF, thereby reducing the release of Cortisol. This kind of Negative feedback occurs throughout the Neuroendocrine System. 3. Cortisol has many important functions it plays a role in the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones to release energy and, so, plays an important role in ensuring that more glucose is available for fuel in the bloodstream. Cortisol also regulates the Immune System by reducing the number of Immune Cells in the Bloodstream. In so doing, chronically elevated Cortisol may impact the Immune System's ability to protect the body against infection.

Stress

1. The term stress refers to a wide variety of phenomena, we speak of having a stressful life when the pressures of daily interfere with our ability to maintain a sense of well being, sometimes people talk about " feeling stressed" as if stress were an emotional state, one that involved anxiety was an emotional state, one that involved anxiety and exhaustion. 2. Some people are "stressed" by minor events such as parking tickets or a missed train, where others seem to sail through life amid a great number of demands work, family, school all the while maintaining a sense of well-being and balance.

Stress and the Brain

1. We tend to think of stress as being caused by processes within the brain, for it is our interpretations of the events in the world that trigger emotions, but the Physiological activation triggered by stress also affects the Brain. 2. Cortisol has a profound effect on the Hippocampus, a brain structure that plays a pivotal role in memory: the Hippocampus contains one of the greatest concentrations of Cortisol receptors in the Brain. 3. Unfortunately Stress-Related Cortisol release causes Hippocampal Dendrites to shrink, which can interfere with several types of memory. Chronic Stress reduces Neurogenis ( The growth of New Neurons) in the Hippocampus and it may inhibit the Synapticplasticity in the Hippocampus and Neocortex, impacting learning and memory formation.

How to cope with stress

1. When a situation is beyond one's control, certain types of Emotion-Focused Coping especially Reappraisal can be helpful in regulating the emotional aspects of stress. 2. Willful suppression of upsetting emotions, which is a form of self-control, can lead to chronic Physiological arousal and is associated with poor Psychological Adjustment. Moreover, some strategies that we use to reduce the experience of distress such as drinking, smoking, and other forms of drug use, maybe be maladaptive. 3. Overall the research suggests that there is no inherently "good" or "bad" way to cope with stress or regulate emotions. What technique for managing stress is best for well-being really depends on the context in which it is used.

The Physiology of Stress

1. When we experience situations as stressful, Physiological changes occur in our bodies. Most notably, the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) the Endocrine System, and the brain interact to create a range of changes in bodily systems. Because it is linked to the body system that supports action, The ANS plays a crucial role in the stress response. These systems include the circulatory system, to pumps blood to large muscle groups during times of emergency, and the respiratory system, to provide the oxygen required so that those muscles can function. 2. The second major system involved in stress is the Endocrine System refers to the Hormonal Systems involved in emotions and stress. The Interactions among various organs, glands, and Nervous System chemicals lay the groundwork for the Dynamic Interplay between Psychological Experience and Physiological Functioning.

General Adaptation System Part 2

1. With repeated exposure to a stressor, animals enter the exhaustion stage. At this stage, their resources for fighting off threats have been depleted, and illness becomes much more likely, have you ever come down with a cold or other illness a week or so after final exams.

gut-brain axis

2-way signaling network between the gastrointestinal tract and the brain and which involves the action of gut microbes on the autonomic nervous system, the enteric nervous system, the immune system, and hormonal pathways

Social Readjustment Rating Scale

A scale of major life events over the past year, each of which is assigned a point value. The higher the score, the greater the chance of having a serious medical event.

Stressors

events that cause a stress reaction

secondary appraisal

perceptions regarding our ability to cope with an event that follows primary appraisal

Stimulus View of Stress

the focus on the situations that cause stress

buffering hypothesis

the idea that other people can provide direct emotional support in helping individuals cope with stressful events

cellular immunity

the immune response that relies on T cells to destroy infected body cells

primary appraisal

the interpretation of a stimulus as stressful or not

Automatic Nervous System

the part of the nervous system responsible for control of the bodily functions not consciously directed, such as breathing, the heartbeat, and digestive processes