Chapter 28: Cold War
Robert Schuman & Jean Monnet
- 1950 French statesmen /diplomat /political economist- - They called for a special organization to control and integrate all European steel and coal production (would be ECSC)
What was the first goal of the Treaty of Rome? + other goals
- A gradual reduction of all tariffs among the six in order to create a single market almost as large as that of the US. - The other goals: free movement of capital and labor and common economic policies and institutions
Christian Democrats
- Center-right political parties that rose to power in western Europe after WWII - important power brokers after war, rooted in catholic parties of prewar decades. - the party offered voters of radical politics a central-right vision of reconciliation/recovery - in much of continental Europe the CD defeated their left-wing opponents - drew inspiration from common Christina/European heritage + their anti-communist rhetoric was unrelenting - rejected authoritarianism/narrow nationalism and placed faith in democracy/liberalism -advocated free market economic
How did Khrushchev de-Stalinize Soviet foreign policy?
- He argued "peaceful coexistence" with capitalism was possible and war was not inevitable - Negotiated with western diplomats, agreeing in 1955 to independence for neutral Austria after years of Allied occupation.
What did advocates of the ECSC hope for?
- The close economic ties would eventually bind the six member nations so closely together that war among them was unthinkable.
The economic miracle
- The term contemporaries used to describe rapid economic growth, often based on the consumer sector, in post WW2 western Europe. - brought robust growth to most European countries. - lasted into the 1960s
Treaty of Rome/Common market 1957
- Treaty of Rome, six countries of ECSC sign, creates the European Economic Community or the Common Market.
First Secretary of the Polish Communist Party
- argued that there were many "roads to socialism" - bc Poland promised to stay loyal to Warsaw pact they were able to win greater autonomy from Soviet control - this new leadership maintained communist control even as it tolerated free peasantry and an independent Catholic Church
Palestine
-Jews/Arabs both unhappy with British rule=violence, terrorism -1947 British leave -UN voted to divide the territory in two -Arabs were very unhappy and attacked the Jewish state, but Israelis drove them off and conquered more territory=Palestinian refugee problem
Suez Crisis
-July 56 Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal Company, the last symbol of western influence in the middle east -the British, French, and Israelis invaded -the US feared that such an outright imperialist act would force Egypt into the Eastern bloc, so Americans joined with the Soviets to force GB, France, and Israel down -Nasser got his canal
Cold War 1945 Events:
-Yalta -Postdam -Truman cuts of aid to the USSR -U.S states they will never recognize any gov't established by force against the will of the people
Benefits of Big Science for people:
-agri. research improves food supply -industrialized farming -consumer goods were less expensive
Patrice Lumumba
-anti-colonial leader of Belgium -when his nonalignment policies were oversimplified, the US cast him as a commie and implemented a military coup
Organization for European Economic Cooperation + Council of Europe 1948
-both promoted commerce/cooperation among European countries -created as a result of the European states needed to cooperate w/ each other as required by the Marshall Plan
what problem did India face after gaining independence?
-conflict between the Muslim minority and Hindu majority -Muslim leaders called for partition and the British agreed -outcome: created Pakistan for predominantly Muslim territory, 10 million refugees fled to either side of the borders, Gandhi is assassinated by an opponent of partition and Jawaharlal Nehru became Indian prime minister
Goals of U.S.S.R before/begin. Cold War
-expand the reach of communism -expand the Soviet state -free elections would result in indep. and hostile gov't --> "war was inevitable"
two sides in Vietnamese decolonization
-guerrilla leader Ho Chi Minh led the communist North (USSR and China) VS. pro-Western North with substantial American aid
Mau Mau Rebellion
-kenyan uprising crushed by the British (kenya got independence later on)
the Red Chinese gov
-land reform -education and health care -five year plans -labor camps -mass arrests -propaganda
Gandhi
-leader of India's independence movement -preached non-violent noncooperation with the British
Bretton Woods Agreement 1944
-linked western currencies to the U.S -established the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank to facilitate free markets and world trade.
Goals of U.S. before/begin. Cold War
-maintaining democratic capitalism -open access to free markets
Egypt
-nationalist rev led by Nasser -Nasser advocated nonalignment and played thee superpowers sneakily -SUEZ CRISIS
How did Communism spread/gain power during the Cold War (1945-47ish)
-politicians repressed their liberal opponents and engineered phony elections to est. Comm. led regimes -purged non-comm. -est. satellites in areas like Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Czech
Name important technological improvements:
-radar -atomic/nuclear bombs -jet aircraft -missiles -nuclear subs -spy satellites
decolonization in the Dutch East Indies
-wanted independence from the Netherlands -the Dutch had long been involved in Indonesia, but once the Japanese had gotten involved, locals were inspired to rise up -Japanese defeated in 1945, dutch return for raw materials -dutch faced rebels inspired by nationalism, Marxism, and Islam -four years of guerrilla warfare, INDONESIA GAINS INDEPENDENCE -practiced nonalignment
Section 1
...
Berlin Airlift Results
1) paved the way for the creation of two separate states 2) showed that containment worked, and thus strengthened the U.S. military presence in the west
What were the two main reasons for the stunning economic performance (economic miracle)?
1. American aid began the process of recovery 2. Economic growth became a basic objective of all western European governments, for leaders/voters alike were determined to avoid a return to the dangerous/demoralizing stagnation of the 1930s.
What new political/economic policies did postwar governments in western Europe embrace?
1. Liberal democracy 2. Keynesian economics 3. National leaders in core European states applied an imaginative mixture of government planning and free-market capitalism to promote economic growth. 4. They nationalized (or established gov ownership of) significant sectors of the economy. 5. They used economic regulation to encourage growth. 6. Established generous welfare provisions, paid for with high taxes, for all citizens.
Western Europe's rapidly expanding economy in 1950s led to what throughout western Europe?
1. Rising standard of living 2. Growth in the number and availability of standardized consumer goods
Two things that also made it easier for people to buys stuff:
1. The expansion of social security safeguards reducing the need to accumulate savings for hard times/old age. 2. New banks and credit unions offered loans for consumer purchases on easy terms
What did the Common Market do?
1. encouraged trade among European states. 2. promoted global exports. 3. helped build shared resources for the modernization of national industries.
After the war in Britain, the British gov:
1. many British industries were nationalized, like banks/iron/steel/utilities/public transportation network. 2. gov gives British citizens free medical services and hospital care, retirement pensions, unemployment benefits. All of this subsidized by progressive taxation that pegged tax payments to income levels, with the wealthy paying a lot more than those below them.
Conference @ Teheran: Date? Outcome?
1943 -reaffirmed determination to crush Germany -Poland's borders -Stalin's request to open a 2nd front to relieve pressure (Churchill argued they should follow up Italian campaign, while Roosevelt agreed with Stalin) --> reaffirms Stalin's distrust
Conference @ Yalta: Date? War Progression? Outcome?
1945 -Russia already occupied Poland, within 100 miles of Berlin, while U.S/Brit had yet to cross the Rhine (stronger position for Stalin) - each of the powers would receive a zone -Germans pay heavy reparations -Stalin declares war on Japan
Conference @ Postdam: Date? Outcome?
1945 -Truman demanded immediate free elections throughout central and eastern Europe, but Stalin refused
year of Indian independence
1947
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
1949, an anti-Soviet military alliance of Western gov'ts
What year did Stalin die?
1953
Warsaw Pact
1955, Soviet backed military alliance of Eastern gov't
What did many European intellectuals believe would effectively rebuild the war-torn continent and reassert the continent's influence in world affairs?
A new " European Nation"
What was the immediate economic goal of the founding states of the ECSC?
A single, transnational market for steel and coal without national tariffs or quotas. They achieved this.
Truman Doctrine
America's policy geared at containing communism to those countries already under Soviet control
Marshall Plan
American plan for providing economic aid to western Europe to help it rebuild
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON)
An economic organization of Communist states meant to help rebuild East Bloc countries under Soviet auspices
Why did the Allies avoid discussing postwar aims before 1943?
Because they feared that hard bargaining would turn Stalin to form an agreement with Hitler
Who offered the most comprehensive state benefit programs outside of Scandinavia until the mid-1950s?
Britain
What in particular was appealing about Christian Democrats to families after the war?
CD championed a return to traditional family values, which had a lot of appeal after a war that left many broken families and destitute households. Interesting fact: CD often received majority of women's votes.
The Frenchman who came to symbolize the resurgence of European nationalism was ______
Charles de gaulle
After the first post-war elections in Italy 1946 who was the leading party? And in early 1948 won an absolute majority in the parliament w/ a landslide victory.
Christian Democrats
In Italy, the leading political party in the immediate postwar elections was the ______
Christian Democrats
How did East Bloc states respond to de-stalinization?
East Germany regime stubbornly resisted reform and in Poland and Hungary the de-stalinization stimulated rebelliousness.
What did European federalists turn to working toward genuine unity
Economics
What did Christian Democrats generally establish within Europe?
Education subsidies, family/housing allowances, public transportation, and public health insurance
Effects of Common Market:
Fired imaginations and encouraged the hopes of some for rapid progress toward political as well as economic union.
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) 1951
Founded by Christian Democratic governments in West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg
The country that blocked british entry into the Common market and withdrew it's forces from NATO was ______
France
civil war in China
Guomindang (Nat.l Ppl's Party)/Jiang Jieshi VS. Chinese Communists/Mao Zedingdong
What did Charles de Gaulle view the US as? And what actions did he take because of this?
He viewed the US as the main threat to genuine French (and European) independence. 1. He withdrew all French military forces from what he called an "American-controlled" NATO 2. He developed France's own nuclear weapons 3. And vetoed the scheduled advent of majority rule within the Common Market
who won the Vietnamese war?
Ho Chi Minh
Since the WW2, communist participation in western European governments _____
Increased, as a result of their active participation against the Nazis.
What was the effect of the introduction of "installment purchasing"
Installment purchasing allowed people to buy on credit. The introduction of this facilitated the growth of European purchase of consumer goods.
What Western location outside the Soviet bloc experienced a lot of Communist acivity?
Italy
Twentieth Party Congress in 1956
Khrushchev's attack on Stalin and his crimes, admitted Stalin's errors
peaceful coexistence
Khrushchev's relaxation as tensions with the West
What countries earned a global reputation for long term Social Democratic governance, generous state-sponsored welfare benefits, tolerant life-styles, and independent attitudes toward Cold War.
Norway, Denmark, and especially Sweden.
The soviet writer and poet who was forced by Khrushchev to refuse the Nobel Prize in 1958 was _____
Pasternak
American-Soviet conflict in the post-WW2 era first centered on the problem of the future of ________
Poland
Who were the exceptions to the rule of democratic transformation outside of the soviet bloc?
Portugal, Spain, and Greece. Although they supported NATO and the US in the Cold War.
What move did the Western allies do to est. a West German state sympathetic to the U.S.?
Replace the currency in the Western Zones -->> currency reform violated a peace settlement, Stalin gets scared (along with increasing relations with Low Countries)
After the WW2, Stalin's chief policy goal was ______
Russian domination of eastern Europe
What were popular trends in migration?
South --> North & Farms --> Cities & less developed areas --> more developed (within their own countries
Where was retribution for war crimes most severe?
Soviet-dominate central and eastern Europe, where the worst crimes had taken place
Berlin Airlift
Stalin gets scared of U.S., blocks all traffic through the Soviet Zone of Germany to Berlin in an attempt ti win concessions and reunify the city under Soviet control, --> U.S. arranged plans over Soviet roadblocks, thwarting Soviet efforts to take Western half
How did Christian Democrats break decisively with straitjacketed Nazi economy in West Germany?
The CD promoted a "social market economy" based on a combination of free-market liberalism, some state intervention, and an extensive social benefits network.
What did Christian Democrats do in France?
The gov established modernization commissions for key industries, and state-controlled banks funneled money into industrial development
What did European federalists hope for regarding the council of Europe?
They hoped the council of Europe would evolve into a European parliament with sovereign rights, but this didn't happen. Britain still had a vast empire and a close relationship with the US- they opposed conceding sovereignty to the council. Nationalist/communists agreed with this view.
What did Christian Democrats promise voters?
They promised voters prosperity and ample supplies of consumer goods.
The only eastern European communist leader to build an independent communist state free from Stalinist control was _______
Tito
In the competition over consumerism, who surpassed (east or west)?
Western capitalism clearly surpassed eastern planned economies in the production and distribution of inexpensive products.
The only eastern European communist country able to remain free of Stalin's control was ______
Yugoslavia
neocolonialism
a postcolonial system that perpetuates Western economic exploitation in former colonial territories
socialist realism
artistic movement that followed the dictates of Communist ideals, enforced by state control in the Soviet Union and East Bloc counties in the 1950s and 60s
During and after the WW2, American leaders were most concerned that the eastern European countries would ______
be friendly towards Russia because they feared the soviet union would annex any eastern European states that were openly unfriendly to it.
Algerian War
bloody, long, atrocious -ended when de Gaulle accepted Algerian self-determination and ended the conflict
Big Science
combining theoretical work with sophisticated engineering in a large bureaucratic organization, tackles difficult problems, however extremely expensive
what two ideas inspired Vietnamese decolonization?
communism and anti-colonialism
Joseph Mobutu
corrupt general who replaced Lumumba
how was south africa treated in terms of decolonization?
declared an independent republic after leaving the Commonwealth to preserve apartheid
Stalin's successor, Khrushchev _______
denounced Stalinist policies and Stalin himself
guest worker programs
gov't run programs in western Europe designed to recruit labor for the booming postwar economy
British teddy boys, Halbstarken, and blouson noirs
groups who modeled their rebellious clothing and cynical attitudes on US film stars like James Dean
a policy of Stalin after WW2 was ____
him reviving forced-labor camps
Nuremberg trials
international military tribunal organized by the 4 Allied powers when they tried the highest-ranking Nazi leaders, marked last time the 4 powers worked together to punish Nazi
Cominform / Communist Information Bureau
international organization dedicated to maintaining Russian control over Communist parties abroad
Nikita Khrushchev
lead reformer who became Soviet premier in 1955, denounced Stalin and led the de-stalinization efforts
Through out western Europe, politicians + citizens supported policies that brought together:
limited state-planning, strong economic growth, and democratic government
white-collar workers
managers and experts who replaced property owners as the leaders of the middle class
Under Stalin, top priority in production in the Soviet Union was given to ______
military goods
mixed state and private economy mixed state and private economy French economic recovery following the WW2 centered on ______
mixed state and private economy
Pieds Noirs
nickname for the Europeans who had raised families for generations in Algeria
under the leadership of Nehru, India maintained a policy of ________
nonalignment
Section 2
penis!
examples of anti-colonial politicians and intellectuals
pol: China's Mao Zedingdong, India's Ghandi, Egypt's Nasser int: Kenya's Kenyatta, Martinique's Aime Cesaire and Frantz Fanon
nonalignment
policy of postcolonial governments to remain neutral in the Cold War and play both the US and the Soviet Union for what they could get
displaced persons
post war refugees, including 13 million Germans, former Nazi prisoners and forced laborers, and orphaned children
Josip Broz Tito
resistance leader and Communist chief of Yugoslavia who was able to proclaim political independence and successfully resist Soviet domination
Space Race
started w/ Soviets launching "Sputnik"- first man made satellite to orbit the Earth, led U.S. to found NASA and put man on the moon
The race to provide ordinary people with higher living standards would be a central aspect of _____
the Cold War
In France who provided some of the best post-war leaders after Charles de Gaulle resigned?
the Popular Republican Movement, a Christian Democratic party
The Western leaders boast about ___
the arrival of prosperity and promised new forms of social equality in which all citizens would have equal access to consumer goods- rather than relying on class leveling mandated by the state (as in the east bloc)
de-Stalinization
the liberalization of the post-Stalin Soviet Union led by reformer Nikita Khrushchev
National Liberation Front (FLN)
the name taken by nationalist insurgent groups
postcolonial migration
the postwar movement of penispeople from former colonies and the developing world into Europe
decolonization
the postwar reversal of Europe's overseas expansion caused by 1) the rising demand of the colonized people themselves, 2) the declining power of European nations, and 3) the freedoms promised by US and Soviet ideals
After the war, what party took over in Britain and what kind of state did they establish?
the social-democratic Labour Party, establishes "cradle-to-grave" welfare state
how did the Communists in China win?
they won the peasantry by promising to redistribute land
"horizontal collaboration"
when women had sexual relations with German soldiers during occupation, led to public humiliation, sent collaborators to prison, or death sentence
double burden
women often had to maintain a job while also bearing responsibility for childcare, cooking, and cleaning
Boris Pasternak
wrote Doctor Zhivago, a challenge to communism, in 1957
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
wrote One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, a portrayal of the brutal life in concentration camps, in 1962
generation gap
youth in western Europe and the US often had musical (Yeezy) and fashion taste (crocs w/ socks) that differentiated them from their elders and old ppl were like oh shit who are these hooligans
