CMST 342: Global Communications

Globalization quote by Dominique Strauss-Kahn, former International Monetary Fund Managing Director

"We can't speak day after day about globalization without at the same time having in mind that...we need multilateral solutions."

the popularisation of international travel the expansion of international sport

The acceleration of international conferences; the international expansion of educational institutions, congresses and seminars; the exchange of students between countries; ___ and ___ further increased contact and communication between the peoples of the world

True or False The borders of nation states have become increasingly porous, as governments are no longer able to control the flow of capital and information across their borders.

True

True or False The complexity of a networked system, ranging from the social to the economic, to the political, is associated with its structural topology. Interdependencies are critical for understanding the trade-offs between efficiency and robustness in such systems. While public debate questions whether the public or private sector should be regulated, reformed, or ultimately empowered, the role of the interdependencies of these sectors with their global counterpart is a crucial dimension in the system behavior yet often overlooked. Whether by over-centralizing or by excessively densifying dependencies, a poor design can lead to the collapse of the whole system.

True

According to the Committee for Development Policy (a subsidiary body of the United Nations), from an economic point of view, globalization can be defined as:

"(...) the increasing interdependence of world economies as a result of the growing scale of cross-border trade of commodities and services, the flow of international capital and the wide and rapid spread of technologies. It reflects the continuing expansion and mutual integration of market frontiers (...) and the rapid growing significance of information in all types of productive activities and marketization are the two major driving forces for economic globalization."

How Do We Make Globalization More Just?

According to Christine Lagarde, former President of the International Monetary Fund, "debates about trade and access to foreign goods are as old as society itself " and history tells us that closing borders or protectionism policies are not the way to go, as many countries doing it have failed.

container theory of society.

According to this theory, societies both politically and theoretically presuppose 'state control of space', so that sociology here aligns itself with the regulatory authority or power of the national state.

acrimony

Even before the virus, there were indications of both a pause and a modest pullback in globalization. Last year, global trade contracted a smidgen, by less than 1%, but at $19 trillion, it was still higher than any year before the record-setting 2018. As for China and the U.S., the dual effect of the Trump administration's tariffs and the assertive nationalism of Xi Jinping put a brake on further integration. Data from the U.S. Census Bureau show that the total value of trade in goods between the two countries declined from $630 billion in 2017 to $560 billion in 2019. Even so, this pullback just puts the U.S. and China back at the trade level of 2013. And that amount, it should be noted, is almost five times what it was in 2001. In short, even after two years of trade war and diplomatic ____, the key axis of globalization was dented, but only barely.

ITU stands for

International Telecommunication Union

INTELSAT stands for

International Telecommunications Satellite Consortium

'global localization

It is no wonder, then, that this local-global nexus plays a central role in corporate calculation. Coca-Cola and Sony, for example, describe their strategy as _____'. Their bosses and managers stress that the point of globalization is not to build factories everywhere in the world, but to become part of the respective culture. 'Localism' is what they call this strategy, which gains importance with the spread of globalization.

global communication

It seems an opportune moment, at the beginning of a new millennium, to reflect not only on the development and current state of ____, but also on international communication as a field of study within the discipline of communication science. We not only aim to provide a brief overview of recent developments and trends in ______, but also to reflect on attempts to theorise both the processes involved as well as the impact of the vast developments and wide-ranging changes that characterise _____ in our age. In this sense the article aims to represent a kind of critical stock-taking exercise of the shifting theories, paradigms and foci of interest in international communication. We hope that this discussion will whet the reader's appetite for more in-depth discourses on important issues in international communication in which we hope to participate in follow-up articles. However, the phenomenon of ____ as we know it today is essentially the result of technological advances. It probably started with the development of advanced transport technology such as the steam engine and the internal combustion engine. ). Currently it is primarily driven by the worldwide proliferation of advanced information and communication technologies (ICTs). The developments that gave rise to ____ as we know it in the first decade of the 21st century started to evolve in the period between the two world wars The term ____' is also reflected in the titles of books such as ____ in the 21st century (Stevenson 1994) and ____and world politics (Tehranian 1999). Hamelink (1994: 2) prefers to employ the term 'world communication', as it is more inclusive of both state and non-state actors.

TNC

Transnational Corporations

True or False We have strong evidence that globalization has had a positive impact on the GDP of advanced and emerging economies. All of the 42 countries surveyed in our 2018 Globalization report have reaped dividends from their growing integration in the world economy since 1990.

True

True or False globalization is not so much about loving or hating. It is about understand and shaping. Given its enormous potential for economic gains, it would be a waste to categorically turn our backs on it - be it for political, social, or cultural reasons.

True

Likewise in the ___ — which pledged more than $480 million at the teleconference — the pharmaceutical giant AstraZeneca said it "will prioritize the ____" if its promising trial yields results.

U.K.

UK stands for

United Kingdom

What does UNESCO stand for?

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

Spiral of destruction

, through which all such phenomena could culminate in one huge, overarching crisis.

The Negative Effects of Globalization examples

1. Economic 2. Environment

The territorial trap

Beck discussed society that was conceptualized earlier and talks about the container theory of society refers to it as

container theory of society

Debates of recent years have severely shaken the axioms of a sociology of the first modernity focused on the national state. But its programmed vision—most of all in organized research and a number of long-standing controversies—remains dominant particularly in Germany. And what this _____ permits, or indeed compels, is a return to the origins of sociology in the formative period of the nation-state in nineteenth-and early twentieth-century Europe.

hree kinds of global threat may be distinguished.

First, there are conflicts over the 'bad' other side of various 'goods': that is, ecological destruction and technological-industrial dangers caused by affl uence (the ozone hole and greenhouse eff ect, but also the unpredictable and incalculable consequences of genetic engineering and reproduc-tive medicine). Second, there are ecological destruction and technological-industrial dangers caused by poverty. The Brundtland Commission was the first to point out, in 1987, that en-vironmental destruction was not only the dangerous shadow of modern growth but also its exact opposite, because it was closely correlated with poverty. 'Inequality is the earth's most important "environmental" problem,' it stated, 'as well as its most important "development" problem.' From an integrated analysis of population and nutrition, loss of species and genetic resources, energy, industry and human settle-ment, it follows that all these things are interrelated and cannot be treated separately from one another. 'However,' writes Michael Zürn, there is a crucial diff erence between environmental destruction as a result of prosperity and environmental destruction as a result of poverty. Whereas many ecological dangers caused by affluence are the result of an externaliza-tion of production costs, ecological destruction caused by poverty involves self-destruction of the poor that also has side-eff ects for the rich. In other words, environmental destruction caused by affluence is distributed evenly across the globe, whereas environmental destruction caused by poverty mainly occurs at a certain time and place and only becomes international in the form of medium-term side-eff ects. The best-known example of this is the depletion of the tropical rainforest, currently running at a rate of some 17 million hectares per annum. Other examples are toxic waste (including waste imported from other countries) and obsolete large-scale technologies (e.g. in the chemical or atomic industry), and in future also genetic engineering and related research. These dangers result from a context of modernization processes begun but not completed. Industries develop with the potential to endanger the environment and life, but individual countries lack the institutional and political means to ward off the threat of destruction. The dangers caused by either affluence or poverty are what might be called dangers of 'normality', which are constantly brought into the world through a lack of adequate safety provisions. Another, third type of danger comes from weapons ofmass destruction (ABC weapons)—that is, from their possible use in the exceptional situation of war, not just from their deterrent capacity. Even after the end of the East-West conflict, the dangers of regional or global self-destruction by nuclear, chemical or biologicalweapons have by no means disappeared; indeed, they have broken out of the control structure of a superpower 'atomic pact'.

nostalgia for the present

In a further globalizing twist on what Fredric Jameson has recently called "____" (1989), these Filipinos look back to a world they have never lost. This is one of the central ironies of the politics of global cultural flows, especially in the arena of entertainment and leisure. It plays havoc with the hegemony of Eurochronology. American nostalgia feeds on Filipino desire represented as a hypercompetent repro-duction. Here, we have nostalgia without memory. The paradox, of course, has its explanations, and they are historical, unpacked, they lay bare the story of the American missionization and political rape of the Philippines, one result of which has been the creation of a nation of make-believe Americans, who tolerated for so long a leading lady who played the piano while the slums of Manila expanded and decayed. Perhaps the most radical postmodernists would argue that this is hardly surprising because in the peculiar chronicities of late capitalism, pastiche and nostalgia are central modes of image production and reception. Americans themselves are hardly in the present anymore as they stumble into the megatechnologies of the twenty-first century garbed in the film-noir scenarios of sixties chills, fifties diners, forties' clothing, thirties houses, twenties dances, and so on ad infinitum. As far as the United States is concerned, one might suggest that the issue is no longer one of nostalgia but of a social imaginaire built largely around reruns. Jameson was bold to link the politics of nostalgia to the postmodern commodity sensibility, and surely he was right (1983). The drug wars in Colombia recapitulate the tropical sweat of Vietnam, with Ollie North and his succession of masks—Jimmy Stewart concealing John Wayne concealing Spiro Agnew and all of them transmogrifying into Sylvester Stallone, who wins in Afghanistan—thus simultaneously fulfilling the secret American envy of Soviet imperialism and the rerun (this time with a happy ending) of the Vietnam War. The Rolling Stones, approaching their fifties, gyrate before eighteen-year-olds who do not appear to need the machinery of nostalgia to be sold on their parents heroes. Paul McCartney is selling the Beatles to a new audience by hitching his oblique nostalgia to their desire for the new that smacks of the old. Dragnet is back in nineties' drag, and so is Adam-12 not to speak of Batman and Mission Impossible, all dressed up technologically but remarkably faithful to the atmospherics of their originals.

The MacBride report

In campaigning for greater equality and balance in news and communication flows, Third World nations' calls for a New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) resulted in the Brandt and MacBride Commissions and their respective reports ____ in particular, entitled Many voices, one world, published in October 1980 by UNESCO's International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems, generated wide-ranging debates on transnational media flows; norms and ethics within the communication professions; the role of communication technologies; and the social, cultural and democratic impact of the media. The most far-reaching of the 82 recommendations of the report dealt with the democratisation of communication. The Commission acknowledged that the democratisation of communication is hindered by undemocratic systems of governance (involving, among others, excessive bureaucracy) as well as by a lack of appropriate technologies and illiteracy. In order to create a more balanced and equal international communication environment, the Commission proposed the participation of the public and their representatives in media management as well as the fostering of horizontal communication and counter information. It also propagated three forms of alternative communication: radical opposition, local or community media movements, as well as trade unions. It furthermore coupled press freedom and the right to self-expression with the rights to communicate and receive information, the rights to reply and make correction, as well as the social and cultural rights of communities. A central theme of the report - as reflected in the title - is that the media should serve social and cultural development and contribute to cultural and social understanding. Thus the notion of diversity is emphasised as a prerequisite for a more balanced and culturally fulfilling international communication environment. However, the report points out that, in order to promote dialogue between equals in which all nations and people participate, opportunities and resources should be spread more equally Whilst the ____ was hailed by Third World nations as the first document to bring world communication problems to the fore, it was denounced by Western-based media institutions for its criticism of private media and communication ownership, and the social problems that result from advertising. Western nations, led by the USA, perceived the NWICO as an attempt to propagate state regulation of the media - a notion perceived to be in conflict with liberal Western values and the principle of the free flow of information. The NWICO was furthermore blamed for curtailing media freedom and the freedom of speech while promoting the reinforcement of authoritarian political censorship. In essence, Western opposition to the NWICO reflected a need to ensure that government-controlled public media would not be promoted at the expense of the private media sector. The USA demonstrated its opposition by withdrawing its aid from the UNESCO-supported International Programme for the Development of Communication (IPDC) culminating, finally, in its withdrawal from UNESCO itself - a move followed by the United Kingdom a year later.

'sociology of globalization'.

It is no exaggeration to say that this is precisely the dividing-line between old 'world-system' approaches and the new, culturally attuned____

Explain Transnational social space and give an example.

Mixteca Poblana, support committees were organized in New York

NATO stands for

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

Theories of the information society

One of the most recent theoretical strands to develop, is that of the 'information society'. The term emerged in the 1990s to coincide with the explosive development and global expansion of ICTs and the Internet in particular. Proponents of the idea of an ____believe that new possibilities for the processing, storage and transmission of information have created an international information society that will, in the end, digitally link every home, office and business via the Internet - the network of all networks. These networks are the information highways that represent the infrastructure of the ____ . Information is regarded as a commodity that represents a key strategic resource in the international economy. The power, status and level of development of nation states, organisations, collectivities and individuals are largely determined by their access to and ability to control and/or dominate information highways. Economic growth is furthermore perceived as a function of the spread of information technologies throughout the economy and society The growing informatisation and interconnectedness of economies have furthermore contributed to the integration of national and regional economies, thereby resulting in the creation of a global economy. Thus information has created both a new social and economic order. Researchers and analysts such as Daniel Bell, Wilson Dizard, John Naisbitt and Alvin Toffler hold that society has moved through three stages, namely the agricultural age, the industrial age and, finally, the information age - the so-called 'third wave' the information age is not merely characterised by the use of more information, but that a qualitatively different type of information has become available. The trilogy The information age by the Spanish theorist, Manuel Castells, represents a further significant input in theorising the information society Castells uses the term 'network society' where information technology forms the core driver of a new information technology paradigm, and argues that informational capitalism is increasingly operating on a global basis through exchanges by means of electronic linkages between circuits (linking local, regional and national information systems). These linkages bypass the authorities of nation states and play a central role in establishing regional and supranational units. Thus a new kind of relationship between economy, state and society is emerging. Most proponents assume that the processes associated with the global spread of ICTs and the creation of an information society will have positive social and economic consequences as they will, among others, raise productivity; spread information and promote knowledge; foster the democratisation of society; and in general enhance quality of life However, current theoretical contributions on the information society are criticised on various accounts. They are, among others, accused of simplistic technological determinism that tends to ignore the social, economic and political dimensions of technological innovation. Another contentious issue in discourses on the information society is the so-called 'digital divide' or the information-rich versus information-poor debates (Arunachalam 1999). Disparities between the centre and the periphery with regard to access to ICTs (and therefore also to information highways) are believed to have far-reaching implications for developing countries and make it more difficult for them to compete with the developed world on various levels, and to participate in the information society. Thus the North-South disparity remains a central focus in debates on international communication

technological

Rosenau also diff ers from Wallerstein in seeing the ____ dimension and dynamic of globalization as the root of the passage from a politics dominated by national states to a polycentric politics. His theoretical political studies have taught him again and again that international ties of dependence have acquired a new density and significance. The reason for this, in his view, is the enormous and still continuing upsurge of information and communications technology.

McDonaldization

Robertson, Appadurai, Albrow, Featherstone, Lash, Urry and many others argue within the tradition of cultural theory. Strongly opposing the widespread notion of a '_____' of the planet, they insist that cultural globalization does not mean the world is becoming culturally homogeneous. Rather, it involves a process of 'glocalization', which is highly contradictory both in content and in its multiple con-sequences. Two of the most problematic eff ects for the stratification of world society should be briefly examined: the problem of global wealth, local poverty (Bauman), and the problem of capitalism without work. . The keyword here has become ____. According to this view, there is an ever greater uniformity of lifestyles, cultural symbols and transnational modes of behaviour. In the villages of Lower Bavaria, just as in Calcutta, Singapore or the favelas of Rio de Janeiro, people watch Dallas on TV, wear blue jeans and smoke Marlboro as a sign of 'free, untouched nature'. In short, a global culture industry increasingly signifies the convergence of cultural symbols and ways of life. The chairman of Euro-Disneyland puts it like this: 'Disney's characters are universal. You try and convince an Italian child that Topolino—the Italian name for Mickey Mouse—is American! Obviously you would stand no chance. These inherent boundaries of linear cultural globalization, understood as uniform '___' of the world, may be visualized in the following extreme case. A single world culture pushed to its outer limits, where local cultures die out and everyone consumes, eats, sleeps, loves, dresses, argues and dreams in accordance with a single schema (however neatly divided by income group), would spell the end of the market, the end of profits. A world capitalism shaken by sales crises has a special need for local diversity and contrast, as a means of surviving competition through product and market innovation. Nevertheless, delocation and relocation do not automatically mean renaissance of the local. To put it in terms familiar in Bavaria, we could say that the celebration of 'veal sausage', 'Löwenbrau beer' and 'lederhosen' does not off er salvation in the transition to the global era. Let us sum up. British and American observers ofthe global scenery who received a train-ing in cultural theory have taken leave of what might be called the '____ of the world' thesis. It is agreed that globalization does not necessarily bring about cultural uniformity, and that the mass production of cultural symbols and information does not lead to the emergence of anything like a 'global culture'. Rather, the develop-ing glocal scenery should be seen as a blatantly ambivalent 'imagining of possible lives' that permits a multiplicity of combinations. Indeed, for the purposes of one's life and group identities, sharply varying and motley collections are put together out of that range of possibilities.

economic globalization

The process toward a growing integration of national economies.

denied or 'repressed' threats

The very diff erent ways in which all the previously mentioned authors deploy the concept of a post-national social reality have one essential point in common: they all start from the premise that transnational social spaces emerge only as a result of deliberate action; or, to put it less strongly, they assume the existence of purposive actors and institutions. The theory of world risk society, by contrast, does not make this assumption. It maintains that it is no longer possible to externalize the side-eff ects and dangers of highly developed industrial societies; that the associated risk-conflicts place a question mark over the whole institutional structure. It will be further argued below that transnational social spaces also come about conflictually and mysteriously through unintended, _____, 'behind people's backs', as it were. This view appears to run straight up against the objection that unintended conse-quences must be known if they are to have any political eff ect. This cannot be denied. Yet the political, economic and cultural turmoil of world risk society can be understood only if one recognizes that publicly discussed dangers constitute a kind of 'negative currency'. They are coins that no one wants, but which find their way in nevertheless, compel people's attention, confuse and subvert. They turn upside down precisely what appeared to be solidly anchored in everyday normality. One has only to think of the tragicomedy of mad cow disease in Europe. In the summer of 1997 in Upper Bavaria—a region protected from the supposedly British source of the danger by several frontiers and promises of police action—a visitor could drop into a pub-restaurant, open the menu and see a smiling local farmer in cosy harmony with his cattle and children. This photograph, and the advice that the steak of one's fancy would come from the cow in the picture, were supposed to restore the confidence that the ubiquitous reports of 'British' mad cow disease had shattered.

The public sphere

Theories of the ____ have been a major issue in media studies in particular. The concept of a '_____' was developed by the German sociologist, Jürgen Habermas. As an exponent of the school of critical theorists, he also bemoans the standardisation, massification and automisation of the masses due to the manipulation of public discourse by bureaucratic and economic interests such as advertising, marketing and public relations. The central concept of this theory, the ____, is defined as an arena where a community of individuals is drawn together by participating in rational-critical debate It developed from the representative ____ during the feudal era, to the bourgeois ____in the modern era. These developments happened against the background of the developing capitalist economy and the establishment of the bourgeois constitutional state, and reflect the changing power relations between the monarch and his/her subjects due to the democratisation of the state and the growth of capitalism. Society became separated from the ruler and/or the state and the private realm was separated from the public. The ____ became the arena of contestation of the interests of the bourgeois civil society on the one hand, and the state on the other hand. It is here that the rules of exchange of social goods and ideas are debated and public opinion is formed. Habermas regards the modern ____ as an institutional location where the formal claims of democracy are debated. Furthermore, participants also develop rational-critical practices through which reasonable citizens can critically challenge the norms of the state and its monopoly on interpretation and institutions. The press, political parties and parliament became the main vehicles of this public discourse. The theory furthermore gives prominence to the role of information in the public discourse Greater freedom of the press, the wider availability of printing facilities and the development of new technologies that reduce the production costs of printed material have all served to stimulate rational-critical debate. Habermas's idealised vision of the____ involves greater accessibility to information and an open debate independent of capitalist interests and/or state apparatus - rational argument should be the sole arbiter of any issue. However, Habermas has identified a decline in the bourgeois ____ due to historical and economic developments since the 19th century. Especially in the 20th century, the growing power of information management and the manipulation of public opinion through public relations, lobbying and advertising firms have resulted in contemporary debates becoming 'faked versions' of the true ____Free and critical debate within the ____has also been undermined by intervention on the part of the state and other powerful interest groups, which manipulate public discourse and the social engineering of public opinion and cultural consumption. Habermas furthermore foresees one or other form of global political unit or cosmopolitan government as a solution for the multitude of problems associated with globalisation (see p. 37). He believes that, as is the case with supranational units like the European Union, global integration requires a global political culture shared by all world citizens. Thussu (2000) points to the fact that the globalisation of the media and of communication has indeed given rise to a so-called global public sphere, where issues of international importance - such as environmental degradation, human rights and gender equality - are articulated in the global media. Theories of the ____ have also met with criticism Firstly, they are criticised for their overridingly male, European and bourgeois emphases. The thesis of the refeudalisation of the ____has also been criticised for being one-sided and presenting an overly pessimistic view of modern society. The mediasation of modern culture can also not be regarded as refeudalisation. In contrast, the development of the media and ICTs has created new opportunities for the production and diffusion of images and messages - that is information - on an international scale. The refeudalisation theory also treats media users as passive consumers who are manipulated by clever techniques and numbed into the acquiescent consumption of mass media content. The emphasis on rational-critical debate and the neutralising effects of national consciousness, as well as European and global identities, furthermore points to the avoidance of and/or inability to deal with identity politics and concerns of difference. The ____ has nevertheless proved to be a useful concept to explain and understand the effects of both national and international communication.

evolutionary self-image

This image of externally and internally differentiated societies, constituted by individual national states, goes together with the _____ and self-consciousness of modern societies.

after the second half of the 20th century

This phenomenon has continued throughout history, notably through military conquests and exploration expeditions. But it wasn't until technological advances in transportation and communication that globalization speeded up. It was particularly _____ that world trades accelerated in such a dimension and speed that the term "globalization" started to be commonly used.

collective identities

This schema applies not only outwardly but also on the inside. The internal space of outwardly separable societies is subdivided into a number of totalities which, on the one hand, are conceptualized and analysed

Deterritorialization

____, in general, is one of the central forces of the modern world because it brings laboring populations into the lower-class sectors and spaces of relatively wealthy societies, while sometimes creating exaggerated and intensified senses of criticism or attachment to politics in the home state. ___, whether of Hindus, Sikhs, Palestinians, or Ukrainians, is now at the core of a variety of global fundamentalisms, including Islamic and Hindu fundamentalism. In the Hindu case, for example, it is clear that the overseas movement of Indians has been exploited by a variety of interests both within and outside India to create a complicated network of finances and religious identifications, by which the problem of cultural reproduction for Hindus abroad has become tied to the politics of Hindu fundamentalism at home. At the same time, _____ creates new markets for film companies, art impresarios, and travel agencies, which thrive on the need of the deterritorialized population for contact with its homeland. Naturally, these invented homelands, which constitute the mediascapes of deterritorialized groups, can often become sufficiently fantastic and one-sided that they provide the material for new ideoscapes in which ethnic conflicts can begin to erupt. The creation of Khalistan, an invented homeland of the deterritorialized Sikh population of England, Canada, and the United States, is one example of the bloody potential in such mediascapes as they interact with the internal colonialisms of the nation-state (e.g., Hechter 1975). The West Bank, Namibia, and Eritrea are other theaters for the enactment of the bloody negotiation between existing nation-states and various deterritorialized groupings It is in the fertile ground of detemtorialization, in which money, commodities, and persons are involved in ceaselessly chasing each other around the world, that the mediascapes and ideoscapes of the modem world find their fractured and fragmented counterpart. For the ideas and images produced by mass media often are only partial guides to the goods and experiences that detemtorialized populations transfer to one another. In Mira Nair's brilliant film India Cabaret, we see the multiple loops of this fractured ____ as young women, barely competent in Bombay's metro-politan glitz, come to seek their fortunes as cabaret dancers and prostitutes in Bombay, entertaining men in clubs with dance formats derived wholly from the prurient dance sequences of Hindi films. These scenes in turn cater to ideas about Western and foreign women and their looseness, while they provide tawdry career alibis for these women. Some of these women come from Kerala, where cabaret clubs and the pornographic film industry have blossomed, partly in response to the purses and tastes of Keralites returned from the Middle East, where their diasporic lives away from women distort their very sense of what the relations between men and women might be. These trag-edies of displacement could certainly be replayed in a more detailed analysis of the relations between the Japanese and German sex tours to Thailand and the tragedies of the sex trade in Bangkok, and in other similar loops that tie together fantasies about the Other, the conveniences and seductions of travel, the economics of global trade, and the brutal mobility fantasies that dominate gender politics in many parts of Asia and the world at large. While far more could be said about the cultural politics of _____ and the larger sociology of displacement that it expresses, it is appropriate at this juncture to bring in the role of the nation-state in the disjunctive global economy of culture today. The relationship between states and nations is everywhere an embattled one. It is possible to say that in many societies the nation and the state have become one another's projects. That is, while nations (or more properly groups with ideas about nationhood) seek to capture or co-opt states and state power, states simultaneously seek to capture and monopolize ideas about nationhood In general, separatist transnational movements, including those that have included terror in their methods, exemplify nations in search of states. Sikhs, Tamil Sri Lankans, Basques, Moros, Quebecois—each of these represents imagined communities that seek to create states of their own or carve pieces out of existing states. States, on the other hand, are everywhere seeking to monopolize the moral resources of community, either by flatly claiming perfect coevality between nation and state, or by systematically museumizing and representing all the groups within them in a variety of heritage politics that seems remarkably uniform throughout the world

Tedmoscapes

cross-border movements of new and old technologies, based on both machines and computers

The central problem of today's global interactions is the tension between ____ and _____

cultural homogenization and cultural heterogenization.

Dozens of countries, including Canada, Japan, Israel and Saudi Arabia, teamed up with organizations such as the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation in pledging $8 billion toward a global fund for vaccines, treatments and testing. "This will be a unique global public good of the 21st century," the leaders said in a joint statement, committing to making any vaccine "available, accessible and affordable to all." After a pandemic that has ____, torpedoed world travel and sparked international arguments over exports of medical equipment, it was a rare moment of cross-border cooperation.

fragmented global supply chains

The veteran U.S. market commentator Gary Shilling says, "The coronavirus's depressing effects on the global economy and disruptions of supply chains is...driving the last nail into the coffin of the _____"

globalists

process of localization

never tires of emphasizing that globalization always also involves a .____

Since the G20 leaders represent

political backbone of the global financial architecture that secures open markets, orderly capital flows, and a safety net for countries in difficulty

the G20 gathers the most important industrialized and developing economies to discuss international economic and financial stability. Together, the nations of the G20 account for

round 80% of global economic output, nearly 75 percent of all global trade, and about two-thirds of the world's population.

transnational problems

such as climate change, drugs, AIDS, ethnic conflicts and currency crises determine the political agenda;

While establishing connections may increase the complexity of the economy, it also increases the risks of cascading failure due to a potential excess of interconnections. We define _____ as the case when the network productivity drops below the reference level of the system working in the absence of network connectivity (i.e., having established any connection where information or goods are exchanged).

systemic collapse

One of the effects of globalization is

that it promotes and increases interactions between different regions and populations around the globe.

'Modern' sociology

the 'modern' science of 'modern' society. This both conceals and helps to gain acceptance for a classificatory schema that we might call the container theory ofsociety.

True or False Regulations for building borders and protecting the market are being debated after a prolonged period of increasing deregulation. Understanding and managing these issues is a challenge for both scientists and policy-makers. This confrontation can be explained by the complexity of social systems, which arises from the structural patterns of social interdependencies. How people self-organize and behave has historically become increasingly complex across multiple civilizations. From a scientific perspective, traditional methods are insufficient for thorough modeling of such complexity In this regard, the _____ provides tools for understanding the behavior of social systems by decomposing them into small parts and analyzing the structure of their relationships

theory of complex systems

native soil'

to claim rights both to natural resources and to national sovereignty.

TNCs stands for

transnational corporations

True or False The world we live in now seems rhizomic , even schizophrenic, calling for theories of rootlessness, alienation, and psychological distance between individuals and groups on the one hand, and fantasies (or nightmares) of electronic propinquity on the other. Here, we are close to the central problematic of cultural processes in today's world.

true

True or False it is often thanks to bilateral meetings during summits that major international agreements are achieved and that globalization is able to move forward.

true

The two main forces for sustained cultural interaction before this century have been

warfare (and the large-scale political systems sometimes generated by it) and religions of conversion, which have sometimes, as in the case of Islam, taken warfare as one of the legitimate instruments of their expansion. Thus, between travelers and merchants, pilgrims and conquerors, the world has seen much long-distance (and long-term) cultural traffic. This much seems self-evident.

Robertson's analysis of 'glocal' cultures has been taken further by Arjun Appadurai, who affirms and theorizes the relative autonomy and distinctive logic of a glocal culture and economy. In this connection Appadurai speaks of ethnoscapes or 'landscapes of people' such as tourists, immigrants, refugees, exiles, Gastarbeiter and other groups on the move, which mark the unsettled, friable world in which we live. They and their physical restlessness set up major impulses toward a change in politics within and be-tween nations; they are one aspect of the face of global culture. Alongside ethnoscapes, Appadurai also identifies and describes:

• Tedmoscapes: cross-border movements of new and old technologies, based on both machines and computers. • Financescapes: huge sums of money moving between countries with incredible speed, by means of currency markets, national stock exchanges and speculative enterprises. • Mediascapes: the distribution of opportunities for the production and dissemina-tion of electronic images. • Ideoscapes: the interlinking of images, often in connection with state or opposi-tion ideologies and ideas which have their roots in the Enlightenment.

True or False For some people, this global phenomenon is inherent to human nature. Because of this, some say globalization begun about 60,000 years ago, at the beginning of human history. Throughout time, human societies' exchanging trade has been growing. Since the old times, different civilizations have developed commercial trade routes and experienced cultural exchanges. And as well, the migratory phenomenon has also been contributing to these populational exchanges. Especially nowadays, since traveling became quicker, more comfortable, and more affordable.

True

In the meaning of communication for singular means usually refers to the meaning of

to the process between the meaning and creation between individuals and focuses on interpersonal aspects of human interaction such as. 1. motivations 2. emotions 3. stereotypes, 4. prejudices

Appadurai extends the ideas expressed in the previous chapter Globalization cannot be understood by nations or states because

today the world involves interaction of new order and intensity.

Do you agree with the following statement Transnational social spaces cancel the local associations of community that are contained in the national concept of society

No

What does the NGO mean and give an example

Non-governmental organization 1. Doctors without borders 2. Oxfam 3. Greenpeace

True or False Many world leaders, decision-makers and influential people have spoken about globalization. Some stand out its positive benefits and others focus deeper on its negative effects.

True

Cultural globalization

refers to the interpenetration of cultures which, as a consequence, means nations adopt principles, beliefs, and costumes of other nations, losing their unique culture to a unique, globalized supra-culture;

Political globalization

the development and growing influence of international organizations such as the UN or WHO means governmental action takes place at an international level. There are other bodies operating a global level such as NGOs like Doctors without borders or Oxfam;

According to WHO, globalization can be defined as

the increased interconnectedness and interdependence of peoples and countries. It is generally understood to include two inter-related elements: the opening of international borders to increasingly fast flows of goods, services, finance, people and ideas; and the changes in institutions and policies at national and international levels that facilitate or promote such flows."

No more free, non-conformist information

'A cultural and social revolution is taking place as a result of economic globaliza-tion,' says a CNN spokesman. 'Employees in America are as much aff ected by this as the man in the street in Moscow or a manager in Tokyo. This means that what we do in and for America goes for everywhere in the world. Our news is global news.' ______? On the world information markets, a new gold-digging mood has been unleashing powerful movements of corporate con-centration. Observers see in this the beginning of the end for free, non-conformist information. And who with eyes to see could simply brush this fear aside?

five dimensions of global cultural flows that can be termed

(a) ethnoscapes. (b) mediascapes, (c) technoscapes, (d) nancescapes. and (e) ideoscapes.

Ecological devastation

(for example, floods in Bangladesh) may trigger mass migration which then leads in turn to military conflict. Or else, states threatened with military defeat in a war may, as a 'last resort', try to destroy both their own and other countries' atomic or chemical installations, thereby threatening nearby regions and cities with destruction. There are no limits to the nightmare scenarios of how the various dangers could all come together.

free flow of information

But if the newly acquired infrastructure is to be of real use to users, it must be possible for communications to circulate around the world without hindrance, as freely as the wind wafts over the oceans. This is the reason why the United States (the number-one producer of new technologies and the site of the major firms) has brought its full weight to bear in the pur-suit of deregulation and economic globalization, so that as many countries as possible will open their borders to the _____ —that is, to the giants of the US media and entertainment industry. Discourses on the notion of the '____' emerged during the Cold War when the international community was characterised by the bipolar division between capitalism and socialism . In initial debates on international communication, the free-flow principle was associated with, on the one hand, the antipathy of Western liberalism and capitalism to state regulation and censorship of the media, and their demands for an unrestrained flow of information (including - according to Thussu (2000) - Western propaganda). Marxists, on the other hand, argued for greater state regulation to control the flow of news and broadcasting materials into their societies. ___ discourse is deeply embedded in discourses on democracy In a democracy, the role of the mass media is believed to be to inform the electorate on public issues, to enlarge the base of participation in the political process and to watch over government behaviour. Proponents of a ___ base their arguments on the liberal discourse of the rights of individuals to freedom of opinion and expression. Systems of freedom of expression and information are regarded as central tenets of democracy and preconditions for the media to promote democracy. Debates on the freedom of information during the Cold War consequently focused largely on the international flow of news and broadcast materials. During the 1940s and 1950s the principles of the 'free marketplace of ideas' and the '____' not only became central components of US foreign policy, but were also endorsed in the United Nations Charter, the Universal Declaration on Human Rights and other related UNESCO declarations. However, whereas free-flow debates were predominantly an East-West issue in the period immediately following World War II, the 1960s saw a change in global power structures as the newly independent African and Asian nation states entered debates on international communication. Scholars also note that the West - the United States in particular - has indeed benefited from notions such as 'the free marketplace of ideas' and '____', and that these concepts evolved internationally in conjunction with global American and Western economic expansion and served to justify this expansion As the bulk of the world's media resources were concentrated in the West, the governments of Western countries and Western private enterprise had most to gain from an absence of restrictions to communication flow. Media and communicationrelated organisations used the free-flow principle to argue against trade barriers to the international distribution of their products and services, as well as against attempts to hinder news gathering within the territories of other countries. Western businesses, in turn, have been benefiting from the concomitant advertising and marketing of their products and services in foreign markets. The Western information and entertainment industries have furthermore served to champion the Western way of life as well as the values of capitalism and liberalism on the international stage. Thus the free-flow principle not only helped strengthen and consolidate the influence of the West in its ideological battle with the Soviet Union during the Cold War. In general, it has served to spread the Western doctrine - in particular that of the United States - to the international community and also to Third World countries.

Three common network representations

1. (a) centralized systems, the whole network is connected to a single node that is centrally located. are very sensitive to the malfunctioning of the central node, which is connected to most of the network and its eventual malfunctioning will spread easily across the whole system. Such malfunctioning can come from its behavior or by propagating the failure of any of its neighbors. In 2. (b) decentralized systems, the links between nodes are distributed among hubs located at different parts of the network. Finally, 3. (c) in distributed systems, the links between nodes are equally distributed along with the network. Likewise, systems such the shown in (c) whose connections are distributed equally across all nodes, may be very vulnerable to the propagation of failures only if the number of interdependencies exceeds a certain threshold and the system becomes too connected.

As we have already intimated, a basic dispute runs like a red thread through the globalization literature. The question of the impetus behind globalization finds two contrasting answers (each in turn taking a number of diff erent forms).

1. The first group of authors point to the existence of one dominant 'logic' of globalization, 2. while others work with theories that suggest a phenomenon with a complex set of causes. This central theoretical controversy, by the way, entails that the word 'globalization' does not have a single horizon of meaning, that indeed often contradictory meanings are associated with it.

What further steps can we take toward a general theory of global cultural processes based on these proposals?

1. The first is to note that our very models of cultural shape will have to alter, as configurations of people, place, and heritage lose all semblance of isomorphism. Recent work in anthropology has done much to free us of the shackles of highly localized, boundary-oriented, holistic, primordialist images of cultural form and substance But not very much has been put in their place, except somewhat larger if less mechanical versions of these images, as in Eric Wolf's work on the relationship of Europe to the rest of the world (1982). What I would like to propose is that we begin to think of the configuration of cultural forms in today's world as fundamentally fractal, that is, as possessing no Euclidean boundaries, structures, or regularities. 2. Second, I would suggest that these cultural forms, which we should strive to represent as fully fractal, are also overlapping in ways that have been discussed only in pure mathematics (in set theory, for example) and in biology (in the language of polythetic classifications). Thus we need to combine a fractal metaphor for the shape of cultures (in the plural) with a polythetic account of their overlaps and resemblances. Without this latter step, we shall remain mired in comparative work that relies on the clear separation of the entities to be compared before serious comparison can begin. How are we to compare fractally shaped cultural forms that are also polythetically overlapping in their coverage of terrestrial space? 3. Finally, in order for the theory of global cultural interactions predicated on disjunc-tive flows to have any force greater than that of a mechanical metaphor, it will have to move into something like a human version of the theory that some scientists are calling chaos theory. That is, we will need to ask not how these complex, overlapping, fractal shapes constitute a simple, stable (even if large-scale) system, but to ask what its dynamics are: Why do ethnic riots occur when and where they do? Why do states wither at greater rates in some places and times than in others? Why do some countries flout conventions of international debt repayment with so much less apparent worry than others? How are international arms flows driving ethnic battles and genocides? Why are some states exiting the global stage while others are clamoring to get in? Why do key events occur at a certain point in a certain place rather than in others? These are, of course, the great traditional questions of causality, contingency, and prediction in the human sciences, but in a world of disjunctive global flows, it is perhaps important to start asking them in a way that relies on images of flow and uncertainty, hence chaos. rather than on older images of order, stability, and systematicness. Otherwise, we will have gone far toward a theory of global cultural systems but thrown out process in the bargain. And that would make these notes part of a journey toward the kind of illusion of order that we can no longer aff ord to impose on a world that is so transparently volatile.

two arenas of world society:

1. a community of states, in which the rules of diplomacy and national power remain the key variables; and a world of 2. transnational subpolitics, in which such diverse players as multinational corporations,

This disjunctive relationship between nation and state has two levels:

1. at the level of any given nation-state, it means that there is a battle of the imagination, with state and nation seeking to cannibalize one another. Here is the seedbed of brutal separatisms—majoritarianisms that seem to have ap-peared from nowhere and microidentities that have become political projects within the nation-state. 2. At another level, this disjunctive relationship is deeply entangled with the global disjunctures discussed throughout this chapter ideas of nationhood appear to be steadily increasing in scale and regularly crossing existing state boundaries, sometimes, as with the Kurds, because previous identities stretched across vast national spaces or, as with the Tamils in Sri Lanka, the dormant threads of a transnational diaspora have been activated to ignite the micropolitics of a nation-state.

the combination of components provided by multiple agents is the basis for the growth of ____ and ____

1. economic complexity 2. innovation

Galtung distinguishes five forms of imperialism depending on the nature of exchange relationships:

1. economic, 2. political, 3. military, 4. communication 5. cultural Together these forms of imperialism constitute a syndrome of imperialism and reinforce (through various channels) the dominance of the centre over the periphery. Communication imperialism is, among others, related to media imperialism, disparities in the flow of news as well as inequalities in access to ICT infrastructure which ultimately results in cultural imperialism. Information flows from the centre to the periphery and back again. For example, regions, nation states and collectivities in the Third World receive news from the Northern countries via transnational news agencies, but little information from other countries in the Third World. Third World societies consequently have little information about neighbouring countries that has not been filtered through the media systems of the North

The establishment of connections and interdependencies may yield benefits and opportunities

1. for businesses 2. social organizations

Flawed nodes propagate errors to direct neighbors, affecting their abilities to be economically productive. The model is applied to multiple network topologies that differ in two different directions:

1. increasing the number of interdependencies among nodes The option (a) is evaluated by increasing the density of random connections among all the nodes of the network such it happens in unregulated free markets 2. reinforcing the centralization of the network. The option (b) is evaluated by increasing the number of connections only just in the central nodes

Rosenau's argument thus combines two factors:

1. the advent of the information and science society, 2. and its overcoming of distance and frontiers as a result of the multiplication of transnational players and organizations.

______ that results from the establishment of interdependencies among the material parts after exceeding certain thresholds explains this system failure.

A fatigue process

experiences of a common destiny

A little while back, Fukuyama was still announcing the 'end of history'. Howard Perlmutter was right to counter this by talking of the beginnings of a history of global civilization, in which globalization becomes reflexive and thus gains a new historical quality that justifies the term 'world society'. For this presupposes _____, which is expressed in the quite incredible proximity of the faraway within a world without frontiers.

in less than 20 min.

A similar and popular myth in New York City says that someone standing in Times Square will probably meet an acquaintance ____

homogenization argument

A vast array of empirical facts could be brought to bear on the side of the ____, and much of it has come from the left end of the spectrum of media studies (Hamelink 1983; Mattelart 1983; Schiller 1976), and some from other perspectives (Cans 1985; Iyer 1988). Most often, the homogenization argument subspeciates into either an argument about Americanization or an argument about commoditization, and very often the two argu-ments are closely linked. What these arguments fail to consider is that at least as rapidly as forces from various metropolises are brought into new societies they tend to become indigenized in one or another way: this is true of music and housing styles as much as it is true of science and terrorism, spectacles and constitutions. The dynamics of such indigenization have just begun to be explored systemically and much more needs to be done. But it is worth noticing that for the people of Irian Java, lndonesianization may be more worrisome than Americanization, as Japanization may be for Koreans, Indianization for Sri Lankans, Vietnamization for the Cambodians, and Russianization for the people of Soviet Armenia and the Baltic republics. Such a list of alternative fears to Americanization could be greatly expanded, but it is not a shapeless inventory: for polities of smaller scale, there is always a fear of cultural absorption by polities of larger scale, especially those that are nearby. One man's imagined community is another man's political prison.

ACFTA stands for

ASEAN-China Free Trade Area

Those who used to specialize only in telephones now want to make television too, and vice versa. All companies involved in networking, especially those which maintain a supply network (electricity, telephone, water, gas, railways, motorways, etc.), are in a gold-digging mood and trying to secure their share of the multimedia cake. These rivals do battle with one another in every part of the globe. The names of these giant firms, the new world rulers, are:

AT&T (the world-market leader in telephones), the duo formed by MCI (America's second-largest telephone network) and British Telecom, Sprint (the third-largest long-distance network inside the United States), Cable & Wireless (which controls Hong Kong Telecom, among others), Bell Atlantic, Nynex, US-West, TCI (the main cable television supplier), NTT (Japan's largest telephone company), Disney (which has now bought up ABC), Time Warner (which belongs to CNN), News Corp., IBM, Microsoft (the number one in software), Netscape, Intel, and so on.

global-local nexus

According to Bauman, the ____ does not simply permit or enforce new analytical-empirical modes of considering translocal cultures and lifeworlds; it actually splits the approaching world society. For Bauman, then, globalization and localization may be two sides of the same coin, but the two sections of the world's population live on diff erent sides and see only one of the sides—rather as people on earth see only one side of the moon. Some have the planet as their residence, while others are chained to the spot.

six other individuals

According to Frigyes Karinthy, two randomly selected individuals are potentially connected by an average sequence of ___

Grand Mosque (al-Haram),

According to the rules of the Meccan real estate market, the closer a property to the _____ the more expensive it is. Therefore, old buildings are wiped out from the area of Mecca's old town. The sites of historical events can only be located approximately. The house where the Prophet Muhammad was born is now a library, while other important sites are lost in the shade of skyscrapers. The Western-style towers obscuring the sky around the Haram have little to do either with Arabic, or with Islamic architecture. Some Muslim scholars see them as a sign of the Day of Judgement and quote a hadith of the Prophet Muhammed that predicts that the last day will come when the guardians of Mecca compete in building tall structures around al-Haram. Judging from the 600 meter tall high Royal Mecca Clock Tower - the world's largest clock face and second tallest skyscraper - that looms over the Grand Mosque from the south, the Day of Judgement is frightfully close.

container

All kinds of social practices—production, culture, language, labour market, capital, education—are stamped and standardized, defined and rationalized, by the national state, but at least are labelled as national economy, national language, literature, public life, history, and so on. The state establishes a territorial unit as a ____

distanciated' relations

Also emphasises the different forms of experience that characterise globalisation. People experience the global in their everyday situated lives within the local sphere the local sphere is penetrated and influenced by distant events. Thus the nature of structures in the local sphere is not only a presentation of what is visible on the scene, but also reflects so-called ____ Social relations are consequently disembedded from local contexts of interaction and stretch across time and spatial boundaries. According to Tomlinson there is a distinct difference between mass-mediated and non-mass-mediated experience: due to the establishment '. of global media networks, mass-mediated experience is often global and distanciated, whereas non-mass-mediated experiences concern the local sphere. Rantanen (2005) draws the conclusion that globalisation changes people's lives and human society by introducing new forms of interaction and experience. Communication scientists can make a unique and invaluable contribution by theorising and researching the impact and consequences of these changes. In doing so, they should not restrict themselves to the cultural domain, but should explore the role of (international) communication on globalisation on all levels.

carry on as before'

And relocation, which has already been through the infinitude of deloca-tion, cannot be equated with a '____' traditionalism and practised in a blinkered provincial spirit. The framework in which the meaning of the local has to establish itself has changed.

transnational

And tourism has become a booming business across the world. Between 2006 and 2019, it grew from $5 trillion in direct and indirect value to more than $9 trillion. The continuing collapse of demand for travel will be acutely felt and ripple around the world, from Cambodian resorts to Mexican beaches and New York musicals. Yet tourism and travel, along with the related phenomenon of millions of students from dozens of countries studying abroad, are among the more potent symbols of how deeply interconnected the world has become. The alarming spread of the coronavirus in recent weeks has indeed provoked a drawbridge reaction in many countries, but the response also suggests that the only reliable inoculation against future pandemics will be transnational cooperation. The only reliable inoculation against future pandemics will be _____ cooperation.

intensification of mutual dependence

As we have seen, the workings of globalization usually lead to an ____ beyond national boundaries. The model of separate worlds is thus, in a first stage, replaced with one of transnational interdependence. But Roland Robertson goes one crucial step further, by stressing how widely and deeply the 'awareness of the world as a single place' has become part of everyday reality

_____ do not grow or occur linearly. Their magnitude may explode given the existence of critical masses and tipping points during networked propagation processes. Analyzing systemic failure exceeds traditional research methods that simplify reality by analyzing errors in isolation. Material science and mechanical engineering consider this kind of failure. A mechanical structure becomes more vulnerable to future shocks when multiple loads are continuously applied to them. The structure crashes when the load forces overcome the resistance threshold of any part or material, which becomes more sensitive due to the repeated load forces.

Anomalies

imagined worlds

As Appadurai shows, these flows of images and landscapes also call into question the traditional distinction between centre and periphery. They are cornerstones of '____' that are provided with diff erent meanings as they are exchanged and experienced by people and groups around the globe. These landscapes thus are the building blocks of what (extending Benedict Anderson) I would like to call ___, that is, the multiple worlds that are constituted by the historically situated imaginations of persons and groups spread around the globe (chap. 1). An important fact of the world we live in today is that many persons on the globe live in such ____ (and not just in imagined communities) and thus are able to contest and sometimes even subvert the ____of the official mind and of the entrepreneurial mentality that surround them.

transnational idea and the staging of that idea

As Patricia Alleyne-Dettmers shows in her study 'Tribal Arts', Africa is not a fixed geographical magnitude, not a separate place on the globe, but a _____ his is intentionally organized at many diff erent places in the world: in the Caribbean, in the ghettoes of Manhattan, in the Southern states of the USA, in the favelas of Brazil, but also at Europe's largest street carnival in London. Here the masks, music, costumes and dance are carefully selected and designed in accordance with two governing principles. Everything is drawn from the 'African' reservoir of cultural ideas anywhere in the world; and everything must also be adapted to the subcultural peculiarities of London's black districts.

First, the sort of transgenerational stability of knowledge that was presupposed in most theories of enculturation (or, in slightly broader terms, of socialization) can no longer be assumed.

As families move to new locations, or as children move before older generations, or as grown sons and daughters return from time spent in strange parts of the world, family relationships can become volatile, new commodity patterns are negotiated, debts and obligations are recalibrated, and rumors and fantasies about the new setting are maneuvered into existing repertoires of knowledge and practice. Often, global labor diasporas involve immense strains on marriages in general and on women in particular, as marriages become the meeting points of historical patterns of socialization and new ideas of proper behavior. Generations easily divide, as ideas about property, propriety, and collective obligation wither under the siege of distance and time. Most important, the work of cultural reproduction in new settings is profoundly complicated by the politics of representing a family as normal (particularly for the young) to neighbors and peers in the new locale. All this is, of course, not new to the cultural study of immigration. What is new is that this is a world in which both points of departure and points of arrival are in cultural flux, and thus the search for steady points of reference, as critical life choices are made, can be very difficult. It is in this atmosphere that the invention of tradition (and of ethnicity, kinship, and other identity markers) can become slippery, as the search for certainties is regularly frustrated by the fluidities of transnational communication. As group pasts become increasingly parts of museums, exhibits, and collections, both in national and transnational spectacles, culture becomes less what Pierre Bourdieu would have called a habitus (a tacit realm of reproducible practices and dispositions) and more an arena for conscious choice, justification, and representa-tion, the latter often to multiple and spatially dislocated audiences. The task of cultural reproduction, even in its most intimate arenas, such as husband-wife and parent-child relations, becomes both politicized and exposed to the traumas of deterritorialization as family members pool and negotiate their mutual understandings and aspirations in sometimes fractured spatial arrangements. At larger levels, such as community, neighborhood, and territory, this politicization is often the emotional fuel for more explicitly violent politics of identity, just as these larger politics sometimes penetrate and ignite domestic politics. When, for example, two off spring in a household split with their father on a key matter of political identification in a transnational setting, preexisting localized norms carry little force. Thus a son who has joined the Hezbollah group in Lebanon may no longer get along with parents or siblings who are affiliated with Amal or some other branch of Shi'i ethnic political identity in Lebanon. Women in particular bear the brunt of this sort of friction, for they become pawns in the heritage politics of the household and are often subject to the abuse and violence of men who are themselves torn about the relation between heritage and opportunity in shifting spatial and political formations.

inhabitants of the first world'

As far as the rich '____ are concerned, the poor or the vagabonds whom they glimpse on their travels are not really able to afford the kind of sophisticated choices in which the consumers are expected to excel. [...] This fault makes their position in society precarious. They are useless, in the sole sense of 'use' one can think of in a society of consumers or society of tourists. And because they are useless, they are also unwanted.

Gavekal Dragonomics

As the U.S. was erecting tariffs, the Chinese government, for its part, was ramping up spending abroad. Since 2014, China's Belt and Road Initiative has invested almost $1 trillion in Latin America, Africa, the Middle East, Southeast Asia and elsewhere. According to the consulting firm _____, the rate of new Chinese investment slowed to just over $100 billion last year, but the initiative remains an incontrovertible example of China-driven globalization.

historical divergence

At the same time, we see the sociology of globalization repeating the _____ between Marx and Weber; that is, between a view of the dominance of the economic, and a theoretical pluralism involving economic, social and cultural ap-proaches (and for which any analysis that operates with just a single logic therefore excludes a crucial dimension of globalization). The adding together of (apparently) mutually exclusive logics of globalization introduces, or slides into, a view in which diff erent partial logics of globalization compete with one another.

free versus controlled

Ayish (2001) points at another shift in debates on the free flow of information. The breaking tide of democratisation in the Third World has forced governments of developing countries to revisit their radically negative views on the free flow of information. This is particularly true in the post-Cold War order, where the political weight of Third World countries has decreased and they have been forced into political realism in order to ensure that their perspectives keep the attention focused on the international agenda. Although Western notions of the free flow of information - and a free press in particular - are still criticised as being over-liberal, self-centred and anti-state, Third World governments have become more willing to tone down their opposition to the free flow principle in return for greater Western appreciation for their employment of mass media for development purposes. Challenges to the liberal conceptions of free flow are consequently no longer based on authoritarian and Marxist ideologies, but rather on perspectives of social responsibility. This rather libertarian idea, based on the emphasis of social needs and social responsibility, serves to justify certain restrictions to the free flow of information. It has also shifted international debates from the radical '_____' dichotomy to 'responsible versus unrestrained' perspectives on the free flow of information. Ayish (ibid) draws the conclusion that the changing nature of discourses on the free flow of information reflects the changing nature of global politics and the global economy. It serves to illustrate the close relationship between international relations and global communication

In discussing the cultural politics that have subverted the hyphen that links the nation to the state, it is especially important not to forget the mooring of such politics in the irregularities that now characterize disorganized capital

Because labor, finance, and technology are now so widely separated, the volatilities that underlie movements for nationhood (as large as transnational Islam on the one hand, or as small as the movement of the Gurkhas for a separate state in Northeast India) grind against the vulnerabilities that characterize the relationships between states. States find themselves pressed to stay open by the forces of media, technology, and travel that have fueled consumerism throughout the world and have increased the craving, even in the non-Western world, for new commodities and spectacles.

Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques

Being a good ______ has been and remains a source of pride and legitimacy for the Saudi rulers. Starting from the 1970s, booming oil prices unleashed a wave of infrastructural modernization programs and enabled generous efforts to accommodate those making the great pilgrimage (Hajj) or small pilgrimage (Umra). Today, Mecca has the necessary infrastructure to welcome more than twelve million pilgrims a year, a number expected to rise to 17 million by 2025. Rapid modernization resulted in the drastic revamping of the image of the holy city. However, pilgrims (Hajjis) who wish to walk the path of the Prophet Muhammad, or to visit sites where famous events of early Islam took place, will be definitely disappointed. Today's Mecca has more in common with the flamboyance of Dubai than with a romantic place of pilgrimage.

cosmopolitan solidarity

But the formation of a ____'' (Habermas) cannot be ruled out, even if it would have a weaker bonding power than the citizenship solidarity which grew up in Europe in the course of one to two centuries. And world societies do not only undermine nationally structured and controlled communities; they also create a new closeness between seemingly separate worlds—not only 'out there' but also here and now, in people's own ordinary lives, in a crucial sense (to take up Appadurai, for example), it is even questionable whether in the second modernity the cultural production of 'possible lives'—which literally includes or 'locks in' the richest and poorest alike—allows any groups at all to be excluded.

cultural and economic levels

But the relationship between the ____ and ____ of this new set of global disjunctures is not a simple one-way street in which the terms of global cultural politics are set wholly by, or confined wholly within, the vicissitudes of international flows of technology, labor, and finance, demanding only a modest modification of existing neo-Marxist models of uneven development and state formation. There is a deeper change, itselfdriven by the disjunctures among all the landscapes I have discussed and constituted by their continuously fluid and uncertain interplay, that concerns the relationship between production and consumption in today's global economy. Here, I begin with Marx's famous (and often mined) view of the fetishism of the commodity and suggest that this fetishism has been replaced in the world at large (now seeing the world as one large, interactive system, composed of many complex subsystems) by two mutually supportive descendants, the first of which I call production fetishism and the second, the fetishism of the consumer.

commonality

But this eerie and far from groundless vision inevitably raises the question of why it one-sidedly emphasizes only this aspect of the future. For while these gloomy pros-pects must not be covered up or glossed over, it seems to have gone unnoticed that glocalization also produces new kinds of '____'. These range from Mickey Mouse and Coca-Cola through the symbolism of poisoned dying creatures (images of oil-soaked seagulls and baby seals) to the first signs of a world public sphere which, funnily enough, manifested themselves in the transnational Shell boycott.

the two worlds of world polities'

But this world-system view has in turn been nuanced by reference to what the political theorist James Rosenau calls '_____: that is, the idea that there is not a single global society but at least two competing ones: the society of (national) states, and the many diff erent transnational organizations, players, groups and individuals who build and consolidate a tissue of social relationships.

U.S

By all accounts, such coordination is already in play in the medical and scientific community, as they race to understand the virus and create cures and treatments. More international partnerships will be necessary as we assess the economic wreckage that the pandemic will leave. Enlightened self-interest in working together to prevent such a crisis from happening again could well trump the knee-jerk reaction to retreat to national fortresses that are anything but secure. Though months without familiar modes of travel may forever change patterns of behavior, judging from how people have snapped back after previous crises, that seems unlikely. Once the worst has passed, we may find waves of pent-up demand for millions of people to venture once more into the world, this time with coordinated health screening across countries akin to what emerged in the post-9/11 world to prevent the flow of people, money and goods that might support terrorist organizations. And then there is the flow of capital. Markets in the past few weeks have crashed globally, in sync and almost simultaneously. In the ____., as much as $10 trillion has been erased from markets. Every major market in the world saw equities lose 20% to 30%, and bonds have swung wildly and destructively.

global culture thesis.

Centrally involved here, of course, is also the manufacturing of cultural symbols—a process which, to be sure, has long been observable. Both in the social sciences and among the wider public, a number of writers have adopted what may be called the convergence of ____

Carnegie Endowment

China appears committed to more engagement with the outside world, not less. Nor is the coronavirus likely to reverse that trend. A recent report from the _____notes that, as China emerges more swiftly from the crisis than other parts of the world, its leaders are hinting that they plan to increase investments abroad in a world that will be hungry for capital. In recent weeks, Beijing has delivered medical supplies, equipment and doctors to Italy and other EU countries. As the crisis expands, China appears committed to more engagement with the outside world, not less. The same has been true for the private sector in the U.S. Even before the eruption of the coronavirus, there was considerable discussion of the need for economic decoupling from China. But displeasure with the bilateral relationship hasn't meant any real retrenchment away from globalization for American firms; they have instead tried to diversify and establish connections to other parts of the world.

Robert Reich

Contrary to the prophets of the information society, who predict an abundance of highly paid jobs even for people with only basic education, the sobering truth is that numerous jobs even in data-processing will be poorly paid routine activities. The foot-soldiers of the information economy—according to Clinton's former labour minister, the economist _____—are hordes of data-processors sitting at back-room computer terminals linked to worldwide databases.

fundamentalism

Delocation and relocation, taken together, certainly have a number of diff erent consequences, but the most important is that local cultures can no longer be justified, shaped and renewed in seclusion from the rest of the world. In place of that knee-jerk defence of tradition by traditional means (which Anthony Giddens calls '____'), there is a compulsion to relocate detraditionalized traditions within a global context of exchange, dialogue and conflict. In short, a non-traditionalist renaissance of the local occurs when local specifici-ties are globally relocated and there conflictually renewed. To stay with the example of Bavaria, the 'veal sausage' may be redefined and represented as 'Hawaiian veal sausage'.

telegraph and telephone; the laying of submarine cables the expansion of railroads radio technology

During this period global connectedness was enhanced by the development of ICTs such as the ____ and ____ the laying of ____between Europe and the USA; the expansion of ____ and the development of modern navigation with the help of newly developed ____

China did attend the ____.-hosted summit, even though Premier Li Keqiang, the country's second-most powerful official, pulled out at the last minute and sent his ambassador to the____, Zhang Ming, instead. Some observers perceived this as a snub. Despite being the world's second-largest economy, China pledged around $49 million, a fraction of what was promised by many of its European counterparts — such as Norway, at $1 billion. The most promising trial in China is funded by the government. And a far more nationalistic approach was set out in an op-ed article published by the Global Times, the country's hawkish state-run newspaper, which according to its editor publishes what Communist Party officials privately think but don't say publicly. "We must be aware that the development of a vaccine is a battle that China cannot afford to lose," it said. "There is no way for China to rely on Europe or the U.S. in vaccine development. China has to be by itself in this crucial field," it added, calling the race "a life-and-death battle." Another absentee at the summit was India, which is home to the world's largest vaccine producer by volume, the Serum Institute of India. Its owner, the billionaire Cyrus Poonawalla, has openly said that "a majority of the vaccine, at least initially, would have to go to our countrymen before it goes abroad." Even for those countries that did attend, it is not clear whether they would have the power to enforce their egalitarian vision in the face of nationalistic or market forces.

E.U

ECB stands for

European Central Bank

EEA stands for

European Economic Area

EU stands for

European Union

Major shortcomings in the modernisation theory have been pointed out

First, measuring a country's level of development according to its Gross National Product (GNP) fails to recognise that the creation of wealth on its own is not sufficient and that the welfare of a population at large depends also on the equitable distribution of wealth and its use for the public good. It thus happened that social and economic disparities widened in many Third World countries, despite them showing signs of economic growth. The modernisation theory furthermore neglects to take the political, social or cultural dimensions of development into account and fails to ask questions such as: Development for whom? and Who would gain? The consequence was that in many Third World countries economic and political power remained restricted to small elites, and the media served to legitimise their power. The media were also regarded as a neutral force, thus ignoring the fact that all media products are shaped by social, cultural, political and economic factors. Questions regarding whether the audience could receive the message (television penetration in developing countries was, for instance, minimal), understand it and whether they might respond by showing some form of resistance, were also neglected. Another major shortcoming is the dismissive view regarding traditional cultures and the assumption that modern and traditional lifestyles are mutually exclusive (ibid). Thus developing countries criticised the theory for its ethnocentric Western orientation, ahistoricity (failure to take the history and culture of local communities into account), linearity (holding a simple linear view of development) and for advancing solutions that, in reality, reinforce the dependency of the Third World on developed countries (Ayish 2005). Since modernisation programmes did little to alleviate the plight of the poor in the Third World, critics increasingly started to question the validity of the premises of the paradigm and focused on issues which they felt had been left out, namely the relationship between communication, power and knowledge, and the ideological role of international organisations and institutional structures (Thussu 2000). Prominent in this regard was the work of Latin American scholars such as Paolo Freire with his Pedagogy of the oppressed (1974). Western scholars also began to recognise that the modernisation paradigm needed to be reviewed. Alternative paradigms, such as that of participatory development, have since emerged.

According to Wallerstein, a capitalist world economy has three basic elements. What are the elements?

First, metaphorically speaking, it consists of a single market governed by the principle of profit maximization. Second, it has a series of state structures whose power varies both internally and externally; these state structures chiefly serve to 'hinder' the 'free' functioning of the capitalist market, in order to 'improve' the prospective profits of one or more groups. Third, in a capitalist world economy, the appropriation of surplus labour takes place within a relationship of exploitation not between two classes but among three layers: the central areas or heartlands, the semiperiphery and the peripheral countries and regions. (The question of which countries or regions belong where, and by which criteria, triggers historical-empirical disputes that are hard to resolve.)

This extended terminological discussion of the five terms I have coined sets the basis for a tentative formulation about the conditions under which current global flows occur: they occur in and through the growing disjunctures among ethnoscapes, technoscapes, financescapes, mediascapes, and ideoscapes. This formulation, the core of my model of global cultural flow, needs some explanation.

First, people, machinery, money, images, and ideas now follow increasingly nonisomorphic paths; of course, at all periods in human history, there have been some disjunctures in the flows of these things, but the sheer speed, scale, and volume of each of these flows are now so great that the disjunctures have become central to the politics of global culture. The Japanese are notoriously hospitable to ideas and are stereotyped as inclined to export (all) and import (some) goods, but they are also notoriously closed to immigration, like the Swiss, the Swedes, and the Saudis. Yet the Swiss and the Saudis accept populations of guest workers, thus creating labor diasporas of Turks, Italians, and other circum-Mediterranean groups. Some such guest-worker groups maintain continuous contact with their home nations, like the Turks, but others, like high-level South Asian mi-grants, tend to desire lives in their new homes, raising anew the problem of reproduc-tion in a deterritorialized context.

cultural theory

In research associated with '_____', the linearity assumption and the Either-Or of national axiomatics are replaced by Both-And postulates: globalization and regionalization, linkage and fragmentation, centralization and decentralization, are dynamics that belong together as two sides of the same coin.

world-system

First, we should consider approaches which hold one special dimension or logic of globalization to be central. Here the key authors are Wallerstein, Rosenau, Gilpin, Held, Robertson and Appadurai, in addition to Giddens as the common reference point. Wallerstein—one of the first in the seventies to confront the social sciences with the question of globalization—introduced the concept of a _____ and ar-gued that capitalism was the engine of globalization. Rosenau, Gilpin and Held have concerned themselves more with international politics. They challenge the nation-state orthodoxy by stressing the importance both of technological globalization (the science and information society) and of political-military factors and viewpoints (power politics) Wallerstein's radical move replaces the image of separate individual societies with one of a in which everything—every society, every government, every company, every culture, every class, every household, every individual—must insert and assert itself within a single division of labour. This single ____, which pro-vides a framework for the measurement of social inequalities on a world scale, imposes itself with the rise of capitalism. For Wallerstein, then, the very logic of capitalism is necessarily global. Once it had arisen in Europe in the sixteenth century, the capitalist dynamic took hold of, and thoroughly transformed, more and more 'continents', spaces and niches of social life. The whole planet operates within this regulatory mechanism of a binding and constant division of labour, which we call the capitalist world economy.'

conscious attention

For Robertson, then, globalization of the contemporary world and conscious globalization refl ected in the mass media are two sides of the same process. The generation of this cultural-symbolic reflexivity thus becomes the key question in the cultural sociology of globalization. The new human condition is a ____ to the globality and fragility of this human condition at the end of the twentieth century.

redistributing unemployment

For a long time now it has been a question not of redistributing work but of _____—including in the new hybrids of employment and unemployment (short-term contracts, 'junk jobs', part-time work, etc.), which are officially counted in the category of 'full employment'. This is true especially in the employment paradises of the USA and Britain, where a majority have for some time been living in the grey area between work and non-work, often having to make do with starvation wages. Yet there are many who close their eyes to the fact that the soup of the work society is getting thinner with every fresh crisis, and that ever larger sections of the population have only insecure 'little jobs' which can hardly be said to provide a stable existence. Politicians, institutions and indeed we ourselves think in the fictitious terms of a world of full employment. Even building societies and insurance companies conclude their deals on the assumption that 'employed' people will continue to have a stable income. The rapidly spreading category of the Neither-Nor—neither unemployed nor income-secure—does not fit into that stereotype. Mothers give up their job when they have children. But the three-phase model in terms of which they operate is no longer applicable. The third phase—a return to their previous work after the children have left home—is based upon the illusion of full employment. We complain about 'mass unemployment', but at the same time we assume that a full-time job is an adult's natural state right up to the age of retirement. In this emphatic sense, the GDR too was a work society. Now it is necessary to dwell on the extensive unemployment in the new federal Länder of Eastern Germany.

In a study of transnational forms of community, life and politics stretching between Mexicans in North America and their places of origin, Robert Smith shows how this everyday link operates.

For some communities of the Mixteca Poblana, support committees were organized in New York that collected money among migrant workers for the laying of drinking-water pipes in their community of origin, or for the restoration of churches and village squares. Major decisions and issues were sorted out in tele-conferences with officials in the community of origin. It was not uncommon for the sums of money collected in New York to be greater than the public spending on infrastructure in the Mexican community. One important aspect—and a serious argument for the stability and stabilization of ____—is the fact that the Mexican state has now rec-ognized not only the huge economic significance of the migrant workers, but also their political significance. Since the presidential elections of 1988, the critical voting power of the Mexican workers abroad (who voted in on above-average proportion for the ruling PRI party) has become especially apparent, and the Mexican government pursues an active policy of integrating them economically, politically and culturally. Thus, Mexican mayors sometimes travel to New York to put investment proposals for village development be-fore migrant associations. And the Embassy actively supports migrants' sports associations, as well as the development of Guadalupe groups (which are supposed to organize the cult worship of the Virgin of Guadalupe, the main national holy figure in Mexico). At every level of Mexican politics, labour migration is no longer seen just as a (passive) safety-valve for employment problems, but as an important capital and human resource for the country's own economic and social development. As a result of this policy orientation, the Mexico-USA migration system increasingly involves institutional pillars that give a flanking stability to the emergent transnational social spaces. [...]

periphery

For the dependistas, the world should be analysed in terms of a 'centre' - comprising mainly Western countries such as the USA and Western Europe - and the '____' which encompasses the poor countries of the world, such as those from Africa who have recently emerged from colonialism, but remain 'dependent' in various ways on the rich Western countries. The lack of development of the ____ is ascribed to historical and current forms of colonialism and exploitation through institutions and companies - especially transnational companies (TNCs) - in the centre. TNCs, with the support of their respective governments, are believed to exercise control over developing countries by determining the terms of global trade and the structure of global markets. Development is conducted in such a way that it strengthens dominance over countries on the ____ and maintains them in a position of dependence. Such development attempts are typified as 'dependent development' or 'the development of underdevelopment' (Frank in Thussu 2000: 61). In contrast, 'true' development is conceived as an autonomous, self-chosen path drawing from indigenous cultures. The dependistas argue that the domination of the ____ by the centre occurs through a combination of power components, for example through the military, economics, politics and culture (Servaes, Jacobson & White 1996: 34). Countries on the ____, for example, come to depend on Western-developed technology and investment and the demand for media products - television programmes in particular - necessitates large imports from centre countries. These imports serve to promote, albeit indirectly, the Western-American lifestyle as well as Western goods and products. The result is a socalled electronic invasion that threatens the cultures of countries on the ____ and promotes a consumer lifestyle at the expense of community values.

As a matter of fact, the worlds sedimented on the two poles, at the top and at the bottom of the emergent hierarchy of mobility, diff er sharply; they also become increasingly incommunicado to each other.

For the first world, the world of the globally mobile, the space has lost its constraining quality and is easily traversed in both its 'real' and 'virtual' renditions. For the second world, the world of the 'locally tied', of those barred from moving and thus bound to bear passively whatever change may be visited on the locality they are tied to, the real space is fast closing up. This is a kind of deprivation which is made yet more painful by the obtrusive media display of the space conquest and of the 'virtual accessibility' of distances that stay stubbornly unreachable in non-virtual reality.

empirical working hypothesis

For the paradigm of inclusive distinction, by contrast, there is above all a pragmatic research argument: namely, that it alone makes possible the sociological investigation of globality. The new hybrid of world and ego that appears here has given sociology a new foundation, for without sociology it can be neither theoretically-empirically conceived and studied nor politically handled. The assumption of inclusive distinctions thus acquires the status of an ____, one which, in the adventures of current research, must be driven out into the unknown world society in which we live. What is logically subordinate in Either-Or thinking—the 'inclusive' forms of life, biography, conflict, rule, inequality and state typical of world society—must at least be spelt out and thoroughly investigated. But inclusive distinctions, too, can and must be clearly drawn. To adapt something that Gottfried Benn once said, woolly thinking and an inability to make distinctions do not add up to a theory of reflexive modernization

fragments:

For the same reason, however, it is true that globalization ____: not only does it undermine the control of individual states over information and taxes, and therefore their authority in general; it may also lead to the destruction of local communities. Under the conditions of global culture, it is quite possible in extreme cases that direct relations between neighbouring countries will be abandoned, while transnational 'neighbourhoods' flourish. It is possible, not by any means necessary.

According to what Bauman calls the 'folkloristic beliefs of the new generation of enlightened classes',

Freedom (of trade and capital mobility, first and foremost) is the hothouse in which wealth would grow faster than ever before; and once the wealth is multiplied, there will be more of it for everybody. The poor of the world—whether old or new, hereditary or computer-made—would hardly recognize their plight in this folkloristic fiction. [...] The old rich needed the poor to make and keep them rich. That dependency at all times mitigated the conflict of interest and prompted some effort, however tenuous, to care. The new rich do not need the poor any more. At long last the bliss of ultimate freedom is nig

The ____ President Emmanuel Macron said that any vaccine "won't belong to anybody," and that those who discover it "will be fairly paid, but access will be given to people across the globe." This dream was given a reality check Wednesday after Sanofi, the ____ pharmaceutical giant and one of the leading players in the coronavirus vaccine race, told Bloomberg News that the U.S. was likely to get access before the rest of the world because it had invested more money.

French

jobless growth'

Furthermore, even a comparison of labour productivity takes the gloss off the American 'solution'. Over the past twenty years, average productivity in the United States has risen by no more than 25 per cent, as opposed to 100 per cent in Germany. 'Just how do the Germans manage that?' an American colleague asked me recently. 'They work less and produce more.' This is precisely where the new law of productivity of global capitalism makes itself apparent in the information age. A smaller and smaller number of well-educated, globally interchangeable people can produce more and more goods and services. Economic growth, then, no longer triggers a reduction in unemployment but, on the contrary, presupposes a reduction in the number of jobs—what has been called '____

'permissive'

Gilpin's approach to globalization, on the other hand, remains sceptical about all the talk of novelty and takes a position close to the orthodox view of international politics, arguing, as it were, on the basis of its inner logic. Gilpin sees that national states are more than ever linked—not to say, shackled—to one another. Unlike Wallerstein and Rosenau, however, he stresses that globalization comes about only under certain condi-tions of international politics, that it is the product of a '____' global order. By this he means an order among states which alone makes it possible for dependence and relationship networks to be established and maintained beyond and among national authorities.

transnationalisation

Global communication was further promoted by the commercialisation of the radio in the USA and the development and growth of the film industry. This period also saw the growth of major international news agencies in Europe and the United States, as well as the establishment, integration and ____ of global institutions such as the International Telecommunication Union, the Universal Postal Union and the League of Nations.

What does GED Stand for

Global economic dynamics

Globalization quote by Barack Obama, former U.S. president

Globalization is a fact, because of technology, because of an integrated global supply chain, because of changes in transportation. And we're not going to be able to build a wall around that.

The famous German sociologist Ulrich Beck also spoke of globalization

Globalization is not only something that will concern and threaten us in the future, but something that is taking place in the present and to which we must first open our eyes.

'permissiveness'

Globalization, so to speak, presupposes the tacit consent of na-tional states. The openness, or '_____', which is necessary for the development of a world market, world churches, world corporations, world banks and worldwide NGOs can survive and spread only in the shadow of a matching concentration of state power.

hegemonic power

Globalization, understood as the expansion of transnational spaces and actors, is in this view paradoxically still dependent upon national authorities or, to be more precise, upon a .

not politically organized

Here the axiomatics that equates modernity with non-political individual societies breaks down. World society without a world state means a society that is _____ where new opportunities for action and power arise for transnational actors that have no democratic legitimation. This means that a new transnational space of the moral and the subpolitical is opening up, as we may see in such phenomena as consumer boycotts but also in questions to do with cross-cultural communication and criticism.

leapfrog

However, in a revised version of the modernisation paradigm, blind faith in the mass media has been replaced by similar beliefs in the potential of ICTs to help developing countries '____' stages of development. Within this model, the dissemination of information is often perceived to be the panacea to foster development. According to Nulens and Van Audenhove (1998) this idealistic approach - also known as the technophilic view - assumes that ICTs have largely positive effects on society, such as an increase in job opportunities, increased efficiency in both private and public sectors, social harmony and the deepening of democracy. However, critics of this view - the so-called technophobes - point to the fact that ICTs could also hold serious negative effects for developing countries Whereas the discourse on the assumed benefits of ICTs is continuing, increasing frustration among developing countries gave rise to critical paradigms regarding the role of international communication in national development

market technicalism

However, in accordance with its general approach to the free flow of information, the West still supports a liberalised, free-market approach to the proliferation of ICTs (ibid). This viewpoint is currently largely based on the notion of ____ which views market competition as the engine for the development and proliferation of ICTs that will be conducive to the free flow of information and wider participation in democratic processes and will, ultimately, also redress inequality in information flows.

it also plays a major role in mobilising resistance against globalism

However, one of the most important consequences is probably the blurring of the boundaries between the technological, economic, political, social and cultural domains (Tehranian n.d.). Both traditional media (such as print, photography, film, radio, television and video) as well as the fast-developing new information and communication technologies (ICTs such as telephone and telegraphy, satellites and computers) which initially developed fairly independently, are now merging into a global digital telecommunications network. Within the economic sector, the separate industries associated with each of these technologies are also combining through a series of corporate mergers and alliances to serve the new multimedia environment. Overall, global communication is one of the major factors encouraging globalism and its discontents such as supranationalism, nationalism, regionalism and fundamentalism, but ____.

Globalization quote by John Lennon, member of the music band The Beatles

Imagine there's no countries. It isn't hard to do. Nothing to kill or die for. And no religion, too. Imagine all the people. Living life in peace. You, you may say I'm a dreamer. But I'm not the only one. I hope someday you will join us. And the world will be as one

Globalization quote by the spiritual leader Dalai Lama

I find that because of modern technological evolution and our global economy, and as a result of the great increase in population, our world has greatly changed: it has become much smaller. However, our perceptions have not evolved at the same pace; we continue to cling to old national demarcations and the old feelings of 'us' and 'them'."

geopolitical

Ian Bremmer, founder of the risk-consultancy Eurasia Group, sees a starker era ahead, including more palpable tension between the U.S. and China. "Globalization has been the biggest driver of economic growth," he says. "Its trajectory is now shifting, largely for ____ reasons, and that will be accelerated by the coronavirus crisis.

territorial trap

If a Spenglerian mood of decline can be felt everywhere in people's musings, it surely has something to do with the fact that both society and sociology are caught in the '_____' of equating society with the national state. But the world is not declining, because—as Max Weber argued against himself, as it were—the light of the great cultural problems moves on and scientists too are forced to revise their thinking, to reorient themselves conceptually in the non-integrated multiplicity of a world without frontiers.

'labour democracy',

If global capitalism in the highly developed countries of the West dissolves the core values of the work society, a historical link between capitalism, welfare state and democracy will break apart. Democracy in Europe and North America came into the world as ____ in the sense that it rested upon participation in gainful employment. Citizens had to earn their money in one way or another, in order to breathe life into political rights and freedoms. Paid labour has always underpinned not only private but also political existence. What is at issue today, then, is not 'only' the millions of unemployed, nor only the future of the welfare state, the struggle against poverty, or the possibility of greater social justice. Everything we have is at stake. Political freedom and democracy in Europe are at stake.

Cold War

If global communication grew exponentially in the period after World War II, this growth accelerated even more in the period after the ____ . The widespread diffusion of new technological innovations was incited by the increasingly liberalised free-market-oriented international environment of the post-____order, where the borders between East and West had withered away. In this competitive world with its revolving economic and communication giants, the globe has since been transformed into a global electronic village and information has emerged as a primary commodity and resource. The conclusion can be drawn that global communication is in a continuous state of ferment and evolution. It not only takes a prominent place in virtually all aspects of contemporary global, national and local systems, but has also introduced to the world formerly unknown contradictions and uncertainties, some of which will be pointed out in the next section.

black aesthetic

In the eyes of those who design the dances and masks of Notting Hill's 'African carnival', Africa has lost its geographical location. For them 'Africa' is a vision, an idea, from which models can be derived for a _____ Not the least aim of this is to ground, create or renew an African national identity for blacks in Britain. This Africa, or counter-Africa, is in the strictest sense an 'imagined community'; it serves to break down and overcome the alienation of Afro-Caribbean groups in Britain. We could say that 'there is Africa' in Notting Hill.

axiomatics

In comparison with the mainstream, it has long been a question of theories and research projects or approaches, often indeed no more than promises, which have arisen in quite diff erent cultural and thematic contexts (from research into migration, through international class analysis, international politics and the theory of democracy, to cultural studies and the sociology of big cities), which often contradict one another, yet which somehow or other break through the thought-barrier of the national state—and, we should stress, do so less through criticism than through the working out of alternative ways of thinking. In other words, the globalization debate in the social sciences may be understood and developed as a fruitful dispute about which basic assumptions and images of society, which units for analysis, can replace the ____ of the national state

transnational civil society

In considerations on _____, socio-cultural processes, experiences, conflicts and identities become visible which orient themselves by a 'one-world model' of transnational social movements, globalization 'from below', and a new world citizen-ship.

repatriation of difference

In general, the state has become the arbitrageur of this ____ (in the form of goods, signs, slogans, and styles). But this repatriation or export of the designs and commodities of diff erence continuously exacerbates the internal politics of majoritarianism and homogenization, which is most frequently played out in debates over heritage.

Rosenau too, breaks with nationally centred thinking. But he does not replace the anarchy of national states with a world system of the world market; instead, he distinguishes between two phases of international politics.

In his schema, globaliza-tion means that humanity has left behind the age when national states dominated, or monopolized, the international scene. Now an age of post-international politics has begun, in which national players have to share the global arena and global power with international organizations, transnational concerns and transnational social and political movements. Empirically, this may be seen inter alia in the sheer number of international organizations, including NGOs such as Greenpeace, which is evidently still increasing.

vertical and feudal forms of interaction )

Imperialistic interaction structures are characterised by ___ and ___. The principle of vertical interaction maintains that relationships are asymmetrical and that the flow of power is vertical from the centre to the periphery. Feudal interaction implies that interaction is monopolised by the centre and follows the spokes of a wheel, that is from the periphery to the centre and vice versa, while there is little or no interaction along the rim, in other words between peripheries. The result is that peripheries become dependent on the centre(s).

contingent

In Gilpin's approach, then, which asserts the primacy of national politics over all other factors, globalization is necessarily ____ and under threat, in the sense that the emergence and development of transnational social spaces and players presupposes a hegemonic power structure and an international political regime. Only this can, if need be, guarantee the openness of the world order.

Giddens (in Rantanen 2005) identifies three phases in discourses on globalisation

In the first phase the main point of contestation was whether or not globalisation exists. In the second phase it was no longer a question of whether or not globalisation exists, but rather what its consequences are. Currently we are entering a third stage, where debates address the responses necessary to counteract the negative consequences of globalisation. However, Rantanen (2005) points to the fact that considerations of the consequences of globalisation have already been imbedded in even the earliest conceptualisations of the concept

re-nationalization

In the midst of our current spiral, it is hard to resist such dire forecasts. But we should. There is every reason to think that our post-coronavirus future will see not an end to the globalizing trend of recent decades but a new chapter in that story. The sudden halt in commerce and travel precipitated by the outbreak will not snap back overnight, and the next few years will see a ____of some industries for countries that can. But when this crisis passes, we are likely to find fresh confirmation of what we already know about globalization: that it's easy to hate, convenient to target and impossible to stop.

exclusive distinction

In the paradigm of ____, globalization is no more than a limiting case that blows everything apart. Here, globalization must appear as the peak of a development that cancels all distinctions and establishes the undiff erentiatable in their place. The methodological consequence is that a grand totality can perhaps suddenly be viewed again. But it is clear that this view will suff er from eye strain, and may even shatter as a result.

one world

In this perspective, a negative Utopia lies at the root of world market discourse. As the last niches are integrated into the world market, what emerges is indeed ____: not as a recognition of multiplicity or mutual openness, where images both of oneself and of foreigners are pluralist and cosmopolitan,

objectivity of growing interdependence

In this sense, globalization is not just a question of the '_____'. What must be investigated, rather, is how the world horizon opens up in the cross-cultural production of meaning and cultural symbols. Cultural globalization thwarts the equation of national state with national society, by generat-ing cross-cultural (and conflicting) modes of life and communication, attributions, responsibilities, self-images of groups and individuals and images they have of others.

Inclusive distinctions

Inclusive distinctions on the other hand, draw a quite different picture of 'order'. To fall between the categories is here not an exception but the rule. If this appears scandalous, it is only because the motley image of inclusive distinctions challenges the 'naturalness' of models of exclusive classification. One advantage of inclusive distinctions is, of course, that they facilitate a diff erent, more mobile and, if you like, cooperative concept of 'borders'. Here borders arise not through exclusion but through particularly solid forms of 'double inclusion'. Someone, for example, is part of a large number of circles and is circumscribed by that. (Sociologically speaking, it is quite obvious that, although this is not the only way in which borders can be conceived and lived, it may be an important way in the future.) In the framework of inclusive distinctions, therefore, borders are conceived and strengthened as mobile patterns that facilitate overlapping loyalties.

ISDN stands for

Integrated Services Digital Networks

INMARSAT stands for

International Maritime Satellite Organization

IPDC stands for

International Programme for the Development of Communication

Abu-Lughod 1989; Braudel 1981-84; Curtin 1984; Wallerstein 1974; Wolf 1982),

It takes only the merest acquaintance with the facts of the modern world to note that it is now an interactive system in a sense that is strikingly new. Historians and sociologists, especially those concerned with translocal processes (Hodgson 1974) and the world systems associated with capitalism ____ have long been aware that the world has been a congeries of large-scale interactions for many centuries.

Americanization

Iyer's own account of the uncanny Philippine affinity for American popular music is rich testimony to the global culture of the hypeneal, for somehow Philippine rendi-tions of American popular songs are both more widespread in the Philippines, and more disturbingly faithful to their originals, than they are in the United States today. An entire nation seems to have learned to mimic Kenny Rogers and the Lennon sisters, like a vast Asian Motown chorus. But ____ is certainly a pallid term to apply to such a situation, for not only are there more Filipinos singing perfect renditions of some American songs (often from the American past) than there are Americans doing so, there is also, of course, the fact that the rest of their lives is not in complete synchrony with the referential world that first gave birth to these songs.

____ CEO Alex Gorsky has said his company is committed to coming up with a not-for-profit vaccine that is "available and affordable globally as quickly as possible." And even Trump himself said in March that "I don't care" when asked if he worried about another country beating the U.S. in the inoculation race. "I just want to get a vaccine that works. If it's another country, I'll take my hat off to them," he said, "We're working with other countries, we're working with Australia, we're working with the U.K." But the Department of Health and Human Services was clear in a statement March 30 that domestic use would take priority, and that the initial goal was to make a "COVID-19 vaccine available for emergency use in the United States in early 2021." The vaccine world has been here before. During the 2009 swine flu pandemic, wealthy countries put in advanced orders for the H1N1 flu vaccine, essentially crowding out poorer countries who had to wait longer to get access to the shots.

Johnson & Johnson

services myth

Many think, hope and pray that the service society can save us from the evil dragon of unemployment. This is the ____. The rival calculations still have to be put to the test. It is certainly true that new jobs will come into being. But first, on the contrary, the traditionally secure core of employment in the service sector will be sacrificed to a wave of automation that is only just beginning. For example, telebanking will lead to the closure of high-street banks; telecommunications will shed some 60,000 jobs through a process of consolidation; and whole occupational categories, such as typists, may simply disappear. Even if new jobs do emerge, in this computer age they can easily be transferred anywhere in the world. Many firms—American Express being the most recent example—are switching whole sections of their administration to low-wage countries (in this case, southern India).

The holy land of Hejaz, home to the two holy cities of Mecca and Medina, is a strictly Muslims-only area as non-Muslims are not issued visas to that region. One would assume that ____ is a city of religious purity and traditionalism. However, a visit to the holy city a couple of years ago led me to the astonishing realization that the troops of globalization have reached not only the Saudi Kingdom, but the cradle of Islam as well.

Mecca

social humanity

People are what they buy, or are able to buy. According to the argument we are considering, this law of cultural globalization continues to apply even when purchasing power is close to zero. Where purchasing power ends so too does _____—and the threat of exclusion begins. Exclusion! This is the sentence passed on those who fall outside the 'being equals design' equation.

Globalization quote by Julia Gillard, Prime Minister of Australia

My guiding principle is that prosperity can be shared. We can create wealth together. The global economy is not a zero-sum game

It was far from the first time Trump has demonstrated his lack of interest in multilateralism. He has openly criticized the founding principles of ____, branded the E.U. a competitor and slapped its goods with billions of dollars in tariffs, and once told the United Nations General Assembly that "we reject the ideology of globalism." This year he moved to withdraw funding from the World Health Organization, a U.N. agency, after accusing it of helping China cover up the virus in its early stages, an allegation Beijing denies.

NATO

NWICO stands for

New World Information and Communication Order

world risk society

No doubt, the ecological crisis and—following the Rio conference in 1992—its worldwide recognition have had a lasting and devastating impact on ways of thinking and acting that focus on the national state. World society, accused of being a '____', has become conscious of itself as sharing a common ecological fate. In all the analyses mentioned so far, spaces of transnational action arise in one way or another because actors set out to achieve them. In the theory of ______, however, the category of unintended consequences appears in place of the basic unity of purposive action. It is global risks (their social and political construction), and thus various ecological crises (or definitions of crisis), which bring about new kinds of world disorder and turmoil. Less and less can it be ruled out that weapons of mass destruction, available not only to states but also to private organizations as a means of exerting (political) threats, will become a new source of danger in ____. hese various global dangers can and will complement and intensify one another. We must therefore now consider the interaction between ecological destruction, wars and the eff ects of incomplete modernization.

True or False Social relationships and interdependencies account for more of the complexity of social systems than individual properties or functionalities in isolation.

True

Someone investigating the political implications of the new perception of ecological crisis will certainly encounter a wide range of answers.

One of these will refer to a threat to civilization which cannot be attributed to any god, idols or nature but only to human decisions and the triumphs of industry, or indeed to the very claim of human civilization to shape and control the world. The other side of this is a sense of the fragil-ity of civilization, which—to put it politically—can be produced by the experience of a common destiny. The word 'destiny' is appropriate here, because everyone may in principle be faced with the consequences of scientific-industrial decisions; but it is also inappropriate, because the impending threats are the result of human decision. civilization to shape and control the world. The other side of this is a sense of the fragil-ity of civilization, which—to put it politically—can be produced by the experience of a common destiny. The word 'destiny' is appropriate here, because everyone may in principle be faced with the consequences of scientific-industrial decisions; but it is also inappropriate, because the impending threats are the result of human decision.

modern' societies

Only in this conceptual and institutional framework do '____ be-come individual societies separate from one another. They really are held in the space controlled by national states as in a container. At the same time, it is part of the very concept of '_____ that they are unpolitical, whereas political action is located only in the space controlled by the state.

There's no guarantee an effective vaccine will ever be found, and even then it could take a year or more to develop, test and distribute. Worldwide, about a dozen vaccine candidates are in the first stages of testing or poised to begin, small safety studies in people, according to the Associated Press. "The social value of a safe and effective vaccine is almost incalculable — we are talking about trillions of dollars," said Frank Lichtenberg, a Columbia Business School professor who has spent much of his career estimating how much new medicines are worth. "Drugs are usually valuable because they decrease mortality," he said, "not because they have the power to stop the unemployment rate hitting 20 percent, like this one might." Trump has labeled his vaccine effort "____," spending hundreds of millions of dollars co-funding efforts by companies such as the Boston-based Moderna and Johnson & Johnson, based in New Jersey.

Operation Warp Speed

Elisabeth Beck-Gernsheim illustrates this by the example of cross-cultural marriages and families.

Over and above all the various judgements, hopes and fears, one thing is certain: namely, that ethnic attributions—simply because of developments in society and the population structure—are becoming more and more complicated. For in the age of mobility, mass transport and economic linkage, there is a growing number of people who live and work with others beyond the radius of their own original group; who for various reasons (whether hunger or persecution, education or occupation, travel or curiosity) leave their home country for a short or long period of time, perhaps for ever; who keep cross-ing borders, perhaps being born in one state and brought up in another, and marrying and having children in yet another. In the United States, this might already be becoming something 'quite normal': 'The number of bicultural partnerships is growing, and so it is no longer rare, for example, to be both white and Asian or Arab and Jewish' (R. C. Schneider). In Germany such mixed relationships are less common, but here too there is an unmistakable trend towards more 'colourful' family patterns. Take weddings, for example. In 1960 nearly everyone who married in the Federal Republic was German. Only in one case out of twenty-five—to quote the official statistics—were 'foreigners involved': that is, at least one of the partners had a foreign pass-port. By 1994, however, the man or woman or both were foreign citizens in one out of every seven marriage ceremonies. Or take the example of births. In 1960 children born in the Federal Republic nearly always issued from a 'purely German liaison' (in terms of citizenship); only 1.3 per cent had a for-eign father or a foreign mother or both. By 1994 18.8 per cent of live births had a foreign father or mother or both—that is, nearly every fifth child issued from a German-foreign or wholly foreign liaison. This fast-growing group of 'transculturals' and their families poses the problem of social classification all the more sharply: where do they belong, to us, to the others, and to which others? What is involved here are variable, multifarious life-courses, which defy insertion into the established categories. This gives rise to complicated official procedures and discretionary issues, and obviously also to slips and mistakes in dealing with them.

anti-Western, anti-modern, fundamentalist reactions, as well as the environmental movement or neo-nationalist currents

Periodically occurring crises lead, in Wallerstein's view, to restructuring which in-tensifies the division of power and inequality and increases the level of conflict within the world-system. The universalization and deepening of the capitalist logic engenders resistance on a world scale, which includes ____ ____, f_____, as well as the _____or _____. The inner logic of the capitalist world-system thus engenders both world integration and world decomposition. The question of whether there is a positive side to all this is given no answer. For Wallerstein, the world-system is in the end threatened with collapse. This line of argument (which we have only been able to outline here) has two strik-ing features: it is both monocausal and economic. Globalization is exclusively defined in terms of institutionalization of the world market. However, at least three points may be made in criticism of this approach. First, there are obvious difficulties in specifying and testing the historical-empirical content of the theory. Second, globalization is said to have begun with Columbus's discovery and subjugation of the New World, and is thus anything but specific to the late twen-tieth century. This means that Wallerstein's proposed framework does not enable us to identify what is historically new about the transnational. Third, for all the dialectics, Wallerstein's is a linear argument. It never really consid-ers whether the world market, as Marx and Engels argued in the Communist Manifesto, inconspicuously and inadvertently produces cosmopolitan conflicts and identities.

international relations

Politically, global communications are not only challenging the legitimacy, sovereignty and authority of the nation state, but also have far-reaching implications for international The borders of nation states have become porous as the globalisation of technology has made it virtually impossible for governments to regulate and control the trans-border flow of information and communication. In this way global communication is increasingly undermining the authority and legitimacy of nation states. Global communication is also empowering marginalised and often forgotten groups and voices in the international community, which furthermore presents a challenge to the authority of the nation states within whose boundaries they live. The many interactive forms of global communication have also created immense new moral spaces for exploring new and/or alternative communities of affinity and identity. Vicinity - often presented by the nation state or region where an individual or group lives - is consequently no longer the only viable context for identity formation. Global communication is furthermore increasingly changing the rules of ____

Trans-Pacific Partnership

Post-virus investment is likely to pick up as well throughout Latin America, Africa and especially East Asia, where the ______ (absent the U.S.) has streamlined economic relations. Such connections will expand in the wake of the present crisis, for reasons not of altruism but of self-interest.

alternatives

To make this background assumption clear and conscious, nothing is as helpful as to develop and probe ____. The sociology of globalization may be thought of as involving a loose, motley collection of dissidents from the sociology of national states.

hyperreality

Residents of the first world live in time; space does not matter for them, since spanning every distance is instantaneous. It is this experience which Jean Baudrillard encapsulated in his image of '____', where the virtual and the real are no longer separable, since both share or miss in the same measure that 'objectivity', 'externality' and 'punishing power' which Emile Durkheim listed as the symptoms of all reality. Residents of the second world, on the contrary, live in space: heavy, resilient, untouchable, which ties down time and keeps it beyond the residents' control. Their time is void; in their time, 'nothing ever happens'. Only the virtual, TV time has a structure, a 'timetable'—the rest of time is monotonously ticking away; it comes and goes, making no demands and apparently leaving no trace. Its sediments appear all of a sudden, unannounced and uninvited, immaterial and light-weight, ephemeral, with nothing to fill it with sense and so give it gravity, time has no power over that all-too-real space to which the residents of the second world are confined.

global village

Socially integrated global communication networks have, to a certain extent, resulted in the realisation of McLuhan's notion of the '____' with the emergence of, among others, global interconnectedness, global consciousness and global cooperation between NGOs in widely different areas such as human rights, women's rights and environmental protection. Social relations are no longer restricted to a particular space or locality, but are dispersed globally and spatially as ICTs create and maintain social relations irrespective of time and space. McLuhan, among others, sought to theorize about this world as a "____," but theories such as McLuhan's appear to have overestimated the communitarian implications of the new media order. We are now aware that with media, each time we are tempted to speak of the global village, we must be reminded that media create communities with "no sense of place" In its human dimension, the altered social, political and economic environment has led to increased interaction with and confrontation between one culture and another. In doing so, international communication is changing the nature and problems associated with intercultural communication.

glocalization

Some years ago, Jürgen Habermas was already speaking of a 'new obscurity', and Zygmunt Bauman speaks today of the 'end of clarity'. Local and global, Robertson argues, are not mutually exclusive.23 On the contrary, the local must be understood as an aspect of the global. Globalization also means the drawing or coming together of local cultures, whose content has to be redefined in this 'clash of localities'. Robertson proposes replacing the concept of cultural globalization with that of '____'—through a combination of the words 'global' and 'local'. keywords 'politics of culture, cultural capital, cultural difference, cultural homogeneity, ethnicity, race and gender'. The carefully polished axiom which separates the wheat from the chaff is as follows. 'Global culture' cannot be understood as a static phenomenon, but only as a contingent and dialectical process (which is not economistically reducible to some one-sided logic of capital), in accordance with a model of '____' in which contradictory elements are conceived and deciphered in their unity. It is in this sense that one may speak of paradoxes of 'glocal' cultures. This may also be explained by saying that the sociology of globalization becomes empirically possible and necessary only as a 'glocal' cultural investigation of industry, inequality, technology and politics. ___' is first and foremost a 'redistribution of privileges and deprivations, of wealth and poverty, of resources and impotence, of power and powerlessness, of freedom and constraint'. ___ is the process of a world-wide restratifi cation, in the course of which a new socio-cultural hierarchy, on a world-wide scale, is put together. The quasi-sovereignties, territorial divisions and segregations of identities which the globalization of markets and information promotes and renders 'a must', do not reflect diversity of equal partners. What is a free choice for some descends as cruel fate upon others. And since those 'others' tend to grow unstoppably in numbers and sink ever deeper into despair born of a prospectless existence, one will be well advised to speak of '____' [...] and to define it mostly as the process of the concentration of capital, finance and all other resources of choice and eff ective action, but also—perhaps above all of the concentration offreedom to move and to act. Consequently, even the term '____' is a euphemism. It hides the fact that conditions are being generated beyond unity and dependence for which we have no name and know no answer.

Modernisation or Modernization theory

The ____ emerged during a period when it was very important for the West to bring the newly independent nations of Asia, the Middle East and Africa into the sphere of capitalism The paradigm is founded on the notion that international mass communication should become the vehicle for spreading the message of modernity, transferring Western economic and political models and transforming and modernising traditional societies. Modernisation (or 'development theory' as this pro-media bias is called) has been highly influential. Research based on the paradigm has not only served to shape university communication programmes and research centres, but has also been generously supported by UNESCO and other international organisations.

hybrid forms of employment

That everything is connected (however weakly) to everything else, and is to that extent unfathomable, certainly applies to the development of the labour market under conditions of globalization. But this does not preclude statements about secular trends, such as the internationally comparable longitudinal sections commissioned or compiled by the German Commission for Issues of the Future. According to its recent report, the value of the labour factor was constantly increasing over a number of generations, until a break occurred in the middle of the seventies. Since then, the amount of paid employment has everywhere been declining either directly in the form of unemployment (as in Germany), or indirectly through the exponential growth of '____' (as in the United States or Britain). Demand for labour has been decreasing, while the supply of labour has been increasing (also as a result of globalization). The two indicators of a decline in gainful employment—joblessness and unregulated labour—have set the alarm bells ringing.

social favour

The Western association of capitalism with basic political, social and economic rights is not some '____' to be dispensed with when money gets tight. Rather, socially buff ered capitalism was a gain that answered the experience of fascism and the challenge of communism. As an applied form of Enlightenment, it rests upon the realization that only people who have a home and a secure job, and therefore a material future, are or can become citizens for whom democracy is a living reality of their own making. The simple truth is that without material security there is no political freedom and no democracy, only a threat to everyone from new and old totalitarian regimes and ideologies Thus, it is not the fact that capitalism produces more and more with less and less labour, but the fact that it blocks any initiative towards a new social contract, which is robbing it of legitimacy. Anyone today who thinks about unemployment should not remain a prisoner of old concepts by arguing over the 'second labour market,' the 'part-time off ensive', the so-called 'benefits not covered by insurance' or the payment of wages in case of sickness. What should be asked instead is how democracy will be ending and decay must be interpreted in a different light, at a time when new ideas and models are being laid for the state, economy and society of the twenty-first century.

modern

The association between sociology and nation-state was so extensive that the image of '____', organized individual societies—which became definitive with the national model of political organization—itself became an absolutely necessary concept in and through the founding work of the classical social scientists. Beyond all their differences, such theorists as Emile Durkheim, Max Weber and even Karl Marx shared a territorial definition of ____ society; and thus a model of society centred on the national state, which has today been shaken by globality and globalization.

This quotation is not from some neoliberal manifesto of 1996 but from the Communist Manifesto of Marx and Engels, first published in February 1848.

The bourgeoisie has through its exploitation of the world market given a cosmopolitan character to production and consumption in every country. To the great chagrin of reactionists, it has drawn from under the feel of industry the national ground on which it stood. All old-established national industries have been destroyed or are daily being destroyed. They are dislodged by new industries, whose introduction becomes a life and death question for all civilized nations. [...] In place of the old local and national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we have intercourse in every direction, universal interdependence of nations. And as in material, so also in intellectual production. The intel-lectual creations of individual nations become common property. National one-sidedness and narrow-mindedness become more and more impossible, and from the numerous national and local literatures, there arises a world literature

A system with a great number of interdependencies can be extremely vulnerable to malfunctions, even if it does not come from the most important nodes. _____, which is inherent to complex systems, explains that small variations may entail huge changes in entire systems. Similarly, any potential malfunction can effortlessly cascade across the whole system and affect its functional behavior. Some concrete examples related to these effects are appreciated in very different kinds of systems, both with natural and human inception. Natural events such as forest wildfires or the consequences of earthquakes in some regions eventually manifest catastrophic dimensions and huge regional differences that go beyond the phenomenon itself

The chaos theory

Involuntary politicization

The concept of world risk society may tempt one to exaggerate the independence of ecological crises, within a monocausal and one-dimensional view of global society. It is all the more necessary, therefore, to stress the special kind of i____ that risk conflicts bring about in all fields of social activity. Perceived dangers appear to prise open firmly bolted mechanisms of social decision-making. Things which used to be negotiated and decided by managers and academics, behind closed doors and with no attempt at justification, must now suddenly have their consequences justified in the biting wind of public debate. Whereas the execution of particular legislation once seemed to take place automatically, those responsible now appear in public and, when the pressure is on, may even admit to mistakes or mention the alternatives that were once rejected. In sum, the risk technocracy unintentionally produces a political antidote as a result of, and in opposition to, its own way of handling things. Dangers which become publicly known, even though the relevant authorities claim to have everything under control, create new leeway for political action.

diff erent modes of life

The conception of transnational social spaces is a medium-range theory. It breaks down the nation-state view of society and its 'container theory' of nationally separate social worlds, replacing them with _____, transnationally integrated spaces of social action that circumvent or cross over postulated frontiers.

U.N. World Tourism Organization

The coronavirus pandemic is, obviously, a negative byproduct of our hyper-connected world, and it has brought about a nearly complete halt of global travel and tourism. When countries were truly more like islands, diseases had less opportunity to skip from population to population. The scale of travel today for tourism, trade and business has made it far harder to contain a pandemic. In 1950, according to the _____, there were 25 million tourist arrivals; last year, there were 1.5 billion.

Émile Durkheim,

The crucial point, however, is that the United States is no longer the puppeteer of a world system of images but is only one node of a complex transnational construction of imaginary landscapes. The world we live in today is characterized by a new role for the imagination in social life. To grasp this new role, we need to bring together the old idea of images, especially mechanically produced images (in the Frankfurt School sense); the idea of the imagined community (in Anderson's sense); and the French idea of the imaginary (imaginaire) as a constructed landscape of collective aspirations, which is no more and no less real than the collective representations of ___ now mediated through the complex prism of modem media. The image, the imagined, the imaginary—these are all terms that direct us to something critical and new in global cultural processes: the imagination as a social practice. No longer mere fantasy (opium for the masses whose real work is elsewhere), no longer simple escape (from a world defined principally by more concrete purposes and structures), no longer elite pastime (thus not relevant to the lives of ordinary people), and no longer mere contemplation (irrelevant for new forms of desire and subjectivity), the imagination has become an organized field of social practices, a form of work (in the sense of both labor and culturally organized practice), and a form of negotiation between sites of agency (individuals) and globally defined fields of possibil-ity. This unleashing of the imagination links the play of pastiche (in some setting) to the terror and coercion of states and their competitors. The imagination is now central to all forms of agency, is itself a social fact, and is the key component of the new global order. But to make this claim meaningful, we must address some other issues.

private terrorism

The dangers of military confrontation between states are compounded by the newly emerging dangers of fundamentalist

World Trade Union (WTO) the International Telecommunication Union (ITU

The demise of the Soviet Union, the shift from state-regulated to market-oriented policies, as well as the establishment of transnational institutions such as the ____ and ____) have furthermore created a global market for information and communication. A strong communication infrastructure has become a prerequisite for participation in the global economy, while the dismantling of barriers to the free flow of information is perceived to be essential for economic growth and development. Thus the free-flow doctrine has been extended to include both the contents of communication as well as the infrastructure that enables the flow of communication and information. In terms of these developments, conceptions of information solely in terms of news and broadcasting have become archaic. However, the question of the proliferation of technologies has been introduced at NWICO and other debates on international communication since the 1960s (ibid). Third World nations have been concerned that, if news and broadcasting materials could have far-reaching effects on their societies, the effects of powerful communication satellites, trans-border data flows and digitalised and interactive computer-related communication could be even more serious for their national sovereignty and indigenous cultures. Even more importantly, existing imbalances and widening gaps in the proliferation of new ICTs between them and Western developed countries could hinder social and economic development in Third World countries (ibid). Most scholars agree that it is quite misleading to speak about a free flow of information and the participation of Third World countries in international communication in light of current imbalances in telecommunications infrastructures. The governments of Third World countries consequently have not only called for policies to guard against the uncritical transfer of technologies and the potential negative effects of the international flow of information, but also against the potentially adverse effects of imbalances in the spread of ICT infrastructure.

Dependency theory

The dependency paradigm emerged as the most prominent theoretical framework questioning the modernisation paradigm. The ____ had its origins in Latin America during the 1960s and 1970s, during a period when countries of the Third World realised that the developmental approach to international communication had failed to deliver (Thussu 2000). Although it is rooted in the neo-Marxist political economy approach (see page 30), the dependency perspective represents an important shift away from the nation state as unit of analysis, to a predominantly international level of analysis (Servaes, Jacobson & White 1996). Thus it emphasises global structures and interrelationships that influence Third World development and postulates that post-independence dynamics keep Third World countries locked in former colonial power structures. There are, however, also many critics of the dependency theory who point out that it lacks clear definitions of key terms such as 'imperialism' and has failed to present empirical evidence to support the main arguments of the theory. It is also criticised by cultural theorists in particular for neglecting the form and contents of the media and the role of the audience. Media audiences are perceived to be passive receivers of media contents - a type of 'hypodermic needle' approach. Cultural theory, in contrast, assumes that media texts are mostly polysemic in nature and could be interpreted in various ways by audiences who are not passive consumers, but active participants in negotiating meaning. The cultural imperialism thesis is furthermore criticised for being totalitarian for not taking into account how the meaning of global media contexts is negotiated in various national and local contexts, and for ignoring local patterns of media consumption.

Globalisation

The discourse on ____ is one of the latest - and probably most important and wide-ranging - theoretical debates to have emerged in international communication. According to Rantanen studies on ____ started to emerge in the early 1900s - initially within the fields of geography and social science - from where the concept spread to other disciplines and, among others, also to media studies and international communication. Some theorists hold '____' to be the key concept when it comes to understanding changes within human society going into the third millennium. Despite its popularity, '____' remains a contested topic. A review of some of the well-known general definitions reveals that theorists do indeed integrate the phenomenon with its consequence. to the intensification of social relations on a global scale and the fact that local events are influenced by what happens in distant locations. Thompson emphasises the growing interconnectedness of parts of the world that gives rise to complex forms of interaction and interdependency; while for Robertson ____ means the intensification of an awareness of the world as a whole. The idea of complexity, as indicated by Thompson (1995), is also emphasised by Servaes, Lie and Terzis (2000) and Tehranian and Tehranian (1997) who distinguish vertical and horizontal dimensions of ____. The horizontal dimension refers to the progressive compression of temporal and spatial disparities culminating in the world becoming a single system. The vertical dimension involves the apparently contradictory trends towards homogeneity, synchronisation, integration and universalism versus the propensity for localisation, heterogeneity, diversity and particularism (Bornman & Schoonraad 2001). Many analysts prefer, on the other hand, to divide conceptualisations and theories of ____ into economic, political and cultural ____ (Rantanen 2005). Economic _____ is often regarded as the driving force behind the entire _____ process (Waters 1995). Within a liberal context, it is interpreted as the development and fostering of international economic integration and the spread of global capitalism - pan-capitalism, as some commentators have labelled it (Tehranian 1999; Thussu 2000). This conception denotes a qualitative shift from a largely national to a globalised economy where the economies of nation states are largely subordinate to transnational processes and transactions, and markets play a key role at the expense of nation states. The demise of the Soviet Union and Eastern bloc, the shift from public to private sector capitalism and the international trend towards liberalisation and privatisation have all contributed to the acceptance of the capitalist market as the global economic system (Thussu 2000). Closely related to conceptions of economic ____ are theories on political ___ that focus largely on the changing position and role of the nation state Due to the internasionalisation of global economic activities and other transnational processes, the authority, legitimacy and sovereignty of the nation state are believed to be under constant threat. The borders of nation states have become increasingly porous, as governments are no longer able to control the flow of capital and information across their borders. The free flow of capital and information is furthermore progressively being exempted from the authority of the nation state, while global forces beyond its reach and control are imposing their laws and precepts on the planet. The nation state is furthermore being threatened by the formation of supranational units (such as the European Union and African Union), while ideas regarding some form of global government are frequently mentioned in order to address the consequences of ____ The nation state is consequently no longer the only viable political context for people to live in. With regard to cultural ____, Bornman and Schoonraad (2001) distinguish between ____ on the social and cultural terrains. Social _____ is associated with the realisation - at least to a certain extent - of McLuhan's (1964) concept of the 'global village', in other words with the emergence of a borderless, non-spatial community. Although McLuhan's ideas are often criticised for being overidealistic (____ has not resulted in the disappearance of racial, cultural and other differences, as he prophesied) the reality of social _____ is, among others, signified by the emergence of a 'global consciousness' and a global civil society which - as mentioned before - promotes worldwide cooperation to address global issues such as human rights, women's rights and environmental conservation. Cultural _____ is often perceived as just a new version of Western cultural imperialism, namely cultural homogenising due to the worldwide spread of the Western- American lifestyle, values and consumer goods (ibid). A major consequence of the cultural levelling process is perceived to be that the spaces in which local communities can experience and live out their culture, become smaller and smaller. However, Appadurai (1990) argues that the effects of the multitude of forces that influence cultural ____ are not simply homogenising, but rather they create new differences, contradictions and counter-tendencies as they encounter the different ideologies and cultural traditions of the world. A further consequence of these globalising forces is the weakening of the cultural coherence of nation states - yet another factor that threatens their authority and legitimacy. Whereas the MacBride report calls for the realisation of one world with many voices, Ayish (2005) points out that the dominance of American/ Western culture, combined with the revitalisation of ethnicity in the globalising world, is, in contrast, creating many worlds with only one dominant voice. There can be little doubt that the (global) media and the worldwide spread of ICTs have made global interconnectedness - and thus ____ - possible local issues and therefore tend to miss the bigger picture of global interconnectedness and contribute little to the academic discourse on _____. When _____ theorists do consider the role of the media and ICTs, they usually refer only to cultural ____. ) objects to the tendency to limit the role of communication. He deems it necessary to acknowledge the role of the media and communications in general theories of ____, as well as in discussions of all the various domains - economic, political, social as well as cultural.

1. liberalism, 2. communism, 3. fascism 4. a number of Islamic movements

The great world powers also started to realise the impact and importance of public opinion and the value of propaganda (especially in times of war) as well as the potential of the developing media (such as the radio) in this regard. The spread of contending ideologies such as ____, ____, ____ and a number of ____ movements furthermore led to the increasing use of fast-developing media, press and communication technologies to organise the transnational activities of revolutionary movements.

cosmopolitan

The ecological shock, then, has forcibly thrust upon people an experience which political theorists thought was the preserve of wars. However, there is a characteristic openness in this experience. The community of national history was always raised in the dialectic of enemy-images, and the awareness of ecological crisis may also vent itself in hysterical panic attacks directed against certain groups or things. Nevertheless, the fact that the threat knows no frontiers may mean that for the first time people will experience the common character of a destiny. Paradoxical as it may seem, it is arous-ing a _____ everyday consciousness which transcends even the borders between man, animal and plant. Threats create society, and global threats create global society. Nor is this all that justifies us in speaking of world risk society.

transnational corporations (TNCs)

The effects of developments on global communication as we know it at the start of the 21st century are manifold, diverse, wide-ranging and far reaching. Economically, emerging communication networks have played a major role in the increasing internationalisation and liberalisation of economic activities Due to the rapid development of ICTs, geographical boundaries and temporal disparities no longer form barriers to international trade, capital flow and other economic activities. A global trans-border or virtual market has emerged. Global communication networks are furthermore enabling ____ to conduct their activities in virtually every corner of the world. Transactions within the emerging global market have also become increasingly dependent on international information flows facilitated by modern ICTs. Thus, as already mentioned, information has become a paramount commodity and access to information - and consequently also to modern ICTs - plays a major role in economic advancement and growth.

tied to no place or period'

The emerging global cultures, adds A. D. Smith, .are '____. They are 'context-less, a true mélange of disparate components drawn from everywhere and nowhere, borne upon. the modern (postmodern) chariots of global communications systems

Globalization quote by Bill Gates, owner and former CEO of Microsoft

The fact is that as living standards have risen around the world, world trade has been the mechanism allowing poor countries to increasingly take care of really basic needs, things like vaccination.

interesting areas of theorising to highlight the role of communication in all spheres of globalisation

The first is the role, effects and farreaching consequences of mediated communication on all levels of society - locally as well as globally. Thompson (1995) points out that the development of global media and ICT networks have not merely created new networks for the dissemination of information across spatial boundaries, but have established new forms of action, interaction and social relations that are different from the face-to-face interactions which characterised human societies through the centuries. This is typified as 'mediated interaction', where the term 'mediation' can be defined as an active process of establishing relations between different kinds of being and consciousness that are invariably mediated presents the following alternative definition for globalisation, which takes into account the role of mediated communication in all domains: 'Globalization is a process in which worldwide economic, political, cultural and social relations have increasingly become mediated across time and space.'

International Telecommunications Satellite Consortium (INTELSAT) International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT)

The global expansion of entertainment media as an import-export industry and the concomitant issues of copyright, intellectual property rights and privacy contributed to the spread of Westernisation. The rise and increasing internationalisation and integration of multinational institutions associated with the production and distribution of information as well as the creation of international communications organisations such as the ____ and ____ further contributed to the growth in international information flows.

cultural globalization

The globalization of economic activity is accompanied by waves of cultural transformation, by a process that is called

Transnational

The metaphor of a space or area is here contradictory. For the dominant feature of the 'spaces' in question is that they overcome distance. '' implies that forms of life and action emerge whose inner logic comes from the inventiveness with which people create and maintain social lifeworlds and action contexts where distance is not a factor. This raises a number of questions for sociological research. How are ___ lifeworlds transcending distance and frontiers possible in the first place? How can they be put together and cultivated at the level of individual action, often in the teeth of resistance from national state bureaucracies? Are they stateless, or perhaps even institutionless, early forms of ____ world societies? Which orientations, resources and institutions favour or hinder them? What political consequences (disin-tegration or ____ mobilization) are associated with them? What is clear is that, in these ____ social landscapes, something is (often illegally) blended together which seriously hinders national states in their claim to exercise control and order. The spaces for living and acting which take shape here are impure'. To analyse them, sociology must stop thinking in Either-Or terms and open itself to specific, distinguishable modes of Both-And living.

diffusion of innovations' theory

The modernisation paradigm is based on the premise that as nations emerge from colonialism, there would be a natural development of the previously colonised countries along the same route or stages followed by Western countries (Thussu 2000). The developed Western societies consequently served as models for the less developed societies to strive for. It was widely accepted that the mass media would serve as a bridge to a wider world and would be instrumental in spreading education, transferring essential skills, fostering social unity, and - most importantly - creating the desire to 'modernise'. This top-down, one-way approach to communication via the mass media was regarded as a panacea for the transformation of the Third World. The level of media development of a country consequently served as an indicator of general societal development. One of the earliest exponents of the theory was Daniel Lerner (1958) who believed that the mass media could break the hold of traditional cultures on societies and make them aspire to a modern way of life. Similar viewpoints were held by other important modernisation theorists such as Wilbur Schramm (1964) and Everett Rogers (1962) with his '____.

relief and bewilderment

The months ahead will feel like the presumptive end of an era of globalization. And it may be the end of globalization's first phase, with its heady optimism and corresponding ideological and economic backlash. But there will be a next phase, one less rosy-eyed and less sour as well. As citizens emerge from various forms of sheltering in place, they will confront the days of spring with the ____ and _____ of our predecessors in World War II emerging from a bomb shelter the morning after. They will find a changed world of travel limitations and viral testing but also a massive global system that remains structurally intact, if on the defensive philosophically. But the sheer scale of what has been created over the past several decades, to say nothing of the enormous benefits that have flowed from it for billions of people, will preclude a lasting reversal. We will discover that we are indeed all in this together. Is it possible that we are truly at the end? Yes, but not likely. Globalization is dead. Long live globalization.

Globalization and localization are thus not only two moments or aspects of the same thing.

They are at once driving forces and expressions of a new polarization and stratification of the world population into globalized rich and localized poor

disorganized capitalism

The new global cultural economy has to be seen as a complex, overlapping, disjunc-tive order that cannot any longer be understood in terms of existing center-peripher models (even those that might account for multiple centers and peripheries). Nor is it susceptible to simple models of push and pull (in terms of migration theory), or of surpluses and deficits (as in traditional models of balance of trade), or of consumers and producers (as in most neo-Marxist theories of development). Even the most complex and flexible theories of global development that have come out of the Marxist tradition are inadequately quirky and have failed to come to terms with what Scott Lash and John Urry have called ___ the complexity of the current global economy has to do with certain fundamental disjunctures between economy, culture, and politics that we have only begun to theorize.

The widespread view of a linear convergence of content and information driven by world-market concentration fails to appreciate the

The paradoxes and ambivalences—or, in old-fashioned terms, the dialectic—of globalization which cultural theory has theoreti-cally identified and empirically investigated.

'modern' institutions

The period was further characterised by the hegemony of the great European powers that used the developing communication technologies, media and international news agencies not only to enhance their powers globally and to acquire colonies and manage empires, but also to foster Westernisation and Europeanisation around the world. Growing industrialisation as well as the newly developed _____ associated with the press, media and communication technologies furthermore contributed to the spread of ideologies associated with Westernisation, modernisation and secularisation in numerous Africa, Asian, Latin American and Arab societies.

The European Central Bank

The post-coronavirus recovery is certain to bring increased spending from individual European governments and the EU itself. Europe's recovery from the financial crisis of 2007-08 was hampered by north-south divisions. With the coronavirus now hitting the whole continent with growing force, those divisions will subside. ____has already announced a €750 billion ($810 billion) bond-buying program; in the worst phase of the last financial crisis, it took months of acrimonious debate for the ____ to do much at all.

interconnectivity

The recent introduction of mobile devices, Internet applications, and social media have dramatically increased the ____ of the globe in an unprecedented manner. The distance between individuals has never been lower

eurozone

The recently rejiggered North American free-trade agreement is another instance of continued U.S. commitment to globalization, even on the part of the skeptical Trump administration. The agreement is designed to facilitate more trade, and the scale of continental trade is indeed increasing. Mexico is now the largest U.S. trading partner, outstripping both Canada and China. Data compiled by the Organization for International Investment show that foreign direct investment in the U.S., although down in 2019 after reaching a peak in 2015 and 2016 of $500 billion, was still above the level of every other prior year. On the other side of the equation, U.S. investment abroad decreased to just under $6 trillion at the end of 2018 (the last year for which data is available) due to repatriation of earnings held by companies abroad. But to put that number in perspective: It was barely $1 trillion in 2001. The same pattern pertains everywhere. In Europe, Brexit notwithstanding, economic integration continues apace. In fact, Brexit spurred a substantial increase in cross-border investments within the remaining _____ countries. The shock of one of its key members leaving seems to have redoubled the efforts of the remaining 27 nations to draw closer, with a 43% increase in 2019 alone, according to data firm FDI Markets. A study from the London School of Economics shows that Brexit even spurred more British investment in Europe, with an increase of 12% between the 2016 referendum and the end of 2018.

United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation

The rise of democracy and the attainment of independence by many former colonies of the great European powers also led to an increase in the number of nation states which participated in the political, cultural and socioeconomic aspects of international communication (ibid). During this period the USA emerged as the dominant political power and increasingly employed the media, as well as ICTs, not only for purposes of economic and military domination, but also culturally. Of particular importance was the Cold War period that once again served to emphasise the importance of international political communication such as propaganda. International political and cultural organisations such as the United Nations (UN) and the _____ (UNESCO) further contributed to international debates on communication issues, while revolutionary movements around the world mobilised global communication networks to achieve their goals.

Mixteca

The social and economic dovetailing between region of origin and region of arrival is not, however, just a matter of nostalgia or tradition (sticking to vil-lage festivals) or of care for an older generation that has stayed behind. Rather, what develop in the ____ are economic activities that point far beyond purely transitory relations of a migratory character. In Greater New York, for example, there are a Puebla Food Incorporation and a clan of tortilla-producing families that has already made millions from the traditional Mexican food. Transnational production and marketing structures thus stretch between the ____ and New York—structures that imply dimension of 'cumulative causation'. Insofar as the dynamic of migration networks keeps the migra-tory flow moving, the demand increases for specifically Mexican foods and services, which in turn open up new opportunities for migration-related gain in the regions of origin and arrival.

-scape

The suffix____ allows us to point to the fluid, irregular shapes of these landscapes, shapes that characterize international capital as deeply as they do international cloth-ing styles. These terms with the common suffix -scape also indicate that these are not objectively given relations that look the same from every angle of vision but, rather, that they are deeply perspectival constructs, inflected by the historical, linguistic, and political situatedness of diff erent sorts of actors: nation-states, multinationals, diasporic communities, as well as subnational groupings and movements (whether religious, political, or economic), and even intimate face-to-face groups, such as villages, neigh-borhoods, and families. Indeed, the individual actor is the last locus of this perspectival set of landscapes, for these landscapes are eventually navigated by agents who both experience and constitute larger formations, in part from their own sense of what these landscapes off er.

In 1929, Frigyes Karinthy proposed the

Theory of Six Degrees of Separation

development logics

These basic ideas associated with post-national or transnational images of society, and the units that they mark out for investigation, should now be briefly outlined. At the same time, ''______ will have to be contrasted with the dynamic of globalization, so that a complex picture (one which includes internal contradictions) is drawn of the globalization debate in the social sciences.

social theory of postmodernity

This does not mean that the causal-historical relationship among these various flows is random or meaninglessly contingent but that our current theories of cultural chaos are insufficiently developed to be even parsimonious models at this point, much less to be predictive theories, the golden fleeces of one kind of social science. What I have sought to provide in this chapter is a reasonably economical technical vocabulary and a rudimentary model of disjunctive flows, from which something like a decent global analysis might emerge. Without some such analysis, it will be difficult to construct what John Hinkson calls a "____" that is adequately global

state control of space

This is ex-pressed in a vision of societies as (by definition) subordinate to states, of societies as state societies, of social order as state order. Thus, both in everyday life and in scientific discourse, one speaks of 'French', 'American' or 'German' society.

Hawaii veal sausage: the new importance of the local And yet Le Monde diplomatique,

This quotation is taken, is living proof against the pitch-black view that the media are threatened with a new, economically driven system of world rule. For that outspoken left-wing monthly also makes skilful use of the world information market it now appears in several languages and—against the trend in the printed media—may have more than doubled its circulation over the past few years (even if the circulation of the French original has fallen to around 100,000 over the same period, with a resulting loss of advertising income).

homogenization

This scalar dynamic, which has widespread global manifestations, is also tied to the relationship between nations and states, to which I shall return later. For the moment let us note that the simplification of these many forces (and fears) of ____ can also be exploited by nation-states in relation to their own minorities, by posing global commoditization (or capitalism, or some other such external enemy) as more real than the threat of its own hegemonic strategies.

cultural studies

Those working in the field of '____' do reject the image of closed societies, each with its own cultural space, and think instead in terms of an immanent 'dialectical' process of cultural 'globalization', in which the opposite at the same time becomes both possible and actual. Their basic insight is that globalization does not mean globalization automatically, unilaterally or 'one-dimensionally'—which is one of the endless sources of misunderstanding in this debate. On the contrary, analyses that base themselves on the 'G-word' are everywhere giving rise to a new emphasis on the local.

transnational social spaces

Thought and research that remain trapped in a vision of separate social worlds organized on a national basis can find no place for anything that falls between the inner and the outer. This intermediate category—the category of the ambivalent, the mobile, the volatile, the Here-and-There—first opens up in the context of migration research, in the beginnings of ____.

'informatics' and 'telematics

Thussu points to the fact that the emphasis on the primacy of the private sector reflects a deeper ideological shift emanating from the US and other Western governments at the time. It represents a shift away from the public service-oriented view of media and communication to an emphasis on a privatised and deregulated industry. The free-market doctrine was fuelled by the end of the Cold War, which fundamentally transformed the bipolar world that had dominated free flow debates for decades into a unipolar universe dominated by the world's only remaining superpower. This superpower, the USA, deployed all its power and influence to champion market solutions for the world's communication problems. Privatisation became the new mantra and resulted in the deregulation, privatisation and liberalisation of the broadcasting and telecommunications sectors. Although debates on the NWICO have become rather quiescent in recent years, holds that the free flow of information remains a controversial issue in international communication. Currently discourses are influenced by two important global trends, namely the worldwide proliferation of newly developing ICTs and the worldwide democratisation of political systems in the aftermath of the demise of the Soviet Union - a traditional supporter of the NWICO. The technodemocratic revolution brought about by these developments has lowered the significance and validity of the ideological underpinnings of the debate, in favour of focusing attention on information as a central component of the world economy. Terms such as ____ and ____' have been developed to indicate the importance of the emerging global order, in which information plays a central role. The shift in emphasis from the mass media to information furthermore signifies the rising importance of economic aspects of communication at the expense of cultural and political aspects.

The Modernization of Developing Countries

To be modern means to be superior. This universalist pretension is expressed, in the basic rights and rules of democratic self-regulation, as a claim to 'human emancipation from the self-incurred dependence of a minor' (Kant). But the claim to bestow happiness condensed, first, in the violent history of European colonialism and imperialism, and then, after the Second World War, in so-called 'development politics' and the 'theory of developing countries'. It is no accident that the word 'modernization' made its debut in the early fifties, in a book entitled _____. The empirical political and social sciences, seeing themselves as policy doctors or engineers, then worked out 'social indicators' that seemed to make it possible to measure the stages and successes of modernization and, in the case of national states, to monitor and shape the process.

African

Transnational 'communities' really are that paradoxical. What is 'discovered' here, but in reality invented, often contradicts what floats around as 'Africa' in the heads of each transnational '____'. A large part of historical Africa was reduced to slavery and scattered around the world. Its cultures were broken up and destroyed. Hence those people who are called '____' (often by others) have also shaken off that image of Africa. For many '____', indeed, Africa and being ____ is the very identity they oppose and reject. Perhaps they grew up in a pot-pourri of cultures where any clarity about the matter had long been lost, and where the quality of being black had an especially negative value. At any event, the outcome is quite paradoxical. Blacks in the Caribbean and in English cities associate 'Africa' with non-identity and non-progress, with drums, dancing, superstition, naked, uneducated tribesmen, permanent hopelessness. One can see in this the negative mirror image of a Eurocentric idea of Africa, which blacks have adopted in the Western metropolis. The commercialised mass media (such as radio, television and the press) become the main instruments of manipulation due to the fact that they speak directly to consumers and ignore and sidestep the critical rational debate within the ____. Habermas identifies these changes as the 'refeudalisation' of the ____, where the public space has become a location for power displays - similar to those in medieval courts - rather than a space for critical debate. Habermas also perceives refeudalisation in the commercialisation of mass media systems, which has resulted in mass media organisations becoming monopolistic, capitalistic institutions that promote capitalist interests only and no longer promote debate within ____ Within the market-driven economy, the main concern of the mass media is to produce artefacts that appeal to the widest possible audience and generate maximum advertising revenue. Mass media products are consequently diluted to meet the lowest common denominator, such as sensationalist sex, scandals, celebrity gossip and action adventures, thus reinforcing the public's compulsion with constant consumption. The concept of the ____ has also proved to be useful in theorising the role of communication processes in democratisation, identity-related processes and globalisation. there is a close relationship between the ____ created by the mass media (and the national press and public broadcasting in particular) and feelings of national consciousness and identification within the modern, democratised nation state. He perceives national consciousness as a modern form of social solidarity in contrast to so-called 'pre-modern' forms of social allegiance based on descent, culture, language and history. National consciousness and national identification are regarded as products of new forms of communication. In recent years, due to the decline of the nation state, the formation of supra-national units (such as the European Union) and increasing globalisation, the idea of the ____ has been expanded to find appropriate forms of political and social integration within a changing world order. Habermas envisions the formation of a European identity in a similar way that national consciousness has been forged in the traditional nation state. Communication plays a central role in this vision of European integration. Habermas regards it as necessary to create a Europe-wide _____ embedded in a freedom-valuing culture supported by a liberal civil society. This view involves public communication that transcends the borders of nation states. However, rather than the establishment of a European public broadcaster, Habermas foresees the emergence of a European ____ from existing national spheres opening to one another, yielding to the interpenetration of international communication. An important step would be for national media to cover controversial issues in other countries in order for various national public opinions to converge on the same set of issues. Such a 'discursive' democracy or identity would not be located in any single nation state or ethnic or cultural community, but in the discursive spaces of civil society.

True or False Because both work and leisure have lost none of their gendered qualities in this new global order but have acquired ever subtler fetishized representations, the honor of women becomes increasingly a surrogate for the identity of embattled communities of males, while their women in reality have to negotiate increasingly harsh conditions of work at home and in the nondomestic workplace. In short, detemtorialized com-munities and displaced populations, however much they may enjoy the hits of new kinds of earning and new dispositions of capital and technology, have to play out the desires and fantasies of these new ethnoscapes, while striving to reproduce the family-as-microcosm of culture. As the shapes of cultures grow less bounded and tacit, more fluid and politicized, the work of cultural reproduction becomes a daily hazard. Far more could, and should, be said about the work of reproduction in an age of mechani-cal art: the preceding discussion is meant to indicate the contours of the problems that a new, globally informed theory of cultural reproduction will have to face.

True

True or False Both imperialism and dependency theory are being criticised for focusing mainly on the role of external forces in the social and economic development of countries on the periphery, while neglecting the role of internal class, gender, ethnic and power relations Galtung responded to this criticism by doing research on the elites of peripheral countries and found that they, indeed, benefited from the dependency syndrome. However; although the worldwide proliferation of ICTs and the emphasis on cultural hybridisation (rather than imperialism) have made theories of imperialism less fashionable, Thussu notes that the structural inequalites in international communication deem the recognition of their continued relevance in discourses on dependency and imperialism within the field of international communication to be vital.

True

True or False Haldane and May observed a sharp transition to instability in economic networks once critical thresholds were exceeded. More recently, Bardoscia outlined the crucial role of the structure of networks for estimating systemic risks. These findings are crucial for designing methods to create robust economies and mitigate financial risks.

True

True or False Imagination gains a special kind of power in people's every-day lives, answers Appadurai.3l More people in more parts of the world dream of and consider a greater range of 'possible' lives than they have ever done before. A central source of this are the mass media, which off er a wide and constantly changing supply of such 'possible lives'. In this way, an imaginary closeness to symbolic media figures is also created. The spectacles through which people perceive and evaluate their lives, hopes, setbacks and present situations are made up of the prisms of possible lives which 'tele-vision' constantly presents and celebrates. Even people fixed to the most hopeless and brutal situations in life—child labourers, for example, or those who live by rummaging through city refuse—are nevertheless open to the sinister play of the imagination fabricated by the culture industry. Impoverishment is refracted, perhaps even duplicated, in the glittering, enticing commodity forms of possible life that lurid advertising everywhere proclaims. This new power of global imagination industries means that local lifestyles are diluted and stirred around with 'models' whose social and spatial origins lie somewhere altogether different. People's own lives and possible lives thus enter at least into ironical conflict with each other. For, as we have seen, even impoverishment is placed under the market power of imaginary lives, remaining locked into the global circulation of images and models which (actively and passively) keeps the cultural economy going.

True

True or False In an age of satellite telephones, global CNN and the possibility of wireless Internet connection almost anywhere, it is hard to imagine that there exists a spot on earth that has not been touched by global communication

True

True or False Of course, globalization is not only about economics. It also has a political, social, or cultural dimension. The political one, for instance, refers to increasing global governance via international institutions or growing alignment of national policies.

True

True or False The pains of cultural reproduction in a disjunctive global world are, of course, not eased by the effects of mechanical art (or mass media), for these media afford powerful resources for counternodes of identity that youth can project against parental wishes or desires. At larger levels of organization, there can be many forms of cultural politics within displaced populations (whether of refugees or of voluntary immigrants), all of which are inflected in important ways by media (and the mediascapes and ideoscapes they off er). A central link between the fragilities of cultural reproduction and the role of the mass media in today's world is the politics of gender and violence. As fantasies of gendered violence dominate the B-grade film industries that blanket the world, they both reflect and refine gendered violence at home and in the streets, as young men (in particular) are swayed by the macho politics of self-assertion in contexts where they are frequently denied real agency, and women are forced to enter the labor force in new ways on the one hand, and continue the maintenance of familial heritage on the other. Thus the honor of women becomes not just an armature of stable (if inhuman) systems of cultural reproduction but a new arena for the formation of sexual identity and family politics, as men and women face new pressures at work and new fantasies of leisure.

True

True or False global markets allow countries to export what they do best or what they have in ample supply. Countries can import what they lack. This specialization increases profits for companies, wages for employees and drives down prices for consumers. However, the gains from globalization are not evenly dispersed. AMONG nations, advanced economies have profited most from globalization. New research shows that by the end of 2018, U.S. consumers had lost a total of $ 1.4 billion per month because of the trade war with China.

True

True or False national and international mediascapes are exploited by nation-states to pacify separatists or even the potential fissiparousness of all ideas of difference. Typically, contemporary nation-states do this by exercising taxonomic control over difference, by creating various kinds of international spectacle to domesticate difference, and by seducing small groups with the fantasy of self-display on some sort of global or osmopolitan stage. One important new feature of global cultural politics, tied to the disjunctive relationships among the various landscapes discussed earlier, is that state and nation are at each other's throats, and the hyphen that links them is now less an icon of conjuncture than an index of disjuncture.

True

However, in this unprecedented situation, where a vaccine could prevent a country's economic collapse, governments might resort to more desperate measures. One tactic might be to ignore patents covering the drugs and manufacture them without consent, according to Søren Holm, a professor of bioethics at the University of Manchester, in England. That's what South Africa did with HIV/AIDS medicine in the 1990s, ultimately forcing drug companies into a humiliating climbdown in which they licensed the medication at a lower price. "It showed that these types of threats tend to work," Holm said. Ultimately, whoever wins the race, the ___is unlikely to find itself shut out. "If the vaccine is discovered somewhere else, then I'm sure that the U.S. will tell that pharmaceutical firm that they have to sell to them as well," Holm added. "The ___is by far the most important market for any large pharmaceutical firm, so it would be commercial suicide for any firm to tell America they have to wait."

U.S.

interconnections

Understanding the structure of human ____ and their impact on economic and social activities are crucial for social sciences

UNESCO stands for

United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation

Wahhabi puritanism

Walking on the streets of Mecca, Hajjis experience a hybrid mix of _____ and Western consumer culture. Even though the advertisements do not feature human figures, the sheer number of sellout signs evokes Paris in the days before Christmas. Of course, prices are usually up during the days of Hajj. Pilgrims spend more than 5 billion riyals (1.33 billion USD) each year to buy souvenirs for friends and relatives back home. Even before the appearance of the Prophet Muhammad, Mecca had been a commercial hub where caravans from Syria met their peers from Yemen. The members of the Quraysh tribe ruling the city in the early 7th century were powerful merchants who gained profit from trading. Muhammad also recognized the importance of trade and Mecca thus remained a call of port for goods even after the capital of the Islamic empire moved from Hejaz to Syria and, later, to Iraq. However, the Wall Street style boutiques surrounding the Mecca Clock Tower are more like Western luxury malls than traditional souks. Wealthy pilgrims can do their shopping at Mango, Ralph Lauren and a spate of other Western luxury boutiques in extravagant plazas, while poorer Hajjis can purchase cheaper clothing and Made in China miniature models of the Kaaba from street vendors.

Globalization quote by Stephen Harper, former Prime Minister of Canada

We have to remember we're in a global economy. The purpose of fiscal stimulus is not simply to sustain activity in our national economies but to help the global economy as well, and that's why it's so critical that measures in those packages avoid anything that smacks of protectionism.

minor services

What character-izes the 'American miracle' is the rise of ____, but it must be emphasized that this presupposes an open immigration policy. In future, admittedly, an unemployed graduate in Munich may find himself compelled to pick asparagus in the villages of Lower Bavaria. Both the asparagus and the asparagus-growers will have cause to regret this, however, because he will have neither the skills nor the motivation that a Polish agricultural labourer would bring to what he would see as a generally better job. he negative aspects of the American jobs miracle are the following. From 1979 to 1989, workers' incomes on the bottom tenth of the jobs ladder fell by a further 16 per cent. Even in middle grades real incomes fell by 2 per cent, and only at the top did they actually rise—by 5 per cent. This downward trend may, it is true, have been halted for the 'working poor' in the period between 1989 and 1997—after all, those who already receive the rock-bottom wage for their work can hardly take another cut. For the majority of middle-grade American workers, however, average incomes have fallen since 1989 by a further 5 per cent. For the first time, we are dealing with an upturn in the economy in which 'full employment' is accompanied by declining real incomes in the middle levels of society.37 'Great,' one said, 'Bill Clinton has created millions of new jobs.'—'Yes,' answered another, 'I've got three of them and I can't keep my family.' In Germany, by contrast, it is still (!) thought a problem that people who work all day for, say, 7 marks an hour should sleep at night in cardboard boxes.

American junk food

When it comes to eating in Mecca, forget traditional Saudi dates and lamb. The main fare and the most readily available dish is _____. Leaving the Haram Mosque through the King Fahd Gate, the first sign a pilgrim sees is a KFC advertisement offering "Hajj ad Umra Meals" containing rolls, fries and halal drumsticks for 15 riyals (4 USD). As the box does not include drinks, thirsty pilgrims have to buy their own. Unfortunately, there are few alternatives to Pepsi products, bottled in the western region of Saudi Arabia. Coca Cola, boycotted by some Muslims for the company's alleged support of Israel, is still available in McDonald's restaurants on al-Houjoon Street, less than two miles away from the Haram. There are many places where one can eat and drink around the Grand Mosque. On the first floor of the neighboring plaza, a Starbucks Coffee offers real Americanos, and Pizza Hut and Burger King too offer their fare. The most tragicomic sight I personally experienced was a Nigerian Hajj praying outside the Haram who used a torn Pizza Hut box for a carpet, placing his forehead right on the logo while bowing. Mecca can accommodate up to three million people during Hajj season. Of course, the price of hotel rooms often goes up tenfold during those days. The wealthiest pilgrims can stay in the Mecca Hilton, part of the Hilton chain, which will soon be inherited by scandal-star Paris Hilton. The 30-storey luxury hotel offers rooms with view of the Kaaba for a price starting from around 200 USD per person per night.

Conflict and balance

___ and ____ It is not difficult to imagine the glocal as a world disintegrating into conflicts. In a sense, even the vision of a 'war of cultures'—for all its peculiarly horrific content—remains stuck in the children's shoes of the national state. For glocalization also means that conflict appears in the place of local ties of communality, and that 'disflict' appears in the place of conflict (which always assumes at least a minimum of integration). One has only to think of a division of the world triggered by exclusion of those 'without purchasing power'—perhaps the future majority of mankind—and hence a Brazilianization of the world.

underdevelopment

Whereas international communication was mainly an East-West issue in the period immediately following World War II, by the 1960s shifts in global power structures - characterised by the growing roles of the newly independent states within Africa and Asia - had brought the Third World to the forefront of debates on international communication (Ayish 2001). Global communication was initially perceived as a vehicle for establishing social change and economic growth - 'modernisation' in other words - in the so-called less industrialised and developing countries of the world (Mowlana 1996; Mowlana & Wilson 1990). Driven by their frustration with decades of Western-oriented development models, Third World nations began to see the Western dominance of international economic and communication systems as causing their '____'. These frustrations resulted in calls for a New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) and the establishment of the MacBride Commission as well as the entry of international organisations such as UNESCO into discourses on international communication. Whereas international communication was mainly an East-West issue in the period immediately following World War II, by the 1960s shifts in global power structures - characterised by the growing roles of the newly independent states within Africa and Asia - had brought the Third World to the forefront of debates on international communication. Global communication was initially perceived as a vehicle for establishing social change and economic growth - 'modernisation' in other words - in the so-called less industrialised and developing countries of the world Driven by their frustration with decades of Western-oriented development models, Third World nations began to see the Western dominance of international economic and communication systems as causing their ''. These frustrations resulted in calls for a ____and the establishment of the MacBride Commission as well as the entry of international organisations such as UNESCO into discourses on international communication. Third World countries came to believe that Western dominance of their economic and communication systems was to blame for their '____'. They proposed International communication: shifting paradigms, theories and foci of interest that international information systems perpetuated existing inequalities and the dependence of the Third World on the developed North for both hardware and software in the communication sector Imbalances in the flow of communication and information were furthermore believed to pose threats to their political independence and national sovereignty, cultural values and socioeconomic development. These allegations were supported by empirical data that indicated that communication with the Third World was indeed a one-way flow from the developed centres - unbalanced and distorted, it tended to focus on 'negative' instead of 'development' news. In his call for a New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO), Masmoudi (1979) comments in this regard that the principle of freedom to information became the freedom of the informing agent, and as such an instrument of domination in the hands of those who control the media.

Connection and fragmentation

___ and ____ Globalization generates (compels) bonding. It is nec-essary to stress this, since the discussion of globalization deprecates it and virtually equates it with fragmentation. There emerge transnational or transcontinental 'com-munities' (this word needs to be redefined) which divide what has often long been seen as an indissoluble unit: they create the basis for geographical and social coexistence and cooperation, but also for a new form of social bonding. This new logic of living and working together in separate places is practised both in transnational corpora-tions (whose offices may be moved to Singapore while production is distributed all over Europe) and in transnational 'communities' (Mexican Americans, American Mexicans), 'families', 'ethnic subcultures' (an imagined Africa), and so on.

Sharia law

While the globalization of Mecca might disturb Muslims, it does not legally conflict with Islamic law. At the same time, several other phenomena are hardly compatible with ______. For example, taking photos inside the Haram is strictly forbidden as Salafis hold that taking pictures of live creatures is an act forbidden by God. This regulation, easily imposed in the age of normal cameras, is now unenforceable. I saw iPhones, BlackBerrys, and Samsung Galaxys and other smartphones merrily clicking away around the Kaaba and the powerless security guards watching it. The list of controversies does not end here. Just a stone's throw away from al-Haram, there are branches of the Riyad Bank and other financial institutions that owe a fair share of their profit to applying interest (known as Riba in Arabic), a practice strictly forbidden by Islamic law. The Saudi British Bank, the Saudi Hollandi Bank and the Banque Saudi Fransi are also proud to have branches in the Holy City. "Why can a mosque can be built in Europe and America, and why can't a church be erected in Saudi Arabia?" is one of the questions asked by opponents of Islamic expansion. The heart of the Muslim world is not as closed to foreign impacts as one might assume. Globalized Western values are spread not only by missionaries, but also through the promotion of a lifestyle and a society based on the consumption of goods, which is at least as incompatible with puritan Islamic values as is ____ with liberal Western ideas. Having a McDonald's, a Hilton and Western-style banks in Mecca is no less controversial than having a grand mosque in the centre of Rome, hearing the call of the muezzin echoing through the Swiss Alps, or, let's say, having a mosque a block away from Ground Zero.

print capitalism

With what Benedict Anderson has called "_____" a new power was unleashed in the world, the power of mass literacy and its attendant large-scale production of projects of ethnic affinity that were remarkably bee of the need for face-to-face communication or even of indirect communication between persons and groups. The act of reading things together set the stage for movements based on a paradox—the paradox of constructed primordialism. There is, of course, a great deal else that is involved in the story of colonialism and its dialectically generated nationalisms (Chatterjee 1986), but the issue of constructed ethnicities is surely a crucial strand in this tale But the revolution of ____ and the cultural affinities and dialogues un-leashed by it were only modest precursors to the world we live in now. For in the past century, there has been a technological explosion, largely in the domain of transportation and information, that makes the interactions of a print-dominated world seem as hard-won and as easily erased as the print revolution made earlier forms of cultural traffic appear. For with the advent of the steamship, the automobile, the airplane, the camera, the computer, and the telephone, we have entered into an altogether new condition of neighborliness, even with those most distant from ourselves.

WTO stands for

World Trade Union

Excursus: two modes of distinction

____ In this connection (and also to clarify the concept of 'dialectics'), I would propose to distinguish in general between exclusive and inclu-sive modes of distinction. Exclusive distinctions follow the logic of Either-Or. They delineate the world as a coordination and subordination of separate worlds, in which identities and memberships are mutually exclusive. Anything falling in between [jeder Zwischen-Fall] is a passing incident [Zwischenfall]. It may confuse and scandalize, forc-ing repression or activities to restore order.

Centralization and decentralization

____ and _____ Many people see globalization quite one-sidedly as a process of concentration and centralization—in the dimensions of capital, power, information, knowledge, wealth, decision-making, etc.—and the reasons they give are often good. But this overlooks the fact that the same dynamic also generates decen-tralization. Local—or, to be more precise, translocal—communities acquire influence by shaping their social spaces, but they also do this in their respective local (that is, national) contexts. National states may cut themselves off from the outside world. But they may just as well adopt an active orientation towards it, relocating and redefining their politics and identity' in the global context of mutual relationships, dialogue and conflict. The same is true of actors at all levels, including intermediate ones, of social existence—from trade unions through churches or consumer associations right down to individuals. For Zygmunt Bauman, diff erent kinds of identity are woven with the global thread of cultural symbols. The local self-diff erentiation industry is becoming one of the (glob-ally determined) hallmarks of the late twentieth century. The global consumer goods and information markets make a selection of what is to be absorbed unavoidable—but the type and mode of the choice are decided locally or communally, so as to provide new symbolic characteristics for the reawakened, reinvented or so far merely postulated identities. Bauman concludes that the community, rediscovered by a new breed of Romantic admirers who see it threatened by dark forces of deracination and depersonalization, is not the antidote to globalization but one of its inevitable global consequences—product and precondition at one and the same time. Two points qualify Bauman's important argument that globalization is leading to a polarization of rich and poor on a world scale. In a way, he may be said to overlook himself. For at least in his perspective as observer, he binds together what he depicts as irrevocably disintegrated in trans-state world society: namely, the framework, the minima moralia, which make the poor appear as our poor, and the rich as our rich.

Transnational social spaces

____ cancel the local associations of community that are contained in the national concept of society. The figure of thought at issue joins together what cannot be combined: to live and act both here and there In the imaginative and political world of individual societies organized as national states, migration is broken down into the stages and contexts of dissolution, travel, arrival and (not necessarily successful) integration, each of which requires separate causal investigation. By contrast, the approach centred on _____ maintains that something new is emerging: social contexts of life and action to which Here-and-There or Both-And applies. Between the separate, organized worlds, what Martin Albrow calls new 'social landscapes' combine and transmute places of departure and places of arrival. In New York itself, for example, newly arriving migrant workers can turn not only to relatives and acquaintances, but also to a well-polished network of informal support groups, specialist services and solidarity organizations (legal advice bureaux, committees to help people from special ethnic groups or regions, etc.). Whole streets (e.g. the northern part of Amsterdam Street, or certain neighbourhoods in Queen's) bear witness to this by now very stable infrastructure, on which transnational migrants can build and which is at the same time reproduced by them. There are gainful activities and social groups (of Mexicans and US-Americans) which live entirely on the constant migration and transmigrants, and whose vital interest lies in further building up ____. This also applies to the sports associations, where some of the migrant workers living in New York (perhaps indocumentados, without a work or residence permit) come together every Sunday. In the 1996 football season, sixty-five teams were registered for the Mexicans' own league.

democracy

____ has clearly become a master term, with powerful echoes from Haiti and Poland to the former Soviet Union and China, but it sits at the center of a variety of ideoscapes, composed of distinctive pragmatic configurations of rough translations of other central terms from the vocabulary of the Enlightenment. This creates ever new terminological kaleidoscopes, as states (and the groups that seek to capture them) seek to pacify populations whose own ethnoscapes are in motion and whose mediascapes may create severe problems for the ideoscapes with which they are presented. The fluidity of ideoscapes is complicated in particular by the growing diasporas (both voluntary and involuntary) of intellectuals who continuously inject new meaning-streams into the discourse of democracy in diff erent parts of the world.

Capitalism

____ is doing away with work. Unemployment is no longer a marginal fate: it affects everyone potentially, as well as the democratic way of life.35 But in abrogat-ng responsibility for employment and democracy, global ___ undermines its own legitimacy. Before a new Marx shakes up the West, some long-overdue ideas and models for a diff erent social contract will need to be taken up again. The future of democracy beyond the work society must be given a new foundation. In Britain, for example, the country so much praised for its jobs record, only a third of people capable of gainful employment are fully employed in the classical sense of the term, against more than 60 per cent still in Germany. Twenty years ago, the figure in both countries was above 80 per cent. What is presented as a rescue remedy—the flexi-bilization of paid employment—has concealed and displaced, not cured, the disease of unemployment. Indeed everything is now rising: the numbers of unemployed and the grey area of part-time work, the insecurity of employment conditions, and the hidden reserves of labour. In other words, the quantity of paid labour is rapidly shrinking. We are approaching a ____ without work, in all the post-industrial countries of the world.

the central feature of global culture today

____ is the politics of the mutual ef-fort of sameness and difference to cannibalize one another and thereby proclaim their successful hijacking of the twin Enlightenment ideas of the triumphantly universal and the resiliently particular. This mutual cannibalization shows its ugly face in riots, refugee flows, state sponsored torture, and ethnocide (with or without state support). Its brighter side is in the expansion of many individual horizons of hope and fantasy, in the global spread of oral rehydration therapy and other lowtech instruments of well-being, in the susceptibility even of South Africa to the force of global opinion, in the inability of the Polish state to repress its own working classes, and in the growth of a wide range of progressive, transnational alliances. Examples of both sorts could be multiplied. The critical point is that both sides of the coin of global cultural process today are products of the infinitely varied mutual contest of sameness and diff erence on a stage characterized by radical disjunctures between diff erent sorts of global flows and the uncertain landscapes created in and through these disjunctures.

Polycentric world politics

_____ The opposition between world-system theory and this view of a dual world society is obvious enough. In place of a single world-market system 'gov-erned' by economics, Rosenau postulates a _____in which it is not only capital or national governments, nor even the UN, World Bank or Greenpeace, which have the only say, but all compete with one another to achieve their aims—even if they do not all have the same power opportunities.

Universalism and particularism

_____ and _____ The growing worldwide uniformity of institutions, symbols and behaviour (McDonald's, blue jeans, democracy, information technology, banks, human rights, etc.) is not contradicted by the new emphasis on, the new dis-covery and defence of, local cultures and identities (Islamicization, renationalization, German pop and North African rai, Afro-Caribbean street carnival in London or Hawaiian veal sausage). Indeed, to take the example of human rights, they are presented in nearly every culture as universal rights, but at the same time they are interpreted and represented in often quite diff erent ways according to the context.

Principle of the Hierarchy

_____ indicates political, economic and ideological dominance between composite units that is the consequence of political dominance, inequalities in exchange and interaction relationships and the exploitation of resources. However, world system theorists differ from dependency and imperialism theorists in that they do not necessarily assume that all relationships and forms of interaction between the centre and periphery are necessarily unequal, but also make provision for the existence of equal relationships between various levels. They furthermore point to the possibility that dominance can also exist between units on the same level. In order to account for inequality in a particular case, it is consequently necessary to analyse the complexity of relationships and interactions. The fact that _____acknowledges both equal and unequal relationships makes it a useful theoretical framework for empirical research into the flow of capital, international relationships, media contents and information in the new global order. However, the theory can be criticised for the fact that it gives little attention to the causes and consequences of inequality, dominance and hierarchy in the world system.

Apple

_____, for instance, had bet heavily on China as a manufacturing and distribution hub as well as a burgeoning market, which made the company vulnerable when tensions and tariffs flared. As The Journal recently reported, Apple is now looking to move some of its China-based operations elsewhere, in reaction to both the trade war and the supply chain havoc caused by the coronavirus. But the company's likeliest move will be to other locations in East Asia, not to American shores.

Sovereignty divided and shackled

______Against the theory of a hegemonic power structure as the precondition of globalization, it can and must be objected that globalization is making obsolete the concept of political sovereignty upon which it is based. This is the argument put forward by David Held. He shows how—as a result of international treaties, the internationalization of political decision-making and the growing interde-pendence of security policy (including the now far-advanced internationalization of arms production), as well as through the arms trade and the international division of labour—national politics has been losing what used to be the core of its power: namely, its sovereignty. In the wake of globalization

World-system theory

____then deepens this perspective to the point that all social action is seen as taking place within one overarching framework, the framework of the capitalist world-system, in which an advancing inequality and division of labour install themselves.

International communication

a phenomenon is probably as old as human society itself and has occurred ever since people organised themselves into communities and began to exchange ideas and products Within this tumultuous and continuously changing landscape of global communication, the (sub)discipline of communication science, dedicated to the phenomena related to global communication, is commonly known as '____ However, from previous discussions it should be clear that the term 'international' no longer reflects the full scope of global communication as we currently know it. Prominent authors in the field, such as Mowlana and Thussu , consequently raise the question of whether the term is still appropriate. The Collins English Dictionary (2006: 417) defines the term 'international' as '1.) of or involving two or more nations; 2.) controlling or legislating for several nations'. Thus the classic understanding of 'international' refers to that which exists, involves or is carried across or takes place between two or more nation states. According to this definition, the field of ____ should be understood to focus mainly on interactions between and among nation states.____ as a field of study has indeed developed from the study of international relations Thus analyses of _____have traditionally been associated with inter-state and inter-governmental interactions such as diplomacy and government propaganda, in which powerful states dictate the communication agenda. However, vast developments in the media and ICTs during the late 20th century have resulted in a radical expansion of the scope of____. Currently communication across national borders has expanded to a large diversity of business to-business and people-to-people interactions on a global level. Furthermore, not only the representatives of nation states, but also a variety of non-state actors such as international non-governmental bodies, social movements as well as ordinary individuals are increasingly shaping the nature of transnational communication. Mowlana (1997) consequently proposes a shift from the classical view of ___ to a vision of global communication in order to reflect the full scope of communication between nation states, institutions, groups and individuals across national, geographical and cultural borders. Thussu defines ____ simply as communication that occurs across international borders. According to the Massachusetts Institute's Center for International Studies (MIT center), words, acts or attitudes can be defined as ____ whenever they impinge - intentionally or unintentionally - upon the minds of private individuals, officials or groups from other countries These definitions not only broaden the scope of ____ beyond the ambit of inter-statal and inter-governmental communication, but also deviate from a mere technological focus by acknowledging the human and social dimensions of global communication within a complex process of manifold interchanges by means of signs and symbols. Thanks to these definitions, _____ is depicted as an extremely broad field involving social conditions, attitudes and institutions that have an effect on the production and/or reception of various forms of communication among people. Thus, _____ as a field of study recognises not only the media and technologies through which impulses pass, but also the attitudes and social circumstances of the sources, the predisposition of receivers, as well as the effects and impact of the contents. Although we fully acknowledge the expanding scope of the field, we will continue to use the term 'international' when referring to the field of study - not only because the field and related phenomena are more commonly known by this term. However, we use the terms 'global communication' and 'world communication' interchangeably with _____ when referring to the multitude of processes and phenomena related to the field.

production fetishism

an illusion created by contemporary transnational production loci that masks translocal capital, transnational earning flows, global management, and often faraway workers (engaged in various kinds of high-tech putting-out operations) in the idiom and spectacle of local (sometimes even worker) control, national productivity, and territorial sovereignty. To the extent that various kinds of free-trade zones have become the models for production at large, especially of high-tech commodities, production has itself become a fetish, obscuring not social relations as such but the relations of production, which are increasingly transnational. The locality (both in the sense of the local factory or site of production and in the extended sense of the nation-state) becomes a fetish that disguises the globally dispersed forces that actually drive the production process. This generates alienation (in Marx's sense) twice intensified, for its social sense is now compounded by a complicated spatial dynamic that is increasingly global

Cultural transactions

between social groups in the past have generally been restricted, sometimes by the facts of geography and ecology, and at other times by active resistance to interactions with the Other (as in China for much of its history and in Japan before the Meiji Restoration). Where there have been sustained cultural transactions across large parts of the globe, they have usually involved the long-distance journey of commodities (and of the merchants most concerned with them] and of travelers and explorers of every type

Structural theory of imperialism

can be regarded as an expansion and refinement of the dependency theory. It not only offers explanations for existing inequalities between regions, nation states and collectivities, but also emphasises the possibility of the existence of inequalities within a particular region, nation state and/or collectivity. Galtung points to the fact that there are elites in peripheral countries whose interests coincide with those of elites in the centre. These 'cores' or 'centres' within peripheral states provide a bridgehead through which the centre can enact its dominance of the periphery. In terms of culture, values and attitudes, elites in the periphery are often nearer to elites in the centre than to the people in their own country Galtung attempts to define the concept of 'imperialism' more precisely by distinguishing between interaction relationships and interaction structures that result in imperialism. He holds the reason for interaction between nation states or collectivities as the fact that they dispose of different complementary resources which creates the need for exchange. For example, one nation state could have the resources essential for the production of a particular product, while another might have the factories and skills to produce the product. Both parties are changed when resources are exchanged. In an imperialistic relationship, a gap is created and/or widened when the exchange is cumulatively unequal or asymmetric as regards the benefits for each party. The factors which determine whether exchanges are equal or unequal are the nature of the value exchange between the two parties, as well as the positive or negative consequences for each.

After the 2008 debt crisis, _____ have become a hot research topic. Not surprisingly, a substantial part of the literature in economics and finance studies is focused on understanding systemic risks and the stability within the global markets. Many studies combine disciplines such as network science and evolutionary biology to understand how seemingly stable economies become unstable at a certain point

cascading phenomena

The collapse of _____ systems has been evident in political governance as it happened in the former republics of the Soviet Union. These countries were centrally planned economies, which were managed by a reduced number of people. However, their over-_____ power tended to amplify the corruption effects from the central state agencies. Additionally, the overload of bureaucracy and the excessive concentration of administration tasks and responsibilities slowed down economic abilities to respond and adapt to the requirements of both the market and people. It constrained economic development and led to a systemic inefficiency of the whole government.

centralized

social system

classes, status groups, religious and ethnic groups, male and female ways of liv-ing

On the other hand, these very cravings can become caught up in new ethnoscapes, mediascapes, and, eventually, ideoscapes, such as democracy in China, that the state cannot tolerate as threats to its own control over ideas of nationhood and peoplehood. States throughout the world are under siege, especially where

contests over the ideoscapes of democracy are fierce and fundamental, and where there are radical disjunctures between ideoscapes and technoscapes (as in the case of very small countries that lack contemporary technologies of production and information); or between ideoscapes and financescapes (as in countries such as Mexico or Brazil, where international lending influences national politics to a very large degree); or between ideoscapes and ethnoscapes (as in Beirut, where diasporic, local, and translocal filiations are suicidally at battle), or between ideoscapes and mediascapes (as in many countries in the Middle East and Asia) where the lifestyles represented on both national and international TV and cinema completely overwhelm and undermine the rhetoric of national politics. In the Indian case, the myth of the law-breaking hero has emerged to mediate this naked struggle between the pieties and realities of Indian politics, which has grown increasingly brutalized and corrupt.

In the case of decentralized systems, it can also happen that some nodes exceed their capacity due to an growing number of interdependencies. It was observed in the recent economic crisis in Europe, where the financial systems of all the member states were highly interconnected. Thus, despite the efforts and mechanisms of the European Union (EU) authorities for avoiding a contagion effect, the opening of new and critical paths for risk transmission was evident. EU authorities had to approve multiple and substantial financial bailouts to Greece since early world financial crisis ($146 billion in 2010, $172 billion in 2012, $86 billion in 2015) despite the Greek economy accounts for less than 2% of the EU GDP (with around $200 billion in 2017) Even so, the collapse risks could not be fully controlled. In the present, consequences of such collapse have clearly reached beyond the initial economic crisis into the sociopolitical sphere. Strong reactionary movements, mostly nationalists, have accompanied the austerity policies implemented across the region Within complex systems theory, these ____ movements are signaling the need for a reduction of interdependencies among national economies.

deglobalization

As a reaction to the globalized economy, some political movements have confrontationally emerged in recent years. Major episodes such as the Brexit referendum (2016) or the elections of Donald Trump in the United States (2016) and Bolsonaro in Brazil (2018), as well as the outcome of other minor elections and referendums across Europe and the Americas, show that these trends are relevant. these episodes are the start point of a _____ process all around the world, which is evidenced by misalignment and confrontation between people and the ____

deglobalization; Establishment

ié and Morales (2019) analyzed the propagation of failures on different topologies of economic networks, where nodes represented agents and edges economic interdependencies. Agents create products as a function of the interdependencies established with the network neighbors. A high number of connections increase the products and economic activities they can engage in. During simulations, agents can fail with a given likelihood (______).

failure probability

Communist Manifesto what are some things that it shows?

first, eulogized the revolutionary role of the 'bourgeoisie' in world history second, that the debate on 'exploitation of the world market' goes back much further than the short-term memory of public discussions would care to admit; third, that ironically the neoliberal and original Marxist positions share the same basic assumptions; and fourth, but not least, that the national vision which still holds the social sciences captive was already being questioned when it first emerged in the maelstrom of rising industrial capitalism.

Three myths screen public debate from the reality of the situation:

first, everything is much too complicated anyway (the unfathomability myth); second, the coming upturn in the service sector will save the work society (the services myth); third, we have only to drive down wage-costs and the problem of unemployment will vanish (the costs myth).

For Rosenau, then, the passage from the national to the postnational age has to do

first, with conditions within the international political system and, second, with the fact that the monocentric power structure of rival national states has been and is being replaced by a polycentric distribution of power in which a great variety of transnational and national actors compete or cooperate with one another.

transnational 'communities'

for example, around religion (Islam), knowledge (experts), lifestyles (pop, ecology), kinship (the family) or political orientations (environmental movement, consumer boycotts);

Systems become ____ when perturbations damage their behaviors. This may happen because nodes are excessively interconnected or these mostly depend on a much-reduced number of central nodes.

fragile

cultural imperialism

is used in this regard to argue that international media flows of both media hardware and software serve to strengthen dependency and hinder true development Closely related to cultural imperialism is the concept of 'media imperialism' which emphasises more specifically media inequalities between the centre and the periphery, and how these inequalities reflect broader issues of dependency, exploitation and hegemony especially with regard to Western-dominated international media such as news agencies, magazines, films, radio and television Also related is the concept of 'electronic colonialism' that refers to inequalities in ICT infrastructure and hardware and the role of MNCs in this regard. The cultural imperialism thesis is furthermore criticised for being totalitarian for not taking into account how the meaning of global media contexts is negotiated in various national and local contexts, and for ignoring local patterns of media consumption.

Critical theory

is yet another theoretical tradition with its roots in Marxism. It holds that the means of production in society - that is the economic structures - determine the nature of society Researchers at the Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt - known as the Frankfurt School, with prominent researchers such as Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno and Herbert Marcuse - played a leading role in the development of the theory. With the rise of Nazism in Germany, the scholars of the Frankfurt School emigrated to the USA where they established the Institute for Social Research at Columbia University. Here they devoted their attention to the impact of the mass media and the international production of cultural goods (films, radio programmes, music and magazines) on societies. Within the critical tradition, mass media structures are predominantly perceived as structures of oppression It is argued that in capitalist societies culture is commodified, as cultural products have assumed an exchange value that has largely replaced their intrinsic value. Management practices, technological rationality and organisational structures similar to those involved in the production and exchange of commodities such as, for example, cars, are also employed in the production of cultural products. Cultural products are furthermore sold to consumers in the marketplace just as other commodities whose value is not determined by their intrinsic worth, but rather by their entertainment value and ability to satisfy psychological needs. This 'assembly-line character' of cultural production results in standardisation bearing an industrial stamp. The standardisation and commodification of culture is furthermore aggravated by the concentration of the ownership of production of cultural products in a few producers and countries of the world. According to cultural theorists, the resultant mediated 'mass culture' that thrives on market rules of demand and supply, has various negative effects (ibid). It firstly leads to the deterioration of the philosophical role of culture. Furthermore, it undermines the ability of the masses to critically engage with important socio-political issues and leads to politically passive behaviour and the subordination of the masses to the ruling elite. It also serves to incorporate and immerse the working classes into the structures of capitalism, thus limiting their political and economic horizons as they no longer seek to challenge these structures. Within international communication, critical theories have stimulated debate on the international flow of information (ibid). Issues regarding the commodification of culture have furthermore become central in discourses on the role of the multinational film, television, book and music industries. The issue was also taken up in a 1982 UNESCO report in which the organisation voiced its concern about the increasing corporisation of cultural industries and the global spread of mainly Western cultural products. The report concluded that these processes have led to the gradual marginalisation of cultural messages that do not take the form of marketable commodities. Critical theory is criticised for its emphasis on reason, and the ownership and control of the means of cultural production as the main factors that determine the activities of artists. Writers and artists have argued that creativity and cultural consumption can thrive simultaneously and independently, and that the production process is not as organised according to rigidly standardised procedures as propagated by the theorists of the Frankfurt School

According to The Pros and Cons of Globalization, Generalization means

it is about fundamental values and scientific evidence

our economic system is being increasingly _____ fostering a permanent flow of goods and people across borders. This is manifested in the creation and expansion of free-trade zones such as the European Economic Area (EEA), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the ASEAN-China Free Trade Area (ACFTA), which reveal the architecture of a unified global market.

globalized

Kevin Robins

has argued that the development of the world market has far-reaching consequences for cultures, identities and lifestyles.

political map,

he boundaries between countries are as clear as ever. [... But] of all the forces eating them away, perhaps the most persistent is the flow of information—information that governments previously monopolized. [...] Their monopoly of knowledge about things happening around the world enabled them to fool, mislead, or control the people. [...] Today [...] people everywhere are more and more able to get the information they want directly from all corners of the world.

mines

he computer, telephone and television giants know that in future profits will be made in the newly opened '_____', where digital technology is being opened up before their fascinated, hungry eyes. At the same time, they realize that their territory will no longer be protected, that giants in neighbouring sectors are watching them with covetous glances. Ruthless warfare is the norm in the media sector.

Internet boom

he higher logic of this shift in capitalism is not a quest for allies but the takeover of other companies. The aim, in a market characterized by constant and unpredictable technological acceleration and surprising consumer successes (such as the ____ is to gain the know-how of those who have already established themselves in the market. [

costs myth

he key illusion in current debate, however, is the ____. More and more people are infected with the (often very militant) conviction that only a radical lowering of labour costs will lead us out of the vale of unemployment. Here the 'American way' is held up as our beacon, yet it is clearly one that involves deep division. According to OECD statistics published in April 1996, jobs for the highly skilled (which are still secure and well paid) have been appearing just as rarely or as often in the United States as they have in high-wage Germany—by an extra 2.6 per cent a year. The real diff erence between the two countries is in the growth of low-paid unskilled jobs.

short of time'

he shrinking of space abolishes the flow of time. The inhabitants of the first world live in a perpetual present, going through a succession of episodes hygienically insulated from their past as well as their future. These people are constantly busy and perpetually '____, since each moment of time is non-extensive an experience identical with that of time 'full to the brim'. People marooned in the opposite world are crushed under the burden of abundant, redundant and useless time they have nothing to fill with. In their time 'nothing ever happens'. They do not 'control' time—but neither are they controlled by it, unlike their clocking-in, clocking-out ancestors, subject to the faceless rhythm of factory time. They can only kill time, as they are slowly killed by it.

Integrated Services Digital Networks (ISDN)

his acceleration was mainly driven by the continued development and expansion of media such as television and, most importantly, the rapid development, improvement and widespread proliferation of ICTs such as satellites, computers and ____.

Financescapes

huge sums of money moving between countries with incredible speed, by means of currency markets, national stock exchanges and speculative enterprises. as the disposition of global capital is now a more mysterious, rapid, and difficult landscape to follow than ever before, as currency markets, national stock exchanges, and commodity speculations move mega-monies through national turnstiles at blinding speed, with vast, absolute implications for small diff erences in percentage points and time units. But the critical point is that the global relationship among ethnoscapes, technoscapes, and financescapes is deeply disjunctive and profoundly unpredictable because each of these landscapes is subject to its own constraints and incentives (some political, some informational, and some technoenvironmental), at the same time as each acts as a constraint and a parameter for movements in the others. Thus, even an elementary model of global political economy must take into account the deeply disjunctive relationships among human movement, technological flow, and financial transfers.

empirical social science,

in which statistics are systematically collected about economic and social processes and situations. In this way, the categories of the state's self-observation become the categories of _____ so that sociological definitions of reality confirm those of bureaucracy.

transnational subpolitics

in which such diverse players as multinational corporations, Greenpeace and Amnesty International, but also the World Bank, NATO or the European Union, stride around.

a community of states

in which the rules of diplomacy and national power remain the key variables; and a world of

ICT

information and communication technologies

ICT stands for

information and communication technologies

The complexity of systems refers to the diversity and heterogeneity of behaviors at multiple scales, ranging from individuals to communities or societies at large. The addition of _____ increases the number of potential relationships among the system parts, enabling the emergence of new types of association and more elaborate behaviors. _____ are the basis for the emergence of collective capabilities that would otherwise be unfeasible. Individuals associate with one another by coupling their behaviors to increase the space of possibilities of the whole system at a larger scale. However, adding _____ has a hidden downside. The more connected a system is, the easier is for errors and unexpected detrimental behaviors to propagate across the system. ____ create new paths for error propagation and may escalate the risks of malfunctions in both frequency and severity

interdependencies

The _____ analyzes the structure and dynamics of different types of systems. This structure (also called topology) determines the hierarchical relationships among nodes.

science of complex systems

The transnational movement of the martial arts, particularly through Asia, as mediated by the Hollywood and Hong Kong film industries

is a rich illustration of the ways in which long-standing martial arts traditions, reformulated to meet the fantasies of contemporary (sometimes lumpen) youth populations, create new cultures of masculinity and violence, which are in turn the fuel for increased violence in national and international politics. Such violence is in turn the spur to an increasingly rapid and amoral arms trade that penetrates the entire world. The worldwide spread of the AK-47 and the Uzi, in films, in corporate and state security, in terror, and in police and military activity, is a reminder that apparently simple technical uniformities often conceal an increasingly complex set of loops, linking images of violence to aspirations for community in some imagined world.

Cultural studies

is another theoretical tradition closely related to the critical tradition of the Frankfurt School, as well as to Gramsci's theory of hegemony The tradition had its origins at the Centre for Contemporary ____ in Birmingham, England, with Stuart Hall as its leading scholar. Preston views the ____approach as a reaction against the holistic focus of structural and production-oriented analyses of political and economic power relationships, as represented in debates regarding the MacBride report, dependency theory, political economy and similar approaches. Instead of focusing on either the media or the audience,____ tend to focus on communication as a cultural process. Broader issues of culture - instead of media or ICTs, institutions or power relations - are therefore the main foci of interest. This multidisciplinary enterprise is therefore mainly interested in the ideologies that dominate a culture and has been focusing on cultural change on the basis of culture itself. It is consequently predominantly populist in nature, in contrast to the intellectualism of the critical school. The main interests of cultural theorists have been the textual analysis of media texts - especially television texts - as well as ethnographic research. Of particular importance is Hall's model of the encoding and decoding of media messages and how these messages can be interpreted in different ways - from accepting the dominant meaning, negotiating with the encoding message or opposing or resisting the dominant viewpoint as embedded in the media text. An important contribution of cultural theorists is the fact that they have created the possibility of studying all kinds of issues and subcultures that were excluded from earlier theories of international communication Marginalised topics and politics of identity and difference related to race, ethnicity, gender and sexuality have consequently entered into the discourse. The emphasis on the marginalised, ordinary and popular has also provided an essential balance, with theories that focus on structural issues of power. However, a major shortcoming of the work of cultural theorists is the fact it has an overriding British, European and/or Western perspective (ibid). Perceptions of the 'global' are often based on the study of migrant populations in Western countries. The cultural approach is also criticised from a Marxist perspective for its lack of classbased analyses, despite its emphasis on the 'popular'. Despite its shortcomings, the cultural approach has grown in importance and with its new-found interest in the 'global-popular', cultural studies represents a fast internationalising trend in theory and research.

The globalization of culture

is not the same as its homogenization, but globalization involves the use of a variety of instruments of homogenization (armaments, advertis-ing techniques, language hegemonies, and clothing styles) that are absorbed into local political and cultural economies, only to be repatriated as heterogeneous dialogues of national sovereignty, free enterprise, and fundamentalism in which the state plays an increasingly delicate role: too much openness to global flows, and the nation-state is threatened by revolt, as in the China syndrome, too little, and the state exits the international stage, as Burma, Albania, and North Korea in various ways have done.

World system theory

is regarded as an expansion of dependency theory and imperialism theory . However, one of the most important contributions of the theory is the fact that - instead of focusing predominantly on relationships between the centre and the periphery - it acknowledges the emergence of a new social system, namely a global or world system, in the current world order. s the world system as a multicultural network for the exchange of 'essential goods'. The term 'world system' indicates the social context in which people in the modern era live. However, not all interactions are necessarily of a global nature. The systemic character of the world system is rather situated in the fact that events in one part of the globe have important consequences for events, interactions and social structures in other parts of the world. It also indicates that - due to the worldwide proliferation of ICTs - various smaller systems are connected to form a global system. The reference to multicultural networks indicates that the networks connect people, groups and societies that differ culturally, speak different languages and have different normative institutions. furthermore recommend that the definition not only focus on cultural groups organised in nation states, but also on smaller units such as cultural minorities, so-called 'stateless' groups as well as organisations and individuals. They consequently prefer the term 'composite units' to 'societies' or 'states'. Whereas Wallerstein initially refers to essential goods purely in terms of food and raw materials necessary for the fulfilment of material needs, Chase-Dunn and Hall broaden this view by including all social and other forms of interaction worldwide that serve to uphold or change internal structures. It consequently also refers to forms of interaction such as wars, diplomacy, intermarriages, and - most importantly - the exchange of information. Thus economic, political, cultural and scientific forms of interaction all form part of the world system. World system theorists also acknowledge inequality or hierarchy - as they prefer to call it - in the structure of interactions within the world system Shannon adds another level to the twofold distinction between centre and periphery. He defines a third zone - the semi-periphery - which refers to nation states and regions that can compete with the centre in certain aspects, but in other aspects resemble the periphery. Brazil and Argentina are mentioned as examples of states on the semi-periphery

'____' which emphasises more specifically media inequalities between the centre and the periphery, and how these inequalities reflect broader issues of dependency, exploitation and hegemony especially with regard to Western-dominated international media such as news agencies, magazines, films, radio and television

media imperialism

The coronavirus crosses borders without regard for national boundaries or identities. But the response to it, and the hunt for a vaccine, has been caught up in a tide of ____ that was already sweeping the world before the virus hit, and may end up delaying distribution of a vaccine to billions of people.

nationalism

This tension between ____ and ____ was illustrated at a virtual summit hosted by the European Union last week.

nationalism; internationalism

Roland Robertson

one of the founders of cultural globalization theory and research, never tires of emphasizing that globalization always also involves a process of localization.

Nicolas Tenzer, chair of the Cerap think tank in Paris, argues that the rising barriers in response to the virus will strengthen "the _____ and _____ forces that have long called for reinforcing borders. It is a true gift for them."

populist; nationalist

electronic colonialism'

refers to inequalities in ICT infrastructure and hardware and the role of MNCs in this regard

Political economy

regards the ____ approach as an umbrella theory that encompasses many of the other theories of international communication, such as dependency and hegemony. In contrast to cultural analyses (see p. 35), it primarily concerns itself with underlying structures of political and economic power. Central to Marx's interpretation of international communication is the question of power which is perceived as an instrument the ruling classes use to control the masses According to this view, the class with the means of material production simultaneously controls the means of mental production. In other words, the ruling class regulates both the production and distribution of the ideas of its age. In international communication, much of the critical research with regard to political economy has been related to patterns of ownership and production in the media and communications industries (ibid). These have been analysed within the overall context of national and transnational social and economic power relations. One of the central themes of research has been the commodification of communication hardware and software and its impact on inequalities in access to the media and communication. One of the important themes within the critical political economy approach in international communication is the transition from American post-war hegemony to a global order where world communication is dominated by transnational and multinational corporations supported by their national governments, which are linked to and integrated in global structures (ibid). Researchers mainly focus on corporate and state power, especially with regard to patterns of ownership in media and communication industries worldwide. In particular, attention is given to vertical integration (of companies controlling a specific sector) as well as horizontal integration (across sectors as well as companies within and outside media and communication industries). Scholars such as Hamelink have been campaigning for information and communication equality and have introduced human rights issues to debates on international communication. Critics of the dominant market-based approach, on the other hand, have been advancing the public-service approach of state-regulated media and communications, where public interest concerns are given preference to governmental regulatory and policy bodies at national, regional and international levels (see Fourie 2003). Thussu and Preston have pleaded for a revival of research into the political economy of international communication if the (sub)discipline wants to claim relevance with regard to pressing social and political issues. In doing so, significant contributions can also be made to the wider scene, such as international relations in the world of today. Important themes for analysis are the role of transnational media and communication corporations, as well as international organisations such as the WTO and the ITU in the increasingly market-driven international environment. In this regard Thussu mentions the extensive control that Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation exercises globally, over both information hardware (such as delivery systems) and software (such as programme content). Another important topic is the influence new ICTs, such as the Internet, have on the international communication environment. These need to be studied against the background of the challenges presented by events in the global order, such as the demise of the Soviet Union, the introduction of market socialism in China and the rightward shift of the left in Europe and Third World nations. It can therefore be predicted that the critical political economy approach will remain an important paradigm within international communication research - it can play a vital role in our understanding of the expansion, acceleration and consolidation of global media and communication industries.

good theory

should lay the foundation for quality empirical research and provide a basis not only for explaining global communication processes and their effects, but also for making predictions with regard to future tendencies and proactive policy formulation. Most of the theories, paradigms and foci of interest deal with macro and meso issues, while little attention is given to the effects of global communication on micro levels. There is furthermore a tendency - probably due to the influence of media studies - to focus predominantly on cultural issues, thus neglecting the impact of global communication in other domains. A further question to be asked is whether the current preoccupation with information flows really creates a full understanding of global communication in the 21st century. In this sense, a critical question for discussion is to what extent the theoretical paradigms, as discussed in this article, really cover the full complexity of global communication in the 21st century.

transnational events

such as the World Cup, the Gulf War, the American election campaign or the publication of a Salman Rushdie novel can lead via satellite television to turmoil in quite diff erent countries and continents;

transnational structures

such as various forms of work, production and coopera-tion, banks, financial flows, technical know ledge, and so on, create and stabilize across distances the contexts of action and crisis.

transnational organizations

such as the World Bank, the Catholic Church, the International Association of Sociologists, McDonald's, Volkswagen, drug cartels and the Italian mafia, as well as the new International of NGOs, act alongside, with or against one another;

Hegemony Theory

the Italian Marxist, Antonio Gramsci (1891-1937), who died in prison under the Fascist regime in Italy In accordance with Marxist viewpoints, society is perceived as the site of struggle among interests through the domination of one ideology over others (Littlejohn & Foss 2005). Hegemony refers to the process of domination where one set of ideas subverts, co-opts or dominates another. According to Gramsci a dominant group in society has the capacity to exercise intellectual and moral control over society at large, with the support of a system of social alliances. Military force is not regarded as the only or most effective force to retain power. The building of consent by means of the ideological control of cultural production and distribution is a much more efficient instrument in wielding power. Such a system exists when a dominant class exerts moral and intellectual dominance over a subordinate class by means of institutions such as schools, government institutions, religious bodies and the mass media. In international communication, the concept of hegemony is often employed to refer to the political, social and cultural functions of the media The international mass media are regarded as key players in propagating and maintaining the ideologies f dominant forces within the global system. Even if and when the media are free from direct governmental control, they nevertheless act as agents to legitimise the dominant ideology. Gramsci's ideas on hegemony are also the foundation stones of political economy and critical theory, which are discussed in the following sections.

NAFTA stands for

the North American Free Trade Agreement

primordia

the central paradox of ethnic politics in today's world is that _____ (whether of language or skin color or neighborhood or kinship) have become globalized. That is, sentiments, whose greatest force is in their ability to ignite intimacy into a political state and turn locality into a staging ground for identity, have become spread over vast and irregular spaces as groups move yet stay linked to one another through sophisticated media capabilities. This is not to deny that such ____ are often the product of invented traditions or retrospective affiliations, but to emphasize that be-cause of the disjunctive and unstable interplay of commerce, media, national policies, and consumer fantasies, ethnicity, once a genie contained in the bottle of some sort of locality (however large), has now become a global force, forever slipping in and through the cracks between states and borders.

fetishism of the consumer

the consumer has been transformed through commodity flows (and the mediascapes, especially of advertising, that accompany them) into a sign, both in Baudrillard's sense of a simulacrum that only asymptotically approaches the form of a real social agent, and in the sense of a mask for the real seat of agency, which is not the consumer but the producer and the many forces that constitute production. Global advertising is the key technology for the worldwide dissemination of a plethora of creative and culturally well-chosen ideas of consumer agency. These images of agency are increasingly distortions of a world of merchandising so subtle that the consumer is consistently helped to believe that he or she is an actor, where in fact he or she is at best a chooser.

atomic pact

the dangers of regional or global self-destruction by nuclear, chemical or biological weapons have by no means disappeared; indeed, they have broken out of the control structure of a superpower

Mediascapes:

the distribution of opportunities for the production and dissemination of electronic images. refer both to the distribution of the electronic capabilities to produce and disseminate information (newspapers, magazines, television stations, and film-production studios), which are now available to a growing number of private and public interests throughout the world, and to the images of the world created by these media. hese images involve many complicated inflections, depending on their mode (documentary or entertainment), their hardware (electronic or preelectronic), their audiences (local, national, or transnational), and the interests of those who own and control them. What is most important about these mediascapes is that they provide (especially in their television, film, and cassette forms) large and complex repertoires of images, narratives, and ethnoscapes to viewers throughout the world, in which the world of commodities and the world of news and politics are profoundly mixed. What this means is that many audiences around the world experi-ence the media themselves as a complicated and interconnected repertoire of print, celluloid, electronic screens, and billboards. The lines between the realistic and the fictional landscapes they see are blurred, so that the farther away these audiences are from the direct experiences of metropolitan life, the more likely they are to construct imagined worlds that are chimerical, aesthetic, even fantastic objects, particularly if assessed by the criteria of some other perspective, some other imagined world. Mediascapes, whether produced by private or state interests, tend to be image-centered, narrative-based accounts of strips of reality, and what they off er to those who experience and transform them is a series of elements (such as characters, plots, and textual forms) out of which scripts can be formed of imagined lives, their own as well as those of others living in other places. These scripts can and do get disaggregated into complex sets of metaphors by which people live as they help to constitute narratives of the Other and protonarratives of possible lives, fantasies that could become prolegomena to the desire for acquisition and movement.

technoscape

the global configuration, also ever fluid, of technology and the fact that technology, both high and low, both mechanical and informational, now moves at high speeds across various kinds of previously impervious boundaries. Many countries now are the roots of multinational enterprise: a huge steel complex in Libya may involve interests from India, China, Russia, and Japan, providing diff erent components of new technological configurations. The odd distribution of technolo-gies, and thus the peculiarities of these technoscapes, are increasingly driven not by any obvious economies of scale, of political control, or of market rationality but by increasingly complex relationships among money flows, political possibilities, and the availability of both un-and highly-skilled labor. So, while India exports waiters and chauff eurs to Dubai and Sharjah, it also exports software engineers to the United States—indentured briefly to Tata-Burroughs or the World Bank, then laundered through the State Department to become wealthy resident aliens, who are in turn objects of seductive messages to invest their money and know-how in federal and state projects in India.

Ideoscapes

the interlinking of images, often in connection with state or opposi-tion ideologies and ideas which have their roots in the Enlightenment. are also concatenations of images, but they are often directly political and frequently have to do with the ideologies of states and the counterideologies of movements explicitly oriented to capturing state power or a piece of it. These ideoscapes are composed of elements of the Enlightenment worldview, which consists of a chain of ideas, terms, and images, including freedom, welfare, rights, sovereignty, representation, and the master term democracy. The master narrative of the Enlightenment (and its many variants in Britain, France, and the United States) was constructed with a certain internal logic and presupposed a certain relationship between reading, representation, and the public sphere. (For the dynamics of this process in the early history of the United States, But the diaspora of these terms and images across the world, especially since the nineteenth century, has loosened the internal coherence that held them together in a Euro-American master narrative and provided instead a loosely structured synopticon of politics, in which different nation-states, as part of their evolution, have organized their political cultures around different keywords As a result of the differential diaspora of these keywords, the political narratives that govern communication between elites and followers in different parts of the world involve problems of both a semantic and pragmatic nature: semantic to the extent that words (and their lexical equivalents) require careful translation from context to context in their global movements, and pragmatic to the extent that the use of these words by political actors and their audiences may be subject to very diff erent sets of contextual conventions that mediate their translation into public politics. Such conventions are not only matters of the nature of political rhetoric: for example, what does the aging Chinese leadership mean when it refers to the dangers of hooliganism: What does the South Korean leadership mean when it speaks of discipline as the key to democratic industrial growth?

ethnoscape

the landscape of persons who constitute the shifting world in which we live: tourists, immigrants, refugees, exiles, guest workers, and other moving groups and individuals constitute an essential feature of the world and appear to affect the politics of (and between) nations to a hitherto unprecedented degree. This is not to say that there are no relatively stable communities and networks of kinship, friendship, work, and leisure, as well as of birth, residence, and other filial forms. But it is to say that the warp of these stabilities is everywhere shot through with the woof of human motion, as more persons and groups deal with the realities of having to move or the fantasies of wanting to move. What is more, both these realities and fantasies now function on larger scales, as men and women from villages in India think not just of moving to Poona or Madras but of moving to Dubai and Houston, and refugees from Sri Lanka find themselves in South India as well as in Switzerland, just as the Hmong are driven to London as well as to Philadelphia. And as international capital shifts its needs, as production and technology generate diff erent needs, as nation-states shift their policies on refugee populations, these moving groups can never aff ord to let their imaginations rest too long, even if they wish to.

Two chronic seats of poverty

the public purse and the private purse of those still in employment—are alone supposed to finance what the rich also enjoy by way of the 'luxuries' of the second modernity: high-quality schools and universities, a smoothly functioning transport system, protection of the countryside, safe streets, all the colour and variety of urban life.

This irreversibly polycentric world politics defines a situation where:

transnational organizations such as the World Bank, the Catholic Church, the International Association of Sociologists, McDonald's, Volkswagen, drug cartels and the Italian mafia, as well as the new International of NGOs, act alongside, with or against one another; • transnational problems such as climate change, drugs, AIDS, ethnic conflicts and currency crises determine the political agenda; • transnational events such as the World Cup, the Gulf War, the American election campaign or the publication of a Salman Rushdie novel can lead via satellite television to turmoil in quite diff erent countries and continents; • transnational 'communities' develop, for example, around religion (Islam), knowledge (experts), lifestyles (pop, ecology), kinship (the family) or political orientations (environmental movement, consumer boycotts); and • transnational structures such as various forms of work, production and coopera-tion, banks, financial flows, technical know ledge, and so on, create and stabilize across distances the contexts of action and crisis.

This competitive vision outlined in the United States and other vaccine-producing powerhouses such as China and India threatens to undermine the efforts of dozens of countries, which are raising billions of dollars in an attempt to find an effective immunizing shot that they say should be available equally around the world. Some experts and former officials fear that leaders such as President Donald Trump may be pursuing the doctrine of "_____." This is the idea that any government whose scientists win this vaccine "race" — as it's often described — might try to hoard the shots for domestic use.

vaccine nationalism

single commodity-world

where local cultures and identities are uprooted and replaced with symbols from the publicity and image departments of multinational corporations. he giant corporations, which aim at market-governed production of universal cultural symbols, employ in their own way the open-frontier world of information technologies about which Rosenau, for instance, goes into such raptures. Satellites make it possible to overcome all national and class boundaries, to plant the carefully devised glitter of white America in the hearts of people all around the world. The logic of economic activity does the rest. Globalization, understood and forced through as an economic process, minimizes costs and maximizes profits. Even small market segments, with their corresponding lifestyles and consumption habits, can expect to win the applause of Wall Street once the barriers of oceans and continents fall away. Transregional market planning is thus a magic formula in the publicity and management departments of global culture industries. Although costs rise in the production of universally serviceable symbols, globalization off ers itself as a promising route to the profit-paradise just around the corner.

G20 leaders get together in an annual summit to discuss and coordinate pressing global issues of mutual interest. Though economics and trade are usually the centerpieces of each summit's agenda, issues like

1. Climate change, 2. migration policies, terrorism, 3. the future of work, 4. global wealth

Because of trade developments and financial exchanges, we often think of globalization as an economic and financial phenomenon. Nonetheless, it includes a much wider field than just flowing of goods, services or capital. Often referred to as the globalization concept map, some examples of globalization are:

1. Economic globalization: 2. Financial globalization 3. Cultural globalization 4. Political globalization 5. Sociological globalization 6. Technological globalization 7. Geographic globalization 8. Ecological globalization

Benefits of Globalization

1. The Engine of Globalization - An Economic Example 2. Globalization Benefits - A Financial Example 3. Globalization - A Cultural Example

the G20 was been struggling to be successful at coordinating monetary and fiscal policies and unable to root out tax evasion and corruption, among other downsides of globalization. As a result of this and other failures from the G20 in

1. coordinating globalization, 2. popular, nationalist movements across the world have been defending countries should pursue their interests alone or form fruitful coalitions.

Globalization is deeply connected with economic systems and markets, which, on their turn, impact and are impacted by social issues, cultural factors that are hard to overcome, regional specificities, timings of action and collaborative networks. All of this requires

1. on one hand, 2. global consensus and cooperation, and on the other, 3. country-specific solutions, apart from a good definition of the adjective "just".

By promoting large-scale industrial production and the globalized circulation of goods, globalization is sometimes opposed to concepts such as

1. resource savings, 2. energy savings 3. the limitation of greenhouse gases.

Globalization affects all sectors of activity to a greater or lesser extent. By doing so, its gap with issues that have to do with _____and _____ is short.

1. sustainable development 2. corporate social responsibility

In the article from Madikiza and Bornman titled, "International communication: shifting paradigms, theories and foci of interest" has two key arguments

1. the phenomenon of globalization is primarily is the worldwide proliferation of advanced information and communication technologies (or ICTs) 2. 'International' no longer reflects the full scope of global communications

Everett Rogers Herbert Schiller Marshall McLuhan

A key theorist in the study of Globalization communications

Ulrich Beck's Globalization Standpoint

A notion of 'globalization' that stresses the open, multi-dimensional and multi-cultural character of the process. Globalization is a process of paradoxes and ambivalences. For Beck, the new policy structure should be transnational, with states coming together and thereby developing a regional sovereignty and identity beyond the national level: hence his conclusion that "without Europe there can be no response to globalization" Sees the world multi-dimensional and multi-directional Observes the problems with capitalist world market and the subsequent creation of 'winners and losers' Beck focuses on two main questions: what does globalization mean? and how can it be molded politically?

Globalization Benefits - A Financial Example

At the same time, finance also became globalized. From the 1980s, driven by neo-liberal policies, the world of finance gradually opened. Many states, particularly the US under Ronald Reagan and the UK under Margaret Thatcher introduced the famous "3D Policy": Disintermediation, Decommissioning, Deregulation. The idea was to simplify finance regulations, eliminate mediators and break down the barriers between the world's financial centers. And the goal was to make it easier to exchange capital between the world's financial players. This financial globalization has contributed to the rise of a global financial market in which contracts and capital exchanges have multiplied.

Federal Reserve

But it isn't just goods and people that have circled the world in ever more energetic motion over the past two decades; money has too. In the past 15 years, according to the _____, U.S. holdings of foreign securities rose from $6 trillion to more than $12 trillion, and similar explosive growth occurred for countries around the world. That has gone hand in hand with loosening rules on capital flows. China alone, among major economic players, has meaningful capital restrictions, and only its domestic markets move out of sync with the financial markets of the rest of the world. The absence of any real capital controls and the vastly increased appetite to invest everywhere is why financial markets began crashing once the coronavirus leapt from China. It took weeks for the disease itself to move from South Korea to Europe to the U.S., but it only took days for the financial contagion to spread. That is the pain of the moment for investors, but it is also provides a glimmer of the possible pace and scale of the global recovery when it arrives. Money can evaporate in a heartbeat and flow in an instant.

Why does CSR stand for

Corporate Social Responsibility

The Economic Negative Effects of Globalization

Despite its benefits, the economic growth driven by globalization has not been done without awakening criticism. The consequences of globalization are far from homogeneous: income inequalities, disproportional wealth and trades that benefit parties differently. In the end, one of the criticisms is that some actors (countries, companies, individuals) benefit more from the phenomena of globalization, while others are sometimes perceived as the "losers" of globalization.

Colonialism

Despite its shortcomings, the dependency perspective is nevertheless important as it heralded the beginning of a critical tradition in international communication. Prior to its advent, theorising and research largely focused on the preservation and promotion of the objectives of powerful nation states, thus supporting the status quo. The dependistas also played a prominent role in the NWICO as well as in the Non-Aligned Movement, which made their impact felt in international fora (Servaes, Jacobson & White 1996). With the shift from discourses in international communication to issues of privatisation and liberalisation in the 1990s, theories of media and cultural dependency have moved to the background. However, Boyd-Barrett (in Thussu 2000: 64) declares that the concept of imperialism remains a useful tool to analyse the so-called '____' of communication space. The notion of cultural imperialism has, indeed, moved to the forefront again in discourses on cultural globalisation - one of the latest paradigms of theory and research

Regionalization can also be analyzed from a corporate perspective. Provide examples

For instance, businesses such as McDonald's or Starbucks don't sell exactly the same products everywhere. In some specific stores, they consider people's regional habits. That's why the McChicken isn't sold in India, whereas in Portugal there's a steak sandwich menu like the ones you can get in a typical Portuguese restaurant.

From a globalization perspective, regionalization means

a world that is less interconnected and has a stronger regional focus.

globalization

Stresses the open, multi-dimensional and multi-cultural character of the process. Globalization is a process of paradoxes and ambivalences. ____ does not only mean 'delocation' but also implies 'relocation' is already clear from the facts of economic calculation. In the literal sense of the word, no one can produce anything 'globally'. Firms which produce and market 'globally' must also develop local connections: that is, their production must be able to stand on local feet, and globally marketable symbols must be 'creamed' off local cultures (which therefore continue to remain lively and distinctive). 'Global', more mundanely translated, means 'in several places at once', or translocal.

What is the G20?

The G20 is a global bloc composed by the governments and central bank governors from 19 countries and the European Union (EU). Established in 1999

trade barriers removal and the implementation of huge financial reforms

The joint action of G20 leaders has unquestionably been useful to save the global financial system in the 2008/2009 crisis, thanks to

The Engine of Globalization - An Economic Example

The most visible impacts of globalization are definitely the ones affecting the economic world. Globalization has led to a sharp increase in trade and economic exchanges, but also to a multiplication of financial exchanges. In the 1970s world economies opened up and the development of free trade policies accelerated the globalization phenomenon. Between 1950 and 2010, world exports increased 33-fold. This significantly contributed to increasing the interactions between different regions of the world. This acceleration of economic exchanges has led to strong global economic growth. It fostered as well a rapid global industrial development that allowed the rapid development of many of the technologies and commodities we have available nowadays. Knowledge became easily shared and international cooperation among the brightest minds speeded things up. According to some analysts, globalization has also contributed to improving global economic conditions, creating much economic wealth (thas was, nevertheless, unequally distributed - more information ahead).

post national and transnational

There are parallels and modernism. Beck provides an alternative view which provides what views

The world Systems theory

This theory originated by Immanuel Wallerstein and illuminated by his three-tier structure, proposing that social change in the developing world is inextricably linked to the economic activities of the developed world. In other words, economic and political connections tie the world's countries together. The theory explains the emergence of a core, periphery, and semi periphery in terms of economic and political connections first established at the beginning of exploration in the late 15th century and maintained through increased economic access up until the present.

Globalization - A Cultural Example

Together with economic and financial globalization, there has obviously also been cultural globalization. Indeed, the multiplication of economic and financial exchanges has been followed by an increase in human exchanges such as migration, expatriation or traveling. These human exchanges have contributed to the development of cultural exchanges. This means that different customs and habits shared among local communities have been shared among communities that (used to) have different procedures and even different beliefs. Good examples of cultural globalization are, for instance, the trading of commodities such as coffee or avocados. Coffee is said to be originally from Ethiopia and consumed in the Arabid region. Nonetheless, due to commercial trades after the 11th century, it is nowadays known as a globally consumed commodity. Avocados, for instance, grown mostly under the tropical temperatures of Mexico, the Dominican Republic or Peru. They started by being produced in small quantities to supply the local populations but today guacamole or avocado toasts are common in meals all over the world. At the same time, books, movies, and music are now instantaneously available all around the world thanks to the development of the digital world and the power of the internet. These are perhaps the greatest contributors to the speed at which cultural exchanges and globalization are happening. There are also other examples of globalization regarding traditions like Black Friday in the US, the Brazilian Carnival or the Indian Holi Festival. They all were originally created following their countries' local traditions and beliefs but as the world got to know them, they are now common traditions in other countries too.

True or False By promoting large-scale industrial production and the globalized circulation of goods, globalization is sometimes opposed to concepts such as resource savings, energy savings or the limitation of greenhouse gases. As a result, critics of globalization often argue that it contributes to accelerating climate change and that it does not respect the principles of ecology.

True

True or False Lagarde defends we should pursue globalization policies that extend the benefits of openness and integration while alleviating their side effects.

True

True or False Many critics have also pointed out that globalization has negative effects on the environment. Thus, the massive development of transport that has been the basis of globalization is also responsible for serious environmental problems such as greenhouse gas emissions, global warming or air pollution.

True

True or False a recent report from Oxfam says that 82% of the world's generated wealth goes to 1% of the population.

True

True or False big companies that don't give local jobs and choose instead to use the manpower of countries with low wages (to have lower costs) or pay taxes in countries with more favorable regulations is also opposed to the criteria of a CSR approach. Moreover, the ideologies of economic growth and the constant pursuit of productivity that come along with globalization, also make it difficult to design a sustainable economy based on resilience.

True

True or False global economic growth and industrial productivity are both the driving force and the major consequences of globalization. They also have big environmental consequences as they contribute to the depletion of natural resources, deforestation and the destruction of ecosystems and loss of biodiversity. The worldwide distribution of goods is also creating a big garbage problem, especially on what concerns plastic pollution.

True

True or False globalization is also needed for the transitioning to a more sustainable world, since only a global synergy would really be able to allow a real ecological transition. Issues such as global warming indeed require a coordinated response from all global players: fight against CO2 emissions, reduction of waste, a transition to renewable energies. The same goes for ocean or air pollution, or ocean acidification, problems that can't be solved without global action. The dissemination of green ideas also depends on the ability of committed actors to make them heard globally.

True

What does the UN mean

United Nations

Globalization quote by the former U.S President Bill Clinton

Who said, "No generation has had the opportunity, as we now have, to build a global economy that leaves no-one behind. It is a wonderful opportunity, but also a profound responsibility."

What does the WHO mean

World Health Organization

Transnational social space

____ cancel the local associations of community that are contained in the national concept of society. The figure of thought at issue joins together what cannot be combined: to live and act both here and there. Ludger Pries has illustrated what this means from the field of migration research.5 In the imaginative and political world of individual societies organized as national states, migration is broken down into the stages and contexts of dissolution, travel, arrival and (not necessarily successful) integration, each of which requires separate causal investigation. By contrast, the approach centred on ______ maintains that something new is emerging: social contexts of life and action to which Here-and-There or Both-And applies. Between the separate, organized worlds, what Martin Albrow calls new 'social landscapes' combine and transmute places of departure and places of arrival

Ecological globalization

accounts for the idea of considering planet Earth as a single global entity - a common good all societies should protect since the weather affects everyone and we are all protected by the same atmosphere. To this regard, it is often said that the poorest countries that have been polluting the least will suffer the most from climate change.

Financial globalization

an be linked with the rise of a global financial system with international financial exchanges and monetary exchanges. Stock markets, for instance, are a great example of the financially connected global world since when one stock market has a decline, it affects other markets negatively as well as the economy as a whole.

Economic globalization

is the development of trade systems within transnational actors such as corporations or NGOs;

Geographic globalization

is the new organization and hierarchy of different regions of the world that is constantly changing. Moreover, with transportation and flying made so easy and affordable, apart from a few countries with demanding visas, it is possible to travel the world without barely any restrictions;

Sociological globalization

information moves almost in real-time, together with the interconnection and interdependence of events and their consequences. People move all the time too, mixing and integrating different societies;

In geography, globalization is defined as

the set of processes (economic, social, cultural, technological, institutional) that contribute to the relationship between societies and individuals around the world. It is a progressive process by which exchanges and flows between different parts of the world are intensified.

Globalization

the speedup of movements and exchanges (of human beings, goods, and services, capital, technologies or cultural practices) all over the planet.

NGO

non-governmental organization

In the meaning of communications, the plural definitions means refers to

the technological means and systems used for sending and receiving Mass messages. 1. radio 2. TV 3. internet

Politically speaking, when left-wing parties are in power they tend to focus on

their country's people, goods and services. Exchanges with the outside world aren't seen as very valuable and importations are often left aside.

Technological globalization

the phenomenon by which millions of people are interconnected thanks to the power of the digital world via platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, Skype or Youtube.