CJ 425 Chapter 7
Police investigators may also use one of two opposite techniques regarding the way they present the crime.
First, they may exaggerate the severity of the offense for which the suspect is under investigation
The definitive test as to whether or not a stain is indeed seminal fluid is a microscopic examination of the stain itself.
In most cases, if a stain is seminal fluid, it will contain spermatozoa, which will be visible using a microscope
With most victims of sexual offenses knowing their offender, it is not so much a matter of identifying the perpetrator (Sallomi, 2013) as it is proving that the sexual encounter was not consensual.
Other aspects of a rape kit, such as photographs of injuries, may help with this, but there may not be a need for DNA testing in these cases
In the case of sexual assault, the victim's body is a significant source of evidence, and she (or he) must be instructed not to
bathe, change clothes, or take any other action that might compromise the collection of evidence
While police cannot pretend to be a suspect's lawyer or priest, or anyone else to whom the suspect would feel compelled to confess,
they can pretend to be someone such as a fellow jail inmate and use information obtained in that conversation
To determine if a particular fluorescing stain is semen, it can be tested for the enzyme acid phosphatase (AP), which is present in high concentrations in seminal fluid.
When chemically treated, the stain will turn purple if AP is present, indicating that the material is likely to be semen
Detectives also have the option to
"unfound" cases that they do not believe were crimes
While a proactive investigation would seem like a good strategy for removing child predators
, it is important to note that not all of the people arrested in proactive investigations had a history of sexually victimizing children. - Indeed, only 2 percent of those arrested in proactive investigations were registered sex offenders
There are many reasons a law enforcement agency might not submit a rape kit for analysis.
-One important reason found by Strom and Hickman (2010) is that the police do not have a suspect for the crime. -This is a particularly confusing reason not to submit forensic evidence that may contain DNA, as the possibility of finding a DNA match would help police identify a suspect
Consensual encounters can also cause a small amount of genital trauma, which could be visible upon examination
. DNA may be collected from any consensual partners for comparison purposes
First is polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which involves unwinding DNA from its double helix structure and adding it to a solution of unattached nucleotides.
-This method allows the forensic scientist to copy strands of DNA. -The benefit of the replications of DNA strands is that it allows DNA profiles to be obtained from very small amounts of evidentiary DNA
In some cases, a perpetrator of a sexual offense will bite the victim, and these bites can leave visible marks on the skin.
A forensic odontologist can attempt to match the impression made on the skin to a suspect's teeth
The use of the Internet can lead to jurisdictional issues as well as problems with identifying offenders.
Administrators of some of the websites used by offenders may be helpful to investigators, but others may be less willing to provide information.
There are also chemicals that can cause fingerprints to become visible
After prints are made visible, they must be preserved, first by photographing them, and then by "lifting" them.
Also, fingernails may break and provide evidence of a struggle.
Any damage to the fingernails is documented using photography; samples are collected from beneath the fingernails by either cutting, scraping, or swabbing the area
Forensic evidence can help establish the identity of the offender, if unknown, or support the victim's claim that the encounter was nonconsensual. .
As discussed above, a victim of a recent sexual offense generally undergoes a forensic medical examination and evidence is collected in a rape kit -This process can be difficult for the victim, but not all rape kits are being analyzed or used as evidence (Corrigan, 2013).
Three main methods are used to obtain a
DNA profile from a sample at a crime scene.
Many types of forensic evidence can be collected in any crime, including a sexual offense.
Despite limitations and untested rape kits discussed above, one of the most commonly used forms of forensic evidence used in identifying the perpetrator of a sexual offense is DNA.
A key reason police couldn't do something about many cases had to do with limited resources.
Given the limited resources, they had to make a choice about which cases would get their attention.
The medical professional will also need to know about any actions taken by the victim after the assault that may affect the findings of the examination.
If the victim has changed clothing, bathed, or even eaten or smoked, this could affect the findings of the examination
The victim's fingernails are of particular interest to forensic medical examiners.
If the victim scratched the offender or his clothing, evidence may be present under the fingernails.
The previous two methods are not generally considered as reliable as the third method, which is short tandem repeats (STR).
In each chromosome, small areas exist known as loci. According to Saferstein (2013), these loci are only five base pairs long.
The manner in which questions are asked of victims can leave them feeling blamed, as investigators are often looking for holes in the story, things that do not make sense, or an ulterior motive for reporting an assault (Bouffard, 2000).
In fact, normal police procedures may be a significant contributing factor in the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (Herman, 2003).
Short tandem repeats are replicated using the PCR method.
Less than one-hundredth of the evidentiary source is needed for an STR-created profile as opposed to the amount of evidence required for an RFLP (Lee, 2010a).
The accuracy of victim concerns about their interactions with the police is unclear
One study indicating poor experiences with the police discovered that victims who did report their assault to the police had worse mental and physical health outcomes compared to those who did not report their assault. -This was especially true in cases where the assault was reported but the case was not prosecuted
Under the "real rape" paradigm (see Chapter 4), date rapes, rapes committed against unconscious women, cases where the victim and offender have had a past intimate relationship, and assaults against women stepping outside of their traditional role tend not to be considered serious, or even unacceptable.
Research shows that police officers take cases that do not fit into the "real rape" paradigm less seriously (Jordan, 2004).
There may be hair transferred from the perpetrator to the victim in this area, and secretions such as semen may be present in the pubic hair.
Some of the victim's own head and pubic hair may also be collected as reference samples for when the evidence is later examined
They also found that there were often problems with not expecting laboratory results in a timely fashion and not being able to fund the analysis of evidence
Strom and Hickman (2010) also found that police did not submit forensic evidence because a suspect had already been adjudicated without the need for forensic testing (so in that case testing would be a waste of resources) and when they did not expect charges would be filed.
As a result, the STR DNA analysis requires much shorter base pair samples than those obtained from RFLP.
The advantage of a shorter strand of base pairs is that the DNA evidence is more resistant to degeneration over time (Saferstein, 2013).
This can be done using an adhesive film, similar to tape, which is pressed onto the latent fingerprint, and then removing it.
The film is then pressed onto a background such as cardboard so that the fingerprint is visible. Fingerprints can then be converted to digital images, using a very advanced scanner
Another potential source of evidence is the victim's pubic hair.
The pubic hair is combed onto a piece of paper and the paper and comb are collected as evidence.
Most victims of sexual offenses do not report their assault to law enforcement.
The reasons for not reporting a sexual assault are many, but an important consideration is often a victim's concern that they will be treated badly by police personnel, not be believed by law enforcement, or the prediction that not much will come of reporting the assault.
A detective will have a victim tell his or her story and work to sort out any inconsistencies.
There are often several changes in the way the story is reported before there is a version that the detective feels is accurate
Not all types of sexual offenses and victims are dealt with in the same manner by police.
There have been many studies examining how offense and victim characteristics influence the way the police treat the case.
The rape kit should include blank labels so that all evidence collected can be identified, as well as standardized forms for patient consent, history, and documentation of visible injuries.
There will also be materials used in the collection and preservation of the victim's clothing, any foreign materials collected from the clothing or body, and multiple swabs of the body and genitals
They may tell the suspect that their demeanor suggest that they are guilty.
They can tell the suspect that there are other suspects or witnesses who have talked to police and told them that the suspect is guilty, suggesting to the suspect that it would be better if he or she confessed
In a study of adolescent victims, Shaw and Campbell (2013) also found victim and assault-related characteristics to be associated with the likelihood of a rape kit being submitted for analysis.
They found that 40.7 percent of rape kits were not submitted for analysis, and that the kits of younger victims (ages 13 to 15) were more likely to be157submitted than older victims (ages 16 to 17).
In contrast, they may also normalize or minimize the crime of which the suspect is accused.
They may give suspects the opportunity to see their behavior as justifiable or provide justifications as to why the behavior is not their fault. -This would encourage the suspect to confess, as they may perceive that the consequences would not be great
For the power assertive rapist, who may have poor impulse control, it is essential the police present a professional case detailing how they intend to prove this suspect is guilty.
They should not be incorrect about details or the suspect may view them as incompetent and not wish to cooperate
They also found that if the victim had bathed after the assault and prior to the forensic medical examination the police were less likely to submit the rape kit for analysis.
This may be due to the perception that the kit is unlikely to yield DNA evidence, although in reality, semen can remain in the reproductive tract for several days
For instance, when the victim suffered physical injury (non-genital) the rape kit was more likely to be submitted.
This suggests that these cases are considered more serious and more worthy of investigation
Victims of sexual trauma need support, to be believed and reassured that they were not at fault for their attack, and sensitivity to their individual circumstances (Holzman, 1996).
Unfortunately, these needs may not be concordant with the needs of police investigators for most types of crimes
In a study consisting of interviews of police personnel who were members of units addressing sex trafficking and Internet crimes,
participants described several difficulties with their investigations
In the case of sexual offenses that have occurred within a few days of the report,
a specific type of evidence is usually collected, called a rape kit.
A detective will generally become involved in a sexual offense investigation
after the initial information is gathered by patrol officers and physical evidence is collected.
More detailed interviews of the victim should be completed by a detective,
after the initial interview and the collection of forensic evidence is complete
In this study, the victim's belief that she had been drugged or was unconscious during the attack was not related to sending the evidence for analysis,
although that analysis could confirm the use of drugs and identify the offender if the victim was not aware of his identity (Patterson and Campbell, 2012).
At least six police departments have been sued by women who completed a forensic medical exam that did not result in
analyzing the rape kit (Jones, 2021). The basis for the lawsuits is the allegation that police departments h
in a different study, found that police officer rape myth acceptance went down as the officer's level of education increased,
and as the officer's experience handling rape investigations increased
The first responding patrol officers must determine what has happened,
and if they are responding to the crime scene, they must prevent contamination of that scene
Police culture may have changed significantly, particularly since the 1978 study,
and it should be noted that a more recent study found relatively low levels of rape myth acceptance in police officers, with 93 percent of officers agreeing that "any woman can be raped.
The interviewer should be empathetic and emphasize that the victim was not at fault, assure the victim of her (or his) safety at the time of the interview,
and make the victim feel confident in the interviewer's experience and qualifications
Jurisdictional issues can arise because social media and online advertisement websites can be used to "market" sex trafficking victims to clients,
and the trafficker and victim often travel around the United States to meet with clients.
There are a number of techniques investigators use to try to elicit confessions from suspects,
and these may vary based on the type of sex offender profile
In a study of officers' responses to written descriptions of rape scenarios, those with higher levels of rape myth acceptance placed more responsibility for an assault on the victim and less on the perpetrator,
and they had a lower belief in the case's authenticity compared to officers with low rape myth acceptance
Hormonal treatment, often called the "morning after pill," can be offered to prevent pregnancy;
antibiotics can be offered to reduce the risk of contracting diseases such as syphilis and gonorrhea
Although a rape kit may be collected, further interviews with the victim by detectives, rather than patrol officers,
are generally carried out before this evidence is processed.
In the last several years, there has been increasing concern over sexual offenders using the Internet
as a means of communicating with children and luring them to meet the offender
Because the techniques may vary for different types of rapists, it is important that investigators thoroughly interview the victim,
as discussed above, to help determine what type of rapist the suspect may be.
Given the difficulties that victims of sexual offenses face when reporting their victimization to the police, it is difficult to discuss false reports of sexual offenses,
as doing so may create the perception that false reports occur often.
The manner in which this first contact occurs is very important to both the police,
as it determines the victim's openness with the officer and the type of information gathered, and the victim, as this contact sets the stage for her (or his) recovery
The rape kit evidence can only be collected with the consent of the victim and is done at no expense to the victim,
as the Violence Against Women Act mandates that states will pay for the cost of rape kits
The victim in a sexual offense is often the only witness,
as these offenses are not frequently committed out in the open.
They learned that police found the researchers' focus on untested kits to be frustrating,
as they viewed the case, not the kit, to be the important issue. O
The main goal of an interrogation is to get a confession from the suspect,
as this is generally viewed as one of the strongest types of evidence of guilt
The first step is to collect a victim's clothing, which can later be examined for materials that may link an offender or location to the assault,
as well as for damage that may show evidence of force.
While it is important to the police to obtain accurate information as quickly as possible,
being empathetic and patient with the victim may elicit this information in a more reliable manner than the more demanding tone often taken with suspects
DNA is present in all human cells and as such is commonly found at crime scenes in the form of
blood, sweat, saliva, semen, hair where the follicle is attached, and tissue
Much of the information that police use in investigating a sex offense comes from interviewing the victim,
both immediately after the report is made and later in more detail with detectives present, and from the forensic medical examination.
A baseless claim is one in which the event reported does not meet the legal definition for a sexual assault .
but is still a true account of what happened
These reasons for submitting or not submitting a rape kit for testing imply that the police use rape kit analysis as a way of supporting prosecution for strong cases,
but not as a tool in investigating rapes or building a strong case when other evidence is not strong (Campbell and Fehler-Cabral, 2018).
This is often done using a "good cop/ bad cop" technique or
by having an investigator take on the role of someone in a position of trust
Other forms of forensic evidence may be used to corroborate a victim's description of the use of force
by the perpetrator or may help tie a particular individual to the crime scene.
However, even in cases of a known perpetrator, testing the DNA can assist in linking two or more assaults committed
by the same individual, as some offenders repeatedly victimize people known to them (Campbell et al., 2018).
The evidence of a link between the suspect and the bite mark can then be considered inconclusive,
can exclude the suspect, suggest that the suspect probably left the impression, or give reasonable scientific certainty that the suspect left the bite mark (Metcalf et al., 2010).
Single offender cases were more likely to have evidence submitted for analysis than multiple offender cases;
cases with multiple types of sexual assault were more likely to have evidence submitted than cases where there was only one assault (Shaw and Campbell, 2013).
The preliminary information an officer collects
comes from the victims and witnesses to the crime.
In order to use the digital image of the latent fingerprint to help identify or match to a suspect,
computer technology is utilized.
The patrol officers should document any information they receive in writing,
particularly details such as locations, times, and dates, and information about the victims and suspects
While DNA can be obtained from the many forms of biological evidence discussed above,
semen is a particularly important type of evidence often found in sexual offenses.
That officer is responsible for assessing what has happened and
determining if evidence needs to be collected.
Proactive investigation may have some challenges associated with it, but policing the use of the Internet for engaging in activities such as sex trafficking can be
difficult due to issues associated with jurisdiction and identifying offenders
The basis for the lawsuits is the allegation that police departments have violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment in that they
discriminated based on gender in their failure to test the rape kits.
This particular piece of information is important because DNA could be present
from earlier consensual sexual encounters, as well as from the sexual assault.
The rape kit actually refers to the standardized set of evidence collection tools and receptacles that are
generally packaged together and used for all forensic medical examinations of victims of sexual offenses
The rape myth culture suggests that women have multiple motivations for lying about sexual assault,
including to cover up an unwanted pregnancy, being caught in an affair, or to explain whereabouts to parents or partners when they are late (Burt, 1980); however, the true reasons for making false complaints are related to internal processes.
They may tell a suspect that they have DNA, fingerprints, or other evidence linking the suspect to the crime;
however, the courts have ruled that actually creating false evidence is unconstitutional.
While the patrol officers may not conduct detailed interviews, they should obtain basic information such as
identifying information of those answering questions and a basic description of what happened from each victim and witness.
The way a police officer perceives and responds to a victim and a sexual offense has
important implications for the investigation of the sex offense, but it also has a strong impact on the victim.
Victims with unprosecuted cases also were more likely to experience disbelief from the police,
including being told that they could be charged for making a false report
When a crime is reported, a patrol officer responds to perform several functions,
including the first and most basic investigation of the crime
There are a number of potential explanations for this,
including the types of statements recorded by police in the report, or the victim's desire to cooperate.
One of the problems in discussing false allegations of sexual offense
is defining what, exactly, constitutes a false allegation.
Burgess and Hazelwood (1993) also provide guidelines for concluding the interview in a manner that is not upsetting to the victim and
increases the likelihood that she will continue to want to participate in the investigation. -5 points
Women report shock and embarrassment when police officers treat them as if they are the problem,
instead of the perpetrator, or are not sensitive to their trauma and personal needs (Jordan, 2002).
A false report is a report of a sexual offense that
investigation indicates did not happen
Similarly, there are also certain conditions under which .
investigators are able to make promises to suspects
For a power reassurance rapist, where the rapist does not intend to do harm but rather seeks to reassure himself of his masculinity,
investigators may have the most success if they take on the role of a trusted individual to whom the suspect can confess, and also if they minimize the crime, indicating that the victim did not suffer
Interviewing the victim of a sexual offense
is very different from interviewing a suspect.
If the police "unfound" a sexual offense complaint,
it does not necessarily mean that the assault did not happen. -Unfounding must occur after investigation where the police determine that the claim is false or baseless
In cases where the identity of the rapist is not known,
it is helpful to develop an idea of his personality and motivations for committing the sexual offense.
In addition to being empathetic and supportive, .
it is important that the interviewer gain as much detailed information as possible
In cases where it is suspected that the victim may have been exposed to an intoxicating substance that may have been administered by the perpetrator,
it is possible to test the victim's blood and urine for specific commonly used "date rape drugs"
Many reports submitted for behavioral analysis are found to be a
lacking important details that would help develop a profile of the rapist
In cases where no charges were filed, victims were more likely to report that police questioned their behavior or asked questions too quickly and abruptly,
making it more difficult for the victim to talk to them openly
When the medical and legal systems do not help or even believe the victim, she may feel more ashamed,
may not be interested in participating in prosecution, and may have negative physical and mental health outcomes
Depending on the location of penetration during the sexual assault, the medical professional will examine the
mouth, anus, and/ or (for women) vagina for injuries and traces of semen or other material to be submitted into evidence with the rape kit
Investigators working in this area have had to adjust to the way technology is being used by
offenders and have had to develop technical skills in computer forensics as well
Police officers are part of the society that has a generally high acceptance of rape myths;
officers' beliefs in these rape myths may affect their report taking and investigation decisions.
A victim's experience with being blamed and having her personal life examined and used to discredit her,
often a part of their experience with law enforcement and emergency medicine, is often called the "second rape."
Within the law,
one technique an investigator may use is that of role playing.
For instance, false allegations are more likely than genuine allegations to have the perpetrator be a stranger,
or a very vague acquaintance whose name the victim cannot remember.
Biting is often present in sexual offenses where the offender displays brutality and physical violence
or in the power assertive rapist and the anger excitation rapist as discussed in Chapter 3
While they cannot make specific offers of leniency,
they are able to suggest that outcomes would be better for the suspect if he or she confessed
For the anger retaliation rapist, who has a hatred of women, a possible interviewing strategy is similar to "good cop/ bad cop" but involves a female interviewer and a male interviewer, where the male expresses dominance over the female,
perhaps making disrespectful comments about her when she has left the room, in order to develop a rapport with the suspect and increase his cooperation with the male interviewer
Research has shown that there are differences in the way victims and
police interact in cases where charges are filed and in cases where charges are not filed.
All evidence is labeled and stored in a locked refrigerator so that the chain of custody is
preserved and the evidence can later be examined by police analysts
Despite these limitations, bite marks can actually be used to obtain DNA evidence,
rather than to try to match a suspect to the shape of the mark left on the skin.
Indeed, the offenders often use social media to
recruit victims into prostitution.
In cases where police doubted the victim's credibility for reasons such as suspecting her of being a prostitute,
she was a teenager, or she knew her attacker, they tended not to devote resources to investigatiom
. Indeed, while police denied it, Campbell and Felher-Cabral (2018) found that other stakeholders believed gender, race, and class-related bias were
significant factors in why rape kits were not tested in Detroit.
There are automated fingerprint identification systems (AFIS) which can store millions of fingerprints (Saferstein, 2013) and,
similar to the process for DNA, can identify similar fingerprints from other crime scenes, known offenders, or a particular suspect.
Clothing is collected with the victim standing over a white cloth
so that any material dislodged from the clothing while it is being removed will be collected in the cloth.
Another study found that police are likely to be skeptical of cases
that do not adhere to the stereotypical rape formula, indicating a belief in rape myths
Page (2008) found that police officers who ranked higher on rape myth acceptance were less likely to say they would pursue an investigation where the victim did not fit the "genuine victim" stereotype;
that is, they were not virgins, had a relationship with the perpetrator, did not resist, or did not report the rape immediately
In response, law enforcement officers have utilized
the Internet for undercover operations
As discussed above, when a forensic medical exam is performed on a victim of a sexual offense,
the body is examined for the presence of all of these forms of evidence that might be left by the perpetrator.
One of the main advantages of DNA evidence is that when a match is obtained,
the chance of the DNA sample coming from another individual is lower than in many other forms of evidence.
After the victim is interviewed by the medical professional,
the collection of evidence will begin.
As noted above, when a sexual offense is reported to the police,
the first responder is usually a patrol officer.
Finally, for the sadistic rapist, who rapes to express sexually aggressive desires, there does not appear to be a most successful interviewing strategy; however,
the interviewer should be professional and competent in order to maximize cooperation
While the characteristics of a false allegation can also apply to a legitimate allegation of a sexual offense,
there are some factors more strongly associated with false reports
When injuries have been addressed,
the officers may begin collecting information that will be useful to other investigators.
In the case of a violent crime, as patrol officers are often the first type of professional to respond,
the officers must provide first aid if necessary and obtain medical help for those who may need it.
While rare, some false reports of sexual offenses include
the victim self-inflicting injuries and using props to support her claim
Assuming the police take a report regarding a sexual offense and the offense has occurred recently,
the victim will generally be taken for a forensic medical examination, often called a rape kit or a sexual assault kit.
Under some conditions police can misrepresent
their identity to suspects such that they might be more likely to confess.
By doing so, the suspect may feel that the consequences of hiding
their involvement in the more minor offense are too great, as they may be convicted of a more serious one
Despite protocol indicating that patrol officers should take reports, detectives should investigate, and then prosecutors should make charging decisions,
there are a number of areas where both patrol officers and detectives can determine the future of a complaint of sexual assault before it reaches the prosecutor
They can pose as minors online and wait for adults to solicit them in a proactive investigation;
they can take over the online account of a real minor who has been targeted and make contact with that suspect in a reactive investigation; or they can pose as someone dealing in child pornography
Studies of the percentage of false reports show
they occur quite rarely.
While there are rules investigators must follow to protect the constitutional rights of the suspects,
they tend to believe that these unfairly restrict what they can do and that the rules are more in favor of the suspect
The main way these tasks are accomplished is
through interviewing the victim.
Many types of evidence can be collected by crime scene technicians and analyzed by forensic scientists
to help identify suspects or corroborate a victim's statement that the sexual encounter was not consensual
The following are guidelines suggested by Burgess and Hazelwood (1993)
to improve the victim's experience with the interview and obtain quality information: -9 points
Victims of sexual offenses are often traumatized, have had their trust broken, are embarrassed and
unwilling to disclose details of the assault, and may feel that those around them are likely to judge them.
Since the mid-1980s deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) has proved to be one of the most
useful forensic tools in the investigator's arsenal.
Regardless of the causal process, victims who felt "vulnerable, uncomfortable, and guarded" with police at the beginning of the interview
were less likely to be involved in a case where charges were filed than when the victim felt comfortable and safe
Overall, in this study, police officer attitudes
were more similar to rapists' attitudes than citizens' or counselors' attitudes (
After a detective has obtained all the facts and there is a suspect identified, he or she may hand the case over to a prosecutor; however,
when these changes in the story are recorded it is less likely that a prosecutor will file charges against the suspect.
To complete a rape kit, the victim is transported to a local hospital or other medical facility
where a doctor, nurse, or a specialized sexual assault nurse examiner (SANE) can collect evidence and provide certain kinds of medical treatment
Once the DNA profile is developed, it is entered into the Combined DNA Index System (CODIS),
where it can be matched to DNA profiles obtained from other crime scenes, known offenders, and/ or a suspect in the sex offense from which evidence was obtained.
The victim's body is also examined for any injuries,
which are documented on the forensic medical examiner's report, as well as photographed
The victim's body is then examined for debris as well as for dried or moist secretions,
which can be swabbed and collected as evidence.
If the mark is swabbed before the victim washes, the teeth marks and the area inside them, where the offender's tongue would have contacted the victim's skin, can contain saliva,
which can be used to develop a DNA profile
Before beginning a forensic medical examination, the medical professional will take a history from the victim,
which includes medical information as well as other details relevant to the collection of evidence, such as whether the victim has recently been sexually active.
The second method is restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP),
which involves cutting sections of DNA and multiplying them to create a profile
Often forensic medical examinations will include the use of a colposcope,
which is a magnifying device that allows the medical professional to observe injuries that might be missed with the naked eye.
Another technique to observe genital injuries includes the use of toluidine blue dye,
which is applied to the external genitalia and then washed off, with the dye then adhering to any areas of broken skin. -These areas are also photographed
Each item of clothing is placed in a separate paper bag,
which is labeled and sealed
Shaw and Campbell (2013) also found that non-White victims were more likely to have their rape kits submitted for analysis than White victims,
which is not what would be expected if the cases that are taken most seriously are more likely to have evidence submitted for analysis.
These individuals should be separated so that they do not have the opportunity to discuss their version of event
which may lead to some alteration of their stories
The victim is also examined using an alternate light source,
which will cause body fluids to fluoresce (emit light), and those areas should be swabbed as well
Several strategies can help the police officer obtain the most useful information
while also allowing the victim to feel as at ease as possible.
Some evidence indicates that police may not treat all rape victims the same,
with those perceived to have questionable moral characters or who were engaged in risky behavior being viewed less sympathetically by police
