Chapter 4: Cognition, Consciousness, and Language

D (The description of the student matches the clinical features of marijuana use: hunger, redness of the eyes, dry mouth, and euphoria. Marijuana may also cause an increased heart rate, short-term memory loss, paranoia, and - in high doses - hallucinations. Tetrahydrocannabinol is the primary active substance in marijuana, making choice D the correct answer. Alprazolam, choice A, is a benzodiazepine and causes a sense of relaxation. 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine, choice B, is a designer amphetamine commonly referred to as ecstasy or MDMA. Ectstasy is a stimulant and thus has similar effects to marijuana. Physiologically, ecstasy causes increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, blurry vision, sweating, nausea, and hyperthermia. Psychologically, ecstasy causes feelings of euphoria, increased alertness, and an overwhelming sense of well-being and connectedness. Choice D is diacetylmorphine, or heroin, and causes a decreased reaction to pain and a sense of euphoria.)

A 19-year old college student is picked up by campus police after shoplifting a large bag of corn chips and a dozen ice cream sandwiches. His eyes are bloodshot. During questioning, he repeatedly asks for water because his mouth is dry, and he cannot stop giggling. What is the psychoactive substance in the drug this student has most likely recently taken? A.) Alprazolam B.) 3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine C.) Diacetylmorphine D.) Tetrahydrocannabinol

coma (The neurological circuits between the prefrontal cortex and reticular formation maintain alertness.)

A brain injury that results in disruption of the connections between the prefrontal cortex and reticular formation can cause a(n) ______.

C (In the concrete operational stage, children can understand conservation)

A child is presented with two identical quantities of pizza: on one plate is a single large slice, while the other plate has the exact same quantity in two slices. What is the earliest stage of cognitive development that the child is in if he/she recognizes that the plates possess equal quantities of pizza? A.) Sensorimotor B.) Preoperational C.) Concrete operational D.) Formal operational

B (A child in the preoperational stage lacks the concept of conservation. Thus, the child will be unable to tell the quantities are equal and will focus mainly on the number of slices on the plate rather than the actual quantity.)

A child is presented with two identical quantities of pizza: on one plate is a single large slice, while the other plate has the exact same quantity in two slices. What stage of cognitive development is the child most likely in if he/she automatically chooses the plate with two slices? A.) Sensorimotor B.) Preoperational C.) Concrete operational D.) Formal operational

Semantics (The child is still learning to associate the meaning of 'mommy' with the word.)

A child must learn that certain combinations of phonemes represent certain physical objects or events and that words may refer to entire categories, such as 'women', while others refer to specific members of categories, such as 'mommy.' What component of language is still developing in if a child refers to all women as 'mommy'?

C (A child who speaks in three-word sentences but has not yet mastered most of the fundamental rules of language, including past tense, is likely to be between two and three years old. The timelines of language acquisition is typically divided into babbling during 9-12 months, one word per month from 12-18 months, an explosion of language and word combination during 18-20 months, longer sentences of 3 or more words from 2-3 years, and mastery of most language rules by 5 years.)

A child speaks in sentences of at least 3 words, but makes grammatical errors including misuse of the past tense. How old is this child likely to be? A.) 14 months B.) 22 months C.) 30 months D.) 5 years

Algorithm (a formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem)

A doctor uses a flow chart to treat a patient with sepsis. Given its use in problem-solving, a flowchart is an example of a(n): _______(may be more than one word).

Belief perserverance (Refers to the inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary.)

A patient in a mental health facility believes that the sky is pink. Despite several trips outside, the patient still declares the sky is pink. Which psychological principle does this represent?

C (The base rate fallacy occurs when prototypical or stereotypical factors are used for analysis rather than actual data. Because the student is volunteering in a hospital with a stroke center, he sees more patients who have experienced a stroke than would be expected in a hospital without a stroke center. Thus, this experience changes his perception and results in base rate fallacy. Deductive reasoning, choice A, refers to drawing conclusions by integrating different pieces of evidence. The representativeness heuristic, choice B, involves categorization and classification based on how well an individual example fits its category. Confirmation bias, choice D, occurs when a person only seeks information that reinforces his or her opinions.)

A student is volunteering in a hospital with a stroke center. When asked what he believes is the prevalence of stroke among those greater than 65 years old, the student states that it is probably about 40% even though data analysis indicates that it is significantly lower. What accounts for this error? A.) Deductive reasoning B.) Representative heuristic C.) Base rate fallacy D.) Confirmation bias

Yes (Pediatricians often monitor language development to determine if there is a developmental delay. By 2-3 years, a child should be able to speak in longer sentences of three or more words. A two-year-old child who uses fewer than 10 words has a significant developmental delay and should be referred for speech therapy. This would also prompt a search for other developmental issues.)

A two-year-old child uses fewer than 10 words. Based on what you know about language acquisition, does this count as abnormal?

sensitive period (A sensitive period is a time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability and is believed to be before the onset of puberty for language acquisition. Since the child was able to learn some aspects of syntax, language acquisition probably does not follow a critical period, which states that training that does not occur between two years and puberty is largely ineffective.)

A victim of child abuse had been isolated from all human contact from the age of 2 to 13, when she was discovered by authorities. Even with later language exposure, she was unable to master many rules of language, although she was able to learn some aspects of syntax. This indicates the presence of what kind of timeframe for language acquisition?

altered state of consciousness (ASC)

A(n) ______ ______ ______ _______ is any condition which is significantly different from a normal waking state. This may include states of hypnosis and mediation, or it can result from sickness, dementia, delirium, coma, or drug use.

mental set

A(n) ______ ______ is a pattern of approach for solving problems. Since similar problems tend to be approached in the same way, this may negatively impact problem-solving if this method is inappropriate for the issue at hand.

sleep cycle

A(n) ______ ______ refers to a single complete progression through the sleep stages.

circadian rhythm

A(n) ______ ______ refers to the internally-generated alignment of physiological processes with the 24-hour day, including sleep-wake cycles and some elements of the endocrine system.

schema (plural: schemata)

A(n) ______ describes a pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships among them. This can include a concept (What is a dog?), a behavior (What do you do when someone asks you your name?), or a sequence of events (What do you normally do in a sit-down restaurant?).

algorithm

A(n) ______ is a formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem. These can be mathematical or a set of instructions, designed to automatically produce the desired solution.

electroencephalography (EEG)

A(n) ______ is a test used to monitor electrical activity in the brain. It consists of 19 recording electrodes placed on the scalp for 20 to 40 minutes, or continuously in the inpatient setting. This technique is used to study sleep and to identify areas of unusual brain activity, as seen during seizures.

sensitive period

A(n) _______ _______ is a time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability. Most psychologists consider this time for language development to occur before the onset of puberty.

instinctual (For example, infants possess a grasping reflex. Through experience with this reflex, the infant learns that it is possible to grasp objects.)

According to Piaget, infants learn mainly through ______ interaction with the environment.

150 (IQ = mental age/chronological age x 100 = 6/4 x 100 = 1.5 x 100 = 150)

According to the Stanford-Binet IQ test, what would be the IQ of a four-year-old with the intelligence abilities at the level of the average six-year-old?

The centers of the brain that prevent inappropriate behavior are also depressed. Alcohol also increases dopamine levels, causing a sense of mild euphoria.

Alcohol is a depressant that causes generalized brain inhibition, resulting in diminished arousal at moderate doses. Why might behavior seem less inhibited despite the drug's inhibitory effects?

GABA

Alcohol is a depressant that increases activity of the ______ receptor, a chloride channel that causes hyperpolarization of the membrane.

prefrontal cortex

Alertness is maintained by neurological circuits in the ______ ______.

Delirium (The time course is incompatible with the slow decline of dementia.)

An elderly man is taken to the doctor by his daughter. His daughter says that during the past two days, he has been speaking to his wife who has been deceased for four years. Prior to that, he was completely normal. The elderly man most likely has.....?

Recognition-primed decision model (RPD is a model of how people make quick, effective decisions when faced with complex situations. The doctor's brain is actually sorting through a wide variety of information to match a pattern. Over time, the doctor has gained an extensive level of experience that he or she is able to access without awareness. This is an example of how how intuition is developed by experience.)

An emergency room physician, over the course of seeing thousands of patients with chest pain, may develop a keen sense of which patients are actually having a heart attack without even looking at an EKG or a patient's vital signs. What strategy does the doctor employ to access this information without awareness?

90 minutes

Approximately how long is a complete sleep cycle in adults?

alcohol myopia

At higher doses, alcohol can seriously disrupt logical reasoning and motor skills. One of the main effects on logical reasoning is the inability to recognize consequences of actions, creating a short-sighted view of the world called ______ ______.

melatonin

Biochemical signals underlie circadian rhythms. Sleepiness can partially be attributed to blood levels of ______, a serotonin-derived hormone from the pineal gland.

Cortisol

Biochemical signals underlie circadian rhythms. ______, a steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex, contributes to wakefulness and thus its levels slowly increase during early morning.

arcuate fasciculus

Broca's area and Wernicke's area are connected by the ______ ______, a bundle of axons that allows appropriate association between speech production and language comprehension, respectively.

ACTH, anterior pituitary

CRF (corticotropin releasing factor) from the hypothalamus causes release of ______ (use acronym) from the ______ (may be more than one word), which stimulates cortisol release and promotes wakefulness.

constancy

Categorical perception - or the ability to recognize the sounds of language, separate them from environmental and other human-created sounds (e.g. coughing), and learn when subtle differences represent a change in meaning or not - is an auditory example of ______ because we are able to perceive certain characteristics of speech to remain the same, despite differences in the environment.

CRF (corticotropin releasing factor), hypothalamus

Cortisol secretion from the adrenal cortex slowly increases during early morning because increasing light causes the release of ______ (use acronym) from the ______ (may be more than one word).

vasoconstrictive

Cocaine has a small number of accepted medical uses due to its anesthetic and ______ properties, and therefore may be used for surgeries in highly vascularized areas, such as the nose and throat. This property can also lead to heart attacks and strokes when used recreationally.

functional fixedness, Duncker's candle problem (Your first instinct may have been to tack the candle to the wall, but this solution doesn't work because the wax would still drop to the floor. The key is to realize that the matchbox can serve not just as a container for the matches, but as a holder for the candle. Functional fixedness is defined as the inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner and explains why this task is so challenging.)

Consider the following scenario: You walk into a room and see a box of matches, some tacks, and a candle. Your task is to mount the candle on the wall so that it can be used without the wax dropping on the floor. The solution is to tack the box to the wall and put the candle in the box, but most people find this task challenging. What cognitive bias is this experiment testing for? What is the name of the experiment?

activities of daily living

Decline in intellectual abilities in adulthood has been linked with how long an older adult retains the ability to function in what is known as ______ ______ ______ ______ (eating, bathing, toileting, dressing, and ambulation).

D (Approximately 75% of dreaming occurs during REM, but dreams occur in all other stages of sleep as well. Soon after we enter Stage 2 sleep, our mental experience starts to shift to a dreamlike state. More bizarre dreams are likely to occur during REM.)

During which of the stages does dreaming occur? I. Stage 3 II. Stage 4 III. REM A.) I only B.) I and II only C.) III only D.) I, II, and III

reticular formation (located in the brainstem)

Fibers from the prefrontal cortex communicate with the ______ _____ to keep the cortex awake and alert.

antisocial personality

Genetics can predispose to a state that may make cognitive development difficult. For example, many genetic and chromosomal diseases such as Down's syndrome and Fragile X syndrome are associated with delayed development. The presence of genes for ______ ______ disorder may make it difficult for a child to appreciate the rights of others and disregard for other people.

hypnotic induction

Hypnosis starts with ______ ______, in which the hypnotist seeks to relax the subject and increase the subject's level of concentration. Then, the hypnotist can suggest perceptions or actions to the hypnotized person.

D (Piaget's pendulum experiment was an important study in illustrating the differences between the concrete operational stage and the formal operational stage. Children in the formal operational stage have the ability to reason about abstract concepts and problem-solve. A child in the concrete operational stage lacks this ability and would manipulate the variables at random and may even distort the data to fit preconceived hypotheses.)

In Piaget's pendulum experiment, children were given a pendulum in which they could vary the length of the string, the weight of the pendulum, the force of the push, and the initial angle of the swing. They were asked to find out what determined the frequency of the swing. What stage of development is the child most likely in if he/she holds all variables but one constant at a given time and proceeds methodically to discover that only the length of the string affects the frequency? A.) Sensorimotor B.) Preoperational C.) Concrete operational D.) Formal operational

C (Piaget's pendulum experiment was an important study in illustrating the differences between the concrete operational stage and the formal operational stage. Children in the concrete operational stage are only able to engage in logical thought when they are working with concrete objects or information that is directly available. These children have not developed the ability to think abstractly like the task requires.)

In Piaget's pendulum experiment, children were given a pendulum in which they could vary the length of the string, the weight of the pendulum, the force of the push, and the initial angle of the swing. They were asked to find out what determined the frequency of the swing. What stage of development is the child most likely in if he/she manipulates the variables at random and even distorts data to fit preconceived hypotheses? A.) Sensorimotor B.) Preoperational C.) Concrete operational D.) Formal operational

cortisol, alpha, beta

In the alert state, we experience a certain level of physiological arousal. _______ (a hormone) levels tend to be higher, and electroencephalogram (EEG) waves indicate a brain in the waking state where ______ and _______ waves predominate.

language acquisition device (LAD)

In the nativist (biological) theory, the innate ability for language is controlled by the ______ ______ ______, a theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules.

intelligence quotient (IQ)

Intelligence is often measure with standardized tests (such as the Stanford-Binet test) that generate a(n) ______ ______ for the test-taker. Historically, this score is obtained by dividing a person's mental age score by the person's chronological age and multiplying this value by 100.

linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal

List the seven areas of intelligence included in Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences.

Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome

Long-term consequences of alcoholism include cirrhosis and liver failure, pancreatic damage, gastric or duodenal ulcers, gastrointestinal cancer, and brain disorders including ______-______ ______, caused by a deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1) and characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills.

morphemes (This is a component of morphology, or the structure of words.)

Many words are composed of multiple building blocks called ______, each of which connotes a particular meaning. Consider the word 'redesigned,' which can be broken into three such blocks: re-, indicating to do again; -design-, the verb root; and -ed, indicating an action in the past.

1, theta, alpha

Meditation causes physiological changes such as decreased heart rate and blood pressure. On EEG, meditation resembles Stage ______ sleep with ______ and slow ______ waves.

categorical perception (Listeners can only discriminate between sounds that they would identify as belonging to different categories.)

Native English speakers possess the ability to easily distinguish between the /l/ and /r/ sounds. To most Japanese speakers, however, words like 'lag' and 'rag' would sound the same to them. What gives English speakers the ability to make this distinction?

critical period

Nativists believe in a(n) ______ ______ for language acquisition between 2 years and puberty. If no language exposure occurs during this time, later training is largely ineffective.

transformational grammar

Noam Chomsky is an American linguist and cognitive psychologist largely credited to the nativist (biological) theory. Chomsky is known for his study of ______ ______. He focused on syntactic changes in word order that retain the same meaning; for example, "I took the MCAT" versus "The MCAT was taken by me." Chomsky noted that children learn to make transformations effortlessly at an early age.

representational thought

Object permanence marks the beginning of ______ ______, the intellectual ability of a child to create mental representations of external objects and events.

pain, euphoria, respiratory depression

Opiates and opioids bind to opioid receptors in the peripheral and central nervous system, causing a decreased reaction to ______ and a sense of ______ (intense feeling of pleasure and excitement). Overdose, however, can cause death by ______ ______, in which the brain stops sending signals to breathe.

increase, hypervigilance

Physiological effects of amphetamines include a(n) (DECREASE / INCREASE) in heart rate and blood pressure. Psychological effects include euphoria, ______ (being "on edge"), anxiety, delusions of grandeur, and paranoia.

Assimilation, Accommodation

Piaget theorized that new information is processed via adaptation and that adaptation comes about by two complementary processes: 1.) ______ is the process of classifying new information into existing schemata. 2.) ______ is the process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass new information.

Secondary circular reactions

Piaget's sensorimotor stage of cognitive development is characterized by repetitive actions. ______ ______ ______ occur when manipulation is focused on something outside the body, such as repeatedly throwing toys from a high chair.

Primary circular reactions

Piaget's sensorimotor stage of cognitive development is characterized by repetitive actions. ______ ______ ______are the repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance, such as sucking the thumb.

paradoxical

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, is also called ______ sleep, because one's heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness, but the individual is still asleep.

procedural, declarative

Recent studies have associated REM more with _______ memory consolidation and SWS with ______ memory consolidation.

slow-wave sleep (SWS)

Stages 3 and 4 of the sleep cycle are also known as ______-______ ______, by which EEG activity grows progressively slower until only a few sleep waves per second are seen.

manifest, latent

Sigmund Freud proposed alternate explanations for dreams in his 1899 book, The Interpretation of Dreams. He separated dreams into their ______ content (what one actually sees and hears) and their ______ content (the underlying significance of these dream elements).

Obstructive (The other being central which occurs when the brain fails to send signals to the diaphragm to breathe.)

Sleep apnea comes in two forms. ______ sleep apnea occurs when a physical blockage in the pharynx or trachea prevents airflow.

Central (The other being obstructive which occurs when a physical blockage in the pharynx or trachea prevents airflow.)

Sleep apnea comes in two forms. ______ sleep apnea occurs when the brain fails to send signals to the diaphragm to breathe.

somnambulism

Sleepwalking, or ______, is a sleep disorder belonging to the parasomnia family that usually occurs during SWS. Some sleepwalkers may eat, talk, have sexual intercourse, or even drive great distances while sleeping with absolutely no recollection of the event.

GABA, dopamine

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) exerts its effects by acting at cannabinoid, glycine, and opioid receptors. How these receptors interact to create the "high" achieved from marijuana use is unknown. It is known, however, that THC inhibits _____ activity and indirectly increases _____ activity (causing pleasure).

cannabinoid, glycine, opioid

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the active chemical in marijuana, exerts its effects by acting at what three receptors?

filter

The "______" in selective attention permits us to focus on one set of stimuli while scanning other stimuli in the background for important information (such as our name, or a significant change in the environment).

B (According to the Whorfian hypothesis, language affects the way we think rather than the other way around. In this scenario, the fact that the Inuit language has a variety of names for snow makes them better at discriminating the differences between types of snow compared to English speakers. This is a somewhat controversial notion that depends on the definition of "a word," but most linguists agree that language can influence how we think to some degree. Word choice, inflection, context, and speaker all play a role in our perception of a message. In addition, language often provides an original framework for understanding information. A more expansive framework with more specific vocabulary allows for more sophisticated processing of that information and enhanced communication of that information to others.)

The Inuit language has a wide variety of names for different types of snow, whereas the English language has very few. According to the Whorfian (linguistic relativity) hypothesis, what conclusion can be drawn from this observation? A.) Environmental factors create a more expansive framework and specific vocabulary for elements of language that coincide with one's environment. B.) Inuits are better at discriminating subtleties between different types of snow than English speakers are. C.) English speakers have a broader form of language than the Inuits. D.) Inuits have a less sophisticated processing of information and thus require more words to describe the same thing.

information processing model

The ______ ______ ______ states that the brain encodes, stores, and retrieves information much like a computer.

frontal lobe

The ______ ______ is disproportionately large in H. sapiens thereby enabling us to eschew instantaneous reward and to seek out delayed gratification; transmit ideas between individuals, cultures, and time; and coordinate thinking by deciding which stimuli deserve attention. A comparison to our recent anthropological ancestors demonstrates that our skull is shaped to accommodate this enlarged portion of the brain.

mesolimbic reward

The ______ ______ pathway is normally involved in motivation and emotional response, and its activation accounts for the positive reinforcement of substance abuse.

representativeness

The ______ heuristic involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category.

availability

The ______ heuristic is used when we try to decide how likely something is. When we use this heuristic, we make our decisions based on how easily similar instances can be imagined.

brain maturation

The ability to think abstractly develops over the life span. What is early cognitive development most limited by?

parenting

The environment can affect both cognitive development and day-to-day cognition. For example ______ styles may influence development by reward, punishment, or indifference for an emerging skill.

serotonin

The exact mechanism of most hallucinogens (LSD, peyote, mescaline, ketamine, psilocybin-containing mushrooms) is unknown, but is though to be a complex interaction between various neurotransmitters, especially ______.

SWS (Stages 3 and 4)

The figure depicts a hypnogram of sleep cycles. What type of sleep predominates early in the night as the brain falls into deep sleep and then into more wakeful states (use acronym)?

REM

The figure depicts a hypnogram of sleep cycles. What type of sleep predominates later in the night and towards the morning (use acronym)?

fetal alcohol syndrome

The figure depicts craniofacial features characteristic of what condition?

frame

The first step in problem-solving is to ______ the problem; that is, create a mental image or schematic of the issue. Although this may seem obvious, we often get "stuck" on a problem because the manner in which we have performed this step is inefficient or not useful.

True (Alpha waves are also somewhat slower than beta waves.)

True or False: Alpha waves are more synchronized than beta waves on EEG.

stimuli, decision-making, situational modification, problem-solving

The information processing model has four key components, or pillars: 1.) Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of _______. 2.) This must be analyzed by the brain (rather than responded to automatically) to be useful in ______-______. 3.) Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems, also called ______ ______. 4.) ______-______ is dependent not only on the person's cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem.

mental age, chronological age

The original formula for calculating IQ is defined as: IQ = ______ ______ / ______ ______ x 100.

decreasing

The retina has direct connections to the hypothalamus, which controls the pineal gland. (DECREASING / INCREASING) light can stimulate the release of melatonin.

cognition

The study of ______ looks at how our brains process and react to the incredible information overload presented to us by the world.

Hypnopompic hallucinations (Mnemonic: hypnaGOgic hallucinations occur when one is GOing to bed; hypnoPOmPic hallucinations occur when one is POPping up out of bed.)

The symptoms of narcolepsy are unique. ______ ______ are unusual sensory phenomena experienced just before or during awakening.

Hypnagogic hallucinations (Mnemonic: hypnaGOgic hallucinations occur when one is GOing to bed; hypnoPOmPic hallucinations occur when one is POPping up out of bed.)

The symptoms of narcolepsy are unique. ______ ______ are vivid and frightening episodes of seeing or hearing or feeling phantom sensations while falling asleep.

Sleep paralysis

The symptoms of narcolepsy are unique. ______ ______ is the sensation of being unable to move despite being awake.

Cataplexy

The symptoms of narcolepsy are unique. ______ refers to a loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually caused by an emotional trigger.

babbling, month, 5

The timelines of language acquisition is fairly consistent among children. 9-12 months: ______ (precursor to language) 12-18 months: about one word per ______ 18-20 months: "explosion of language" and combining words 2-3 years: longer sentences (3 words or more) ______ years: language rules largely mastered

phonemes (This is a component of phonology, or the actual sound of speech.)

There are about 40 speech sounds or ______ in English, although many more exist in other languages.

True (The delirium associated with alcohol withdrawal, called delirium tremens, can be life threatening.)

True or False: As a depressant, alcohol is the only major drug of abuse in which both overdoes and withdrawal can be lethal.

methadone

Treatment for opioid addiction may include the use of _______, a long-acting opioid with lower risk of overdose.

False (The Whorfian hypothesis suggests that our perception of reality is determined by the content of language. In essence, language affects the way we think rather than the other way around.)

True or False: According to the Whorfian (linguistic relativity) hypothesis, the way we think affects language.

True (Genetics could also play a role in this. Alcoholism tends to run in families, and children of alcoholics are also likely to suffer from major depressive disorder.)

True or False: Alcoholism rates tend to be higher for those of lower socioeconomic status (SES), but low-SES alcoholics tend to enter recovery sooner and at higher rates.

True (For cognitively disabled students, this is often defined as the least restrictive environment, in which they are encouraged to participate as much as possible in the regular mainstream classroom, with individualized help as needed.)

True or False: Both intellectually gifted and cognitively disabled children benefit from specialized educational environments.

False (Over the lifespan, the length of the sleep cycle increases from approximately 50 minutes in children to 90 minutes in adults. Children also spend more time in SWS than adults.)

True or False: Children have longer sleep cycles than adults.

False (Top-down reasoning is another term for deductive reasoning. A deduction derives conclusions from general rules. Bottom-up reasoning, or induction, derives generalizations from evidence.)

True or False: Deriving generalizations from evidence is a characteristic of top-down reasoning.

True (Changes to sleep cycles from disrupted sleep or disordered work schedules can cause many health problems. Sleep deprivation also causes diminished cognitive performance, although the person who is sleep-deprived is unlikely to recognize that performance has been subpar. Sleep deprivation also negatively affects mood, problem-solving, and motor skills.)

True or False: Disruption of SWS and REM can result in diminished memory.

False (Emotions that a person expects to feel from a particular decision are also involved. For example, if a person believes a car will make them feel more powerful, he or she may be more likely to purchase that car.)

True or False: Emotions in decision-making are limited to the emotion experienced while the decision is being made.

False (Fluid intelligence, or the use problem-solving skills, was shown to peak in early adulthood. Crystallized intelligence, or the use of learned skills and knowledge, peaked in middle adulthood. Regardless, both types of intelligence have been shown to decline with age.)

True or False: Fluid intelligence is shown to decline with age, while crystallized intelligence is preserved.

False (Hypnosis has been used to recover repressed memories of trauma; however, these memories are not admissible in a court of law. This is because the suggestible state of hypnotism makes an individual vulnerable to creating false memories, which can be perceived as completely real.)

True or False: Hypnosis has been used to recover repressed memories of trauma and are admissible in court of law.

True (Brain imaging has indicated that hypnotic states are indeed real; however, effective hypnosis requires a willing personality and lack of skepticism on the part of the patient. In practice, hypnosis is not the same as its sensationalized version in the media, in which a hypnotist will snap his fingers and cause an individual to exhibit bizarre behavior. Rather, hypnosis has been used for pain control, psychological therapy, memory enhancement, weight loss, and smoking cessation.)

True or False: Hypnotic states are real.

True (Variations in intellectual ability can be attributed to combinations of environment, education, and genetics. Parental expectations, socioeconomic status, and nutrition have all been shown to correlate with intelligence.)

True or False: Intellectual ability appears to run in families.

False (While heuristics can lead us astray, they are essential to speedy and effective decision-making. For instance, to win at chess, one must be able to think several moves ahead. On any given turn, there may be 15 or 20 possible moves, each one of which may have multiple consequences; analyzing every possibility would take far too long. Heuristics quickly rule out some of the possible moves: the king must be protected, it is generally good to control the center squares, and pieces should not be put in danger when possible. In this way, heuristics provide a more efficient - although sometimes inaccurate - method for problem-solving.)

True or False: It is best to avoid the use of heuristics because they often lead us to an incorrect decision.

False (Lev Vygotsky believed that as a child develops, his or her skills and abilities are still in formative stages. With help from a social environment, such as adults or other children, those skills can develop further. This may come in the form of instruction from a teacher or even watching another child perform a skill. Vygotsky was a prominent figure in the theory of human cultural and bio-social development, commonly referred to as cultural-historical psychology.)

True or False: Lev Vygotsky did not believe in formative stages of development and instead saw human psychological development as emerging sporadically through interpersonal connections and actions with the social environment.

False (Memory of facts, data, and events is known as declarative memory which is stored primarily during stages 3 and 4 of the sleep cycle or slow-wave sleep. Procedural memory is the memory of how to do things and is stored during REM.)

True or False: Memory of facts, data, and events is stored primarily during REM sleep.

False (Most sleep disorders occur during NREM sleep.)

True or False: Most sleep disorders occur during REM sleep.

True (The motor function of speech is controlled by Broca's area. Damage results in Broca's aphasia, a nonfluent aphasia in which generating each word requires great effort.)

True or False: Patients of Broca's (expressive) aphasia are often very frustrated because they are stuck with the sensation of having every word on the tip of their tongue.

False (Language comprehension is controlled by Wernicke's area. Damage results in Wernicke's aphasia, a fluent, nonsensical aphasia with lack of comprehension. Patients with Wernicke's aphasia often believe that they are speaking and understanding perfectly well, even though the people around them have no comprehension of what is being said.)

True or False: Patients of Broca's (expressive) aphasia often speak nonsensical sounds and inappropriate word combinations devoid of meaning.

True (The completion of each stage prepares the individual for the stage that follows.)

True or False: Piaget believed that passage through each of his developmental stages was a continuous and sequential process.

False (Because night terrors usually occur during SWS, the child experiencing the episode is very difficult to wake and usually does not remember the dream the next morning. Sleepwalking, or somnambulism, also occurs during SWS and most have no recollection of the event.)

True or False: Since night terrors often occur during times of memory consolidation, children who experience these frequently remember the dream the next morning.

True (Sleep is important for health of the brain and body. Long-term sleep deprivation has been linked with diminished cognitive performance as well as the development of chronic diseases such as diabetes and obesity.)

True or False: Sleep deprivation has been linked to the development of chronic diseases.

True (The arcuate fasciculus connects Wernicke's area and Broca's area. Damage results in conduction aphasia, marked by the inability to repeat words despite intact speech generation and comprehension. Because Broca's and Wernicke's areas are unaffected, speech production and comprehension are intact.)

True or False: Speech production and comprehension are intact in patients with conduction aphasia, despite damage to the arcuate fasciculus.

False (The makeup of a sleep cycle changes during the course of the night. The normal cycle is Stage 1-2-3-4-3-2-REM or just 1-2-3-4-REM, although REM becomes more frequent towards the morning.)

True or False: The makeup of a sleep cycle remains constant throughout the course of the night.

True (Gambling, falling in love ,and drug use all activate this pathway.)

True or False: The mesolimbic reward pathway is activated by all substances that produce psychological dependence.

True (REM becomes more frequent towards the morning so this may deviate slightly to 1-2-1-REM-awakening-REM, as an example.)

True or False: The normal sleep cycle is usually Stage 1-2-3-4-3-2-REM or just 1-2-3-4-REM.

False (Cognitive development is very much related to culture, as one's culture will determine what one is expected to learn. Some cultures will place a higher value on social learning, including cultural traditions and roles, while other cultures will value knowledge. In addition, one's culture will also influence the rate of cognitive development as children are treated very differently from culture to culture.)

True or False: The rate of cognitive development is relatively standard across different regions.

False (There is a fifth wave that corresponds to REM sleep, which is the time during the night when we have most of our dreams.)

True or False: The sleep cycle consists of a total of four characteristic waves that correlate with different stages of waking and sleeping.

base rate fallacy

Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information is called the ______ ______ ______. If presented with related generic information and information pertaining only to a certain case, the mind tends to ignore the former and focus on the latter.

phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, pragmatics

What are the five basic components of language?

Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete operational, Formal operational

What are the four levels of Piaget's stages of cognitive development?

nucleus accumbens (NAc), ventral tegmental area (VTA), medial forebrain bundle (MFB; acts as the connection between the former two structures), dopamine

What are the three main structures in the mesolimbic reward pathway? What is this pathway's primary neurotransmitter?

availability heuristic (When we use this heuristic, we make our decisions based on how easily similar instances can be imagined. Students are often tempted by these incorrect answers merely because they can recall that statement being mentioned in the passage.)

What decision-making tool explains the following scenario? The MCAT often has answer choices that are stated in the passage but fail to answer the question posed. Students who do not truly problem-solve will be temped by these familiar-sounding answers.

Depressants, Stimulants, Opiates, Hallucinogens (Biologically speaking, marijuana has depressant, stimulant, and hallucinogenic effects, and will be considered separately.)

What four groups are consciousness-altering drugs generally categorized into?

representativeness (The representativeness heuristic is a mental shortcut that helps us make a decision by comparing information to our mental prototypes. In this case, prototypical and stereotypical factors are considered over actual numerical information, a bias known as base rate fallacy.)

What heuristic was used to make a decision in the following scenario? Consider a standard coin that is flipped ten times in a row and lands on heads every time. What is the probability of the coin landing on heads the next time? Mathematically, the probability must still be 50%, but most individuals will either overestimate the probability based on the pattern that has been established, or underestimate the probability with the logic that the number of heads and tails must "even out."

availability (The availability heuristic is a mental shortcut that helps us make a decision based on how easy it is to bring something to mind. In this case, most people approach the question by trying to think of words that fit into each category. Because we are so used to classifying words by their first letter, it is easier to think of words beginning with "K" even though there are actually more words with "K" as their third letter.)

What heuristic was used to make a decision in the following scenario? Participants were asked the following question: Are there more words in the English language that start with the letter "K" or that have "K" as their third letter? Most people respond that there are more words that begin with the letter "K" than have "K" as their third letter. In fact, there are actually at least twice as many words in English that have "K" as the third letter than begin with "K."

Whorfian (linguistic relativity) hypothesis

What hypothesis states that the lens through which we view and interpret the world is created by language?

tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)

What is the active chemical in marijuana?

7-11 years

What is the age range for Piaget's concrete operational stage of cognitive development?

11+ years

What is the age range for Piaget's formal operational stage of cognitive development?

2-7 years

What is the age range for Piaget's preoperational stage of cognitive development?

0-2 years

What is the age range for Piaget's sensorimotor stage of cognitive development?

the development of object permanence

What key milestone signifies the end of the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development?

Recognition-primed decision

What model describes how people make quick, effective decisions when faced with complex situations? The difference of being experienced or inexperienced plays a major factor in this process because when confronted with a problem on must first recognize which course of action makes sense, and second, evaluate through imagination to see if the actions resulting from that decision are appropriate.

Broca's area

What region of the brain, located in the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe (blue in figure), controls the motor function of speech by connections with the motor cortex?

Wernicke's area

What region of the brain, located in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe (green in figure), is responsible for language comprehension?

Formal operational

What stage of cognitive development according to Piaget's theory focuses on abstract thought and problem-solving?

Sensorimotor

What stage of cognitive development according to Piaget's theory focuses on manipulating the environment to meet physical needs through circular reactions?

Preoperational

What stage of cognitive development according to Piaget's theory focuses on symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration?

Concrete operational

What stage of cognitive development according to Piaget's theory focuses on understanding the feelings of others and manipulating physical objects?

C (During REM, arousal levels reach that of wakefulness, but the muscles are paralyzed. Dreaming in REM focuses on consolidating procedural memories.)

What stage of the sleep cycle is dreaming most likely to occur and is associated with memory consolidation? A.) Slow-wave sleep B.) Non-rapid eye movement sleep C.) Rapid eye movement sleep D.) Light sleep

Stage 1

What stage of the sleep cycle is referred to as light sleep and is dominated by theta waves on EEG?

Stage 2

What stage of the sleep cycle is slightly deeper and includes theta waves, sleep spindles, and K complexes?

B (Stages 3 and 4 are collectively referred to as slow-wave sleep and are associated with consolidating declarative memories. During these stages, it becomes especially difficult to rouse someone from sleep.)

What stages of the sleep cycle are associated with cognitive recovery and memory consolidation, as well as increased growth hormone release? A.) Stages 1 and 2 B.) Stages 3 and 4 C.) Stages 2 and 3 D.) Stages 1 and 4

social interactionist theory

What theory explains language acquisition as being caused by a motivation to communicate and interact with others?

learning (behaviorist) theory

What theory explains language acquisition as being controlled by operant conditioning and reinforcement by parents and caregivers?

nativist (biological) theory

What theory explains language acquisition as being innate and controlled by the language acquisition device (LAD)?

Activation-synthesis theory

What theory posits that dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry? This activation can mimic incoming sensory information and may also consist of pieces of stored memories, current and previous desires, met and unmet needs, and other experiences. The cortex tries to stitch this unrelated information together, resulting in a dream that is both bizarre and somewhat familiar.

Cognitive process dream theory

What theory posits that dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness? Just as you may be thinking about an upcoming weekend trip when your consciousness quickly shifts to your upcoming MCAT Test Day, so too does the content of a dream rapidly shift and change.

Problem-solving dream theory

What theory posits that dreams are untethered by the rules of the real world, and thus allow interpretation of obstacles differently than during waking hours? In this way, dreams act as a way to solve problems while you are sleeping.

Dyssomnias, Parasomnias

What two categories are sleep disorders divided into?

Broca's (expressive)

What type of aphasia results in a reduced or absent ability to produce spoken language?

Wernicke's (receptive)

What type of aphasia results in loss of language comprehension but has no effect on motor production and fluency of speech?

conduction

What type of aphasia results in the inability to repeat something that has been said?

Selective

What type of attention allows one to pay attention to a particular stimulus while determining if additional stimuli in the background require attention?

Divided

What type of attention uses automatic processing to pay attention to multiple activities at one time?

Fluid

What type of intelligence is defined as the ability to solve new problems, use logic in new situations, and identify patterns through problem-solving skills?

Crystallized

What type of intelligence is defined as the ability to use learned knowledge and experience?

Automatic

What type of processing is used for less critical stimuli in divided attention, and is usually used for familiar or repetitive actions?

Controlled (effortful)

What type of processing is used when maintaining undivided attention on a task, and is usually used for new or complex actions?

deductive (top-down)

What type of reasoning starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given?

inductive (bottom-up)

What type of reasoning starts with specific instances and then draws a conclusion from them?

Non-rapid eye movement (NREM)

What type of sleep comprises stages 1 through 4 of the sleep cycle and is characterized by slow waves of a high voltage on EEG, slow and regular heart rate, low blood pressure, and little body movement from the sleeper?

Rapid eye movement (REM)

What type of sleep is interspersed between cycles of the NREM sleep stages and is characterized by arousal levels reaching that of wakefulness but the muscles being paralyzed?

Beta

What type of wave on EEG has a high frequency and occurs when a person is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration?

Beta (mostly)

What type of wave on EEG is typically seen during the REM stage of the sleep cycle?

Alpha

What type of wave on EEG occurs when a person is awake but relaxing with their eyes closed?

Beta

What type of wave on EEG occurs when neurons are randomly firing?

Theta

What type of wave on EEG predominates in Stages 1 and 2 of the sleep cycle? At this point, EEG activity is characterized by irregular waveforms with slower frequencies and higher voltages.

Delta

What type of wave on EEG predominates in Stages 3 and 4 of the sleep cycle? At this point, EEG activity is characterized by slow waveforms with lower frequencies and higher voltages.

disconfirmation principle, confirmation

When a potential solution to a problem fails during testing, this solution should be discarded. This is known as the ______ ______: the evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work. However, the presence of a(n) ______ bias may prevent an individual from eliminating this solution.

C (The sensorimotor, preoperational, and concrete operational stages occur prior to adolescence. The formal operational stage generally coincides with adolescence.)

Which of the following of Piaget's stages of cognitive development occur before adolescence? I. Preoperational II. Sensorimotor III. Formal operational A.) I only B.) II only C.) I and II D.) II and III

C (Mnemonic: Remember the sequential order of these brain waves - beta, alpha, theta, delta - by combining their first letters to form BAT-D and remember that a BAT sleeps during the Day.)

Which of the following shows the correct sequential order of the brain waves during the sleep cycle? A.) alpha, beta, delta, theta B.) beta, delta, theta, alpha C.) beta, alpha, theta, delta D.) theta, delta, beta, alpha

D (Jean Piaget hypothesized that new information is processed by adaptation, choice B. Adaptation is too broad of an answer because it includes both assimilation, choice A, and accommodation, choice D. Assimilation is incorporation of new information into existing schemata. If the new information doesn't fit, then accommodation occurs. Accommodation is the modification of existing schemata to account for new information and is thus the correct answer.)

Which of the following terms describes how existing schemata are modified to incorporate new information? A.) Assimilation B.) Adaptation C.) Affirmation D.) Accommodation

linguistic, logical-mathematical (After all, these are the two abilities tested on traditional intelligence quotient, IQ, tests.)

Which two areas of intelligence out of the seven did Howard Gardner argue Western culture values the most?

beta, alpha

Which waves on EEG characterize a state of alertness?

REM rebound

While one cannot make up for lost sleep, people who are permitted to sleep normally after sleep deprivation often exhibit ______ ______, an earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal.

C (Primary circular reactions are the repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance, such as sucking the thumb; usually, the behavior is repeated because the child finds it soothing.)

Why are primary circular reactions repeated? A.) Instinctive drift. B.) The behavior is rewarded. C.) The child finds it soothing. D.) The child gets a response from his/her environment.

D (Secondary circular reactions occur when manipulation is focused on something outside the body, such as repeatedly throwing toys from a high chair. These behaviors are often repeated because the child gets a response from the environment, such as a parent picking up the dropped toy.)

Why are secondary circular reactions repeated? A.) Instinctive drift. B.) The behavior is rewarded. C.) The child finds it soothing. D.) The child gets a response from his/her environment.

cocktail party phenomenon (The brain's ability to focus one's selective attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli, as when a partygoer can focus on a single conversation in a noisy room.)

You are at a party, talking with a friend. However, your ears perk up when you hear your name spoken halfway across the room. Even though you were engaged in conversation and presumably paying attention, you were able to perceive your name being mentioned. What describes this effect?

Sleep spindles

______ ______ are bursts of coherent brain activity visible on the EEG, which are most evident during stage 2 sleep.

K complexes

______ ______ are large waves that react to external stimuli while sleeping, which are most evident during stage 2 of sleep.

Sleep deprivation

______ ______ can result from as little as one night without sleep, or from multiple nights with poor-quality, short-duration sleep. This can result in irritability, mood disturbances, decreased performance, slowed reaction time, and in extreme cases - psychosis.

Drug addiction

______ ______ is a chronic disorder highly related to the mesolimbic reward pathway, one of four dopaminergic pathways in the brain, as shown in the figure.

Cognitive development

______ ______ is the emergence of one's ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan. Study in this field focuses on a child's development in terms of information processing, conceptual resources, perceptual skill, language learning, and other aspects of psychology compared to an adult's point of view.

Alzheimer's disease (Vascular (multi-infarct) dementia, caused by high blood pressure and repeated microscopic clots in the brain is also a very common cause.)

______ ______ is the most common cause of dementia and accounts for approximately 60 to 80% of all cases.

Confirmation bias

______ ______ is the tendency to focus on information that fits an individual's beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against them.

Functional fixedness

______ ______ is the tendency to use objects only in the way that are normally utilized, which may create barriers to problem-solving.

Object permanence

______ ______ is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be observed. This is the idea behind "peek-a-boo," shown in the figure. Children who have not yet developed this ability find the game so entertaining because each time the adult reveals him- or herself, the child interprets it as though he or she has just come into existence.

Sleep apnea

______ ______ refers to a dyssomnia which is an inability to breathe during sleep. People with this disorder awaken often during the night in order to breathe.

Symbolic thinking

______ ______ refers to the ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination and is a defining characteristic of the preoperational stage.

Belief perserverance

______ ______ refers to the inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary.

Jean Piaget

______ ______ was one of the most influential figures in developmental psychology. This Swiss psychologist and epistemologist insisted that there are qualitative differences between the way that children and adults think and divided the lifespan into stages of cognitive development.

Lev Vygotsky

______ ______, a prominent educational psychologist, proposed that the engine driving cognitive development is the child's internalization of his or her culture, including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and languages; also a key figure in the psychology of identity.

Night terrors

______ ______, which are most common in children, is a parasomnia characterized by periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow-wave sleep. Children will often thrash and scream during these episodes, and will show signs of sympathetic overdrive, with a high heart rate rapid breathing.

Barbiturates

______ are a class of depressants that were historically used as anxiety-reducing (anxiolytic) and sleep medications, but have mostly been replaced by benzodiazepines, which are less prone to overdose. Examples include amobarbital and phenobarbital.

Hallucinogens

______ are a class of drugs that typically cause distortions of reality and fantasy, enhancement of sensory experiences, and introspection. Examples include lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), peyote, mescaline, ketamine, and psilocybin-containing mushrooms.

Depressants

______ are a group of consciousness-altering drugs that reduce nervous system activity, resulting in a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety. Examples include alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines.

benzodiazepines (These drugs have largely replaced barbiturates as an anxiety-reducing medication since they are less prone to overdose.)

______ are in the family of drugs commonly known as minor tranquilizers that enhance the effect of GABA, causing a sense of relaxation. Examples include alprazolam, lorazepam, diazepam, and clonazepam.

Heuristics

______ are simplified principles used to make decisions; they are colloquially called rules of thumb.

Amphetamines

______ are stimulants used to treat ADHD, narcolepsy, and obesity. These drugs increase the release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin at the synapse and decrease their reuptake. This increases arousal and causes a reduction in appetite and decreases the need for sleep.

Opiates

______ are the naturally occurring form of drugs derived from opium, including morphine and codeine.

Opioids

______ are the semisynthetic form of drugs derived from opium, including oxycodone, hydrocodone, and heroin.

Intuition

______ can be defined as the ability to act on perceptions that may or may not be supported by available evidence; this is often referred to as a "gut feeling" regarding a particular decision.

Marijuana

______ has depressant, stimulant, and hallucinogenic effects. It primarily refers to the leaves and flowers of two plant species: Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica.

Meditation

______ involves a quieting of the mind and is often used for relief of anxiety. It has also played a role in many world's religions.

Aphasia

______ is a deficit of language production or comprehension.

Insomnia

______ is a dyssomnia characterized by difficulties falling asleep or staying asleep. It is the most common sleep disorder and may be related to anxiety, depression, medications, or disruption of sleep cycles and circadian rhythms.

Narcolepsy

______ is a dyssomnia characterized by lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep.

Crack

______ is a form of cocaine that can be smoked. With quick and potent effects, this drug is highly addictive.

Dementia

______ is a general term that describes a wide range of symptoms associated with a decline in memory or other thinking skills severe enough to reduce a person's ability to perform everyday activities. While this often begins with impaired memory, it can progress to impaired judgment and confusion as well as personality changes.

Delirium

______ is a rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical (nonpsychological) causes. It can be caused by a variety of issues, including electrolyte and pH distrubances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, a drug reaction, alcohol withdrawal, and pain.

Hypnosis

______ is a state of consciousness in which individuals appear to be in control of their normal faculties but are in a highly suggestible state; this is often used for pain control, psychological therapy, memory enhancement, weight loss, and smoking cessation.

Consciousness

______ is one's level of awareness of both the world and one's own existence within that world. This comes in four primary states: alertness, sleep, dreaming, and altered states.

Opium

______ is the dried latex (milky fluid found in 10% of all flowering plants) obtained from a poppy plant which is processed chemically to produce numerous drugs that are used both recreationally and therapeutically.

Emotion

______ is the subjective experience of a person in a certain situation. How a person feels often influences how a person thinks and makes decisions, such as engaging in more risky decision-making when a person is angry.

Overconfidence

______ is the tendency to erroneously interpret one's decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible.

Centration

______ is the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon, or inability to understand the concept of conservation; this is a defining characteristic of the preoperational stage.

Cocaine

______ originates from the coca plant, grown in the high-altitude regions of South America. This stimulant can be purified from these leaves or created synthetically. It asserts its effects by decreasing reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin.

Parasomnias

______ refer to abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep, and include night terrors and sleepwalking.

Dyssomnias

______ refer to disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep, and include insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea.

Syntax

______ refers to how words are put together to form sentences. A child must notice the effects of word order on meaning: 'Nathan has only three pieces of candy' has a very different meaning than 'Only Nathan has three pieces of candy.'

Conservation

______ refers to the ability to determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of the container, shape, or apparent size. The preoperational stage is defined by a lack of this ability.

Phonology

______ refers to the actual sound of speech.

Semantics

______ refers to the association of meaning with a word.

Pragmatics

______ refers to the changes in language delivery depending on context and preexisting knowledge.

Egocentrism

______ refers to the inability to imagine what another person may think or feel and is a defining characteristic of the preoperational stage.

Prosody

______ refers to the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices. It can deeply affect pragmatics, or the manner in which we speak depending on the audience and our relationship to that audience.

Abstract, concrete

______ thought can be lost in some mental disorders. For example, a common cognitive test with schizophrenic patients is to ask them to interpret a cliche, such as "Don't count you chickens before they hatch." These patients have ______ thinking and will give an answer focused on the chickens themselves - no the underlying concept.

Ecstasy

______, also called 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine, MDMA, or simply "E", is an example of a club or rave drug that acts as a hallucinogen combined with an amphetamine. As a designer amphetamine, it is often packaged in colorful pills and has a similar mechanism/effects to other amphetamines.

Heroin

______, or diacetylmorphine, was originally created as a substitute for morphine, but once injected, the body rapidly metabolizes it to morphine. Usually smoked or injected, this was once the most widely abused opioid but has now shifted to prescription opioids like oxycodone and hydrocodone.

Problem-solving

______-______ requires identification and understanding of the issue, generation of potential solutions, testing of potential solutions, and evaluation of results.

Trial-and-error

______-______-______ is a less sophisticated type of problem-solving in which various solutions are tried until one is found that seems to work. While an educated approach may be used, this type of problem-solving is usually only effective when there are relatively few possible solutions.

Stimulants, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin

_______ cause arousal in the nervous system by increasing the concentration of ______, ______, and ______ at the synaptic cleft (although by different mechanisms) and therefore increasing the frequency of action potentials. Examples include amphetamines, cocaine, and ecstasy.

Alertness

_______ is the state of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think, perceive, process, and express information verbally.

Morphology

_______ refers to the structure of words, such as rules for pluralization (-s in English), past tense (-ed), and so forth.

Errors of growth

________ _______ _______ are mistakes that children commonly commit when first learning language. For example, by the age of 2 or 3 years, children can speak in longer sentences. As a child creates longer sentences, grammatical errors increase as the child internalizes the complex rules of grammar. This may include the use of "runned" instead of "ran," or "funner" instead of "more fun."