Combo with "Ethics in America Terms" and 6 others
Robert Noziak
American philosopher who was a colleague of Rawls at Harvard. He compared income tax to forced labor and stated that redistribution of wealth is only justifiable when it is resolving a past injustice.
John Locke
Beieved that since humans can reason, they can understand Natural Law and are responsible for enforcing it.
Individual Relativism
Belief that what is right or wrong varies from person to person
Natural Law Theory
Beliefs based on the idea that moral standards originate from human nature and the universe, and that deviation from the natural norm is wrong.
Rita Manning
Believe that a caring person will try to resolve conflicts through compromise Care approach tries to seek alternative solutions to satisfy all
Thomas Hobbes
Believed humans, in their natural state without gov't or social order, would be in a constant state of war Humans surrender their natural liberties to gov't in exchange for order and safety
Biblical morality and social-contract theory share which of the following traits?
Both are at least partially based upon contracts between entities
Retributive and distributive justice are similar in which of the following ways?
Both are concerned with the relationship between society and individuals
John Locke
British philosopher, believed humans are not born with any ideas as the mind is blank slate at birth. Said individuals have certain natural rights, The right to live without being harmed, the right to make their own choices, and the right to own property. Those ideas influenced our forefathers in the Declaration of independence (life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.
The Prophets denounce evil in which of the following manners?
By angrily declaring that their flock has sinned, will be punished severely by God, but then forgiven—if they repent and mend their ways
felicific calculus
Calculates the quantity of happiness that an action would produce / gauge of moral rightness Calculates the value of consequential pleasure or pain to an individual according to its intensity, duration, certainty or uncertainty, propinquity or remoteness, fecundity (make fruitful), and purity. to calculate its value to a number of people, one must consider these factors and add a seventh factor: its extent, that is, the number of people who will be affected by the act. When the interests of the community are affected, a complex process of balancing pleasure and pain are followed.
A manager is told at a high-level meeting that she must fire three people as part of a company-wide cost-cutting program designed to raise the company's stock price by lowering operating expenses. For the manager, which of the following two ethical issues are in conflict?
Fidelity and Institutional Responsibilities
Moral Egoism
It is always moral to act in the manner that benefits self-interest. It is always good for society when individuals focus on benefiting themselves.
Kant would object to Bentham's and Mill's "greatest happiness principle" in which of the following ways?
It is based on the results of actions
St. Thomas Aquinas
Just War Tradition
Moral Objectivism
Moral judgements are objectively true or false (Divine Command Theory)
David Gauthier
Moral principles can be interpreted as the outcome of self interest bargains
Cultural Relativism
Moral rightness is determined by the rules developed by that particular culture. Beliefs and morals can change over time
Immanuel Kant
Moral rules are consistently binding on everyone at all times. Treat people the way they would consent to you treating them the same way.
Ethical Egoism
Moral standards override obligations (promotion of self well-being)
Immanuel Kant
Morality is a matter of following absolute rules. Sense of Duty is the guiding principle
J.S. Mill
Morality is to act in a manner that brings the greatest state of happiness to all those affected by our conduct,
Restorative Justice
Opposite of Retributive: it deals with the healing and reconciliation after the crime
In A Theory of Justice, Rawls replaces Hobbes, Rouseau, and Locke's "state of nature" with what?
Original position
Aristotle
Our capacity to reason can be exercised in the pursuit of knowledge and in practical living (ethics)
Martin Luther King
Pacifist (Non-violence) - Civil Rights Movement of the 1950's and 1960's American civil rights movement was working for the cause of justice
If the God of the Bible commands "thou shalt not kill," but then assists the Israelites in their conquest of Canaan, often wiping out whole peoples, we are faced with which of the following situations?
Paradox
Ned Noddings
Parent-child relationship
Aristotle
Particular Justice Distributive and rectifications (restorative) justice Amends unfair division between 2 individuals
Negative Act
Possibility of having several alternative actions available to an agent that could be morally right
Deterrence
Potential criminals try to avoid crime to avoid being imprisoned or killed
Ross
Prima Facia obligations must be weighed and compared
WD Ross
Prima Facie Duties (self evident moral principles)
Ross
Prima facie obligations (duties) are not absolute Obligation is the duty you have and is determined after weighing up obligations Prima Facie duties can be overridden when necessary Problems with Prima facie duties is intellectual immaturity or lack of thought
What system of ethics holds that ethical standards are constructs of society?
Relativism. And this-worldly.
Relativists
Rely more heavily on persuasion than on truth
Science
Representive governments rely on the free and unrestricted flow of information. Which os the following social activites relies on the free and unrestricted flow of information in order to properly operate?
Stage 4
Respect for the rules of the group - focuses on what's necessary to promote the cohesiveness of society (ex: breaking the law is unethical behavior)
Stage 6
Rights and Justice - concerned mostly with justice - being an ideal ethical thinker needs you to distance yourself from a situation to assess it clearly
Abortion
Roe VS. Wade = States can not prevent a woman from having an abortion during the first trimester of pregnancy. Second Trimester it is the womans choice however the state may intervene to save the mother life. Third Trimester the state may protect the baby except at the right of loss of the mother.
J.S. Mill
Rule Utilitarianist.
J.S. Mill
Rule is the correct moral action is the one that produces the most desirable results Actions are judged to be right or wrong based solely on the virtue of their consequences. only happiness or unhappiness matters and no one's happiness or unhappiness is more important than any other person's. Holds actions right in proportion where they promote happiness and wrong where they promote reverse
states that the morally right action is the one that is in accordance with a moral rule whose general observance would create the most happiness.
Rule utilitarians
Ayn Rand
Russian Philosopher that was a moral egoist who had a philosophy of objectivsm which means doing anything for another person will sacrifice happiness unless there is a reward involved.
Ignorance
Socrates believed that all wrong doing is a result of this
Unity of Virtues
Socrates' idea that a person who knows that virtuous action will benefit them will act virtuously in all areas of life.
State of Nature
The condition of people living in a situation without man-made government, rules, or laws.
Restorative
Type of Justice. Violation is seen as again the person and not the State and solutions are sought between the offender, victim, and community in an attempt to encourage healing and reconciliation
Internal
Type of Justice. Within individual professions, a set of rules are established to guide behavior (doctors)
Martin Luther King
U.S. Baptist minister and civil rights leader. A noted orator, he opposed discrimination against blacks by organizing nonviolent resistance and peaceful mass demonstrations. He was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee. Nobel Peace Prize (1964)
covenant
a contract or agreement between two parties to complete a task
human nature
a generalized blueprint for the kind of entity you are
Kohlberg's six stages of moral development
a hierarchy that tracked how people can move from lesser to a more sophisticated ethical reasoning
Stoicism
a philosophy based on the idea that absolute law rules the universe and that humans cannot change fate.
What is the Problem of Evil
a question of how to reconcile the existence of evil with that of a deity who is omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent.
Moral virtue
a relative mean between extremes of excess and deficiency - ini general a life of moderation in all things except virtue
Self-knowledge
according to Socrates this is the sufficient condition to the good life
If a senator takes a much larger percentage of her donations from large corporations than from individuals, then the question of whom she is representing—large corporate donors or her constituents, regardless of donation—is one of
accountability
It is the value of the consequences of the particular act that counts when determining whether the act is right.
act utilitarians
Standard of Happiness
actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness
Vices
bad character traits
intuitionism
based on intuition rather than facts
Deontologists
believe that right and good consist in obedience to objective moral duties
What two topics are prominent in metaethics?
(1) metaphysical issues: concerning whether morality exists independently of humans, and (2) psychological issues: concerning the underlying mental basis of our moral judgments and conduct.
Sophists
-traveled Greece giving lectures -taught about virtue and excellence
Aristotle disapproved of suicide to escape poverty, love or anything painful. He said that these acts were not courageous, but implied that suicide with other more virtuous motives might be.
...
Both argued that ethical behavior depends on maximinzing irrationallity
...
Only Plato argues for the dominace of reason as a necessary prerequisite for ethical behavior
...
all pleasures are of equal value
...
utility is measure by their personal preferences.
...
Thomas Hobbes
..., English materialist and political philosopher who advocated absolute sovereignty as the only kind of government that could resolve problems caused by the selfishness of human beings (1588-1679)
Existentialists
believe there are no universal rules for right and wrong. Full freedom to make own choices but must take all responsibility and risk for actions Rejects absolute moral law such as Divine Command Theory
Jeremy Bentham
believed that moral justification came from utility and good institutions produce good consequences (Hedonistic Utilitarianism)
Kant
believed that morality consisted on acting on the basis of duty alone - the consequences of our actions are often out of our control
Thomas Hobbes
believes that all acts are ultimately self-serving, even when they seem benevolent, that in a state of nature, prior to any formation of government, humans would behave completely selfishly
metha-ethics, what is ?
branch of ethics which seeks to understand the nature of the ethical properties, statements, attitudes and judgments
Some feminist ethical philosophers would substitute or augment the notion of justice with that of
care
principle of universalizability
categorical imperative- only moral actions are those that are universally accepted (kant)
Diogenes claimed
citizenship not of any country but of the world.
normative hedonism
claim that all and only pleasure has worth or value and all and only pain has disvalue - happiness should be pursued
motivational hedonism
claim that only pleasure or pain motivate us - most significant form of psychological hedonism
Epicureanism / hedonism
emerged under Epicurus, asserted that happiness was the purpose of life. According to hedonism achieving happiness involves avoiding pain and increasing pleasure.
Epictetus
former slave who received an education in the doctrine of Stoic philosophy - believed ethical wisdom can be obtained by keeping a moral purpose in harmony with nature
John Locke
founder of Liberalism - believed that everybody must be moved by a desire for his or her own happiness or pleasure.
Standards of disclosure
four basic possible standards: Full Disclosure Standard, Subjective Standard, Customary Practice or Professional Standard, Reasonable Person Standard
Autonomy (from medical perspective)
freedom to accept or refuse treatment
five general principles the 15 laws of nature come from
humans pursue only their own self-interest; all people are equal; three natural causes of quarrel; natural condition of perpetual war; motivation for peace
Virtue
includes a good habit, a mean, and a disposition to act within reason
Stoic philosphy
live according to nature - according to rational principles which involve an emphasis on character and self-mastery - reason links all of society
Golden Mean
maintaining balance and not going to the extreme in either direction is the key to happiness - Aristotle
David Hume
maintains that moral values are relative to our natural human feelings and the urgent needs real situations - our ction should be guided by our feeling good about ourselves while promoting social well-being. Experiences of morality drawn from peoples experiences
autonomy
make our own decisions
Puffery
making exagerated claims about products
Transcendence
means to be beyond the experience.
what is divine command theory
meta-ethical theory: All command by God = morally good
Preemption
military action taken first in self-defense where an attack is imminent. Moral judgment on preemption difficult and would depend on circumstances of each case
rule utilitarianism
set of rules that produces the greatest amount of good for the most people
nihilist
skeptic
contractionism
social contract
Transcendental idealism
the concept that appearances should be view only as representations and not as things themselves (both mind and understanding create reality).
distributive justice:
the fair or equitable division of goods in a community.
The Books of Law
the first 5 books of the Old Testament
Golden Mean
the idea of avoiding extremes - you shouldn't do anything to excess
conflict of interest
when someone's work stands to serve an interest in conflict with his or her obligations as a professional
John Locke
writings profoundly influenced the development of democracy in the U.S. and throughout the world
Leviathan
written by Hobbes - morality consists of Laws of Nature
Thucydides
wrote the History of the Peloponnesian War
Ethics
Reasoning, Rules, and Logic
Prima Facie Duties
Self evident moral principles (WD Ross)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Social Contract Anti Distribution of Wealth
Thomas Hobbes
Social Contract Theory wrote "Leviathan" without government, world would be in constant state of war
Intuitionist
Something that is self-evident doesn't require proof
Autonomy
The ability to make one's own decisions
Hippocratic Oath
To benefit rather than harm
Immanuel Kant
Transcendental Idealism "Respect for Persons"
Best Interest Principle
We should do what for the best interest of the child (in a case for abuse, the child is removed)
Psychological Egoism
actions are guided by motivations that advance self-interest
Contractiaranism
agreement which validates moral principles agreed upon
Ecocentrism (eco-holism)
all living things are equal: humans, plants, and animals
Divine Command Theory
all moral obligations originate from God
The Art of Living
by Epicetus (on respectful actions)
Categorical Moral Reasoning
locates morality in certain duties and rights
Consequentialist Moral Reasoning
locates morality in the consequences of an act
Humean
looks at the motives
Involuntary Euthanasia
no given consent
Collateral Damage
noncombatants killed due to attack on military target
Strong Paternalism
overriding an autonomous decision to protect someone from self-harm
Kant
people have dignity because they are rational agents
Anthropocentric
places human interests above interests of other living things (animals/plants)
Disablement
placing criminals in prison or execution
Teleological Reasoning
reasoning from the "telos" (the goal, end)
Common Sense Morality
suggest the special parent-child relationship imposes strong moral duty on a parent to raise and care for the child
Moral Isolationism
the end moral reasoning
Telos
the point, the end, the goal
Preference-Utilitarianism
utility is measured by personal preferences
Retributive Justice
Aims to prevent further criminal activity
Transcendental Idealism
Appearances are viewed as only representations and not the things themselves. Mind and understanding create reality (Kant)
Jean Paul Sartre
Atheistic Existentialist
Pythagoras
Cosmologist
Economic Inequality
Distribution of wealth and resources
Robert Nozick
Distributive Justice = Tax Tax = Forced Labor Therefore, DJ = Slavery
Kantians
Do the respectful thing
Feminist Ethics
Emerged in 1960s and analyzes/addresses sexual inequalities
Kantians
Follow Kant's beliefs and the Universal Law
Principle of Forfeiture
Killing people in self-defense is allowable
Aldo Leopold
Land ethic reflects conviction of responsibility for the land
Speciesism
Limits moral worth to humans only (Peter Singer)
Locke
Majority rules
Plato
Lying is wrong unless it is done for the good of society
Ayatallah Khameini
Man has no natural rights and we are to submit to God's commands
Justice
Medical Profession Principle. Confidentiality; fair allocation of resources
Non-Maleficence
Medical Profession Principle. applies to acts done and not done (omitted)
Autonomy
Medical Profession Principle. be informed and empowered to make decisions
Beneficence
Medical Profession Principle. doing good
privacy
Mental health professionals, clergy, journalists, physiians and lawyers al have confidential relationships with various people they work with or for. This shows our society's acknowledgement of the importance of which of the following?
What are the three modern ethical theories?
Metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics.
What theory concentrates on the origins and constructs of ethics, including God, society, and satisfying emotion?
Metaethics.
Preemtion
Military action in self-defense
Immanuel Kant
Moral Law based on Categorical Imperative
Buddism
Moral code does not have a divine origin. Dalai Lama asserts that morality helps people achieve happiness many times through reincarnation. Happiness to self and others derives from being loving, compassionate, patient, forgiving, and responsible.
Hinduism
Moral guidance based on a principle called ahimsa. Which is the principle of nonviolence. Ahism involves both behavior feelings towards others, so hatred for another violates ahisma. Emphasis is on being detached from pain and desire and choosing actions that cause the lease amount of harm.
Just War Theory
Moral if: 1) Declared by authority 2) Fought for just cause 3) Appropriate for provocation (Thomas Aquinas)
according to Midgley
Moral isolationism leaves no room for moral reasoning or argument. It prevents people from giving out opinions or comments."
a hypothetical imperative
""If I want to be treated well, then I will have to treat others well"" This statement is an example of which of the following"
St. Thomas Aquinas
"Conscience is the dictate of reason...he who acts against his conscience always sins."
Retributive Justice
"Eye for an eye; Life for a life."
a categorical imperative
"Taking another person's life is unethical"" This statement is an example of which of the following
Aristotle
Basis of ethics in psychology - organized personality will and reason operate in harmony
Gauthier
Egoists encounter strategy-payoff conflicts for the benefit of their long-term interests
A doctor's primary dictum—"do no harm" could be considered to be part of which of the following ethical notions or systems?
Consequentialism
Aristotle
Considers women morally inferior
Stage 2
Egoism and exchange relationships - thinking is based on self-interest and how it can be achieved within relationships
Aristotle
Goal for all humans is happiness - rational activity possessed with Arete
To the ancient Israelites, the ultimate basis of law was
God
Immanuel Kant
(1724-1804) Deontological Ethics; non-consequentialist. 1. happiness is not an intrinsic good, it can be evil. 2. the only intrinsic good is good will (using reason to determine your duty and doing it regardless of consequences. 3. an action is right only if it is done from duty, not self-interest or inclination. 4. what is our duty?
Epicurus
(341-270 B.C.): This philosopher played the major role in developing the philosophy of himism. According to him, and other proponents of this philosophy, people should attempt to seek pleasure and happiness by avoiding painful situations.
Intellectual Virtues
- Scientific Knowledge - Intuitive Reason - Practical Wisdom - Skill - Wisdom
Moral Virtues
- Self-control - Bravery - Self-Respect - Gentleness - Truthfulness - Generosity
Karma
A persons actions determine what happens to them in the future and in future reincarnations.
Thomas Jefferson
..., Virginian, architect, author, governor, and president. Lived at Monticello. Wrote the Declaration of Independence. Second governor of Virgina. Third president of the United States. Designed the buildings of the University of Virginia.
4 main principles derived from Common Morality
1) Beneficence 2) Nonmaleficence 3) Justice 4) Autonomy (from medical perspective)
Reasons for War
1) Defending 2) Protecting Resources 3) Gaining Territory 4) Settling Disputes
Types of Punishment
1) Disablement 2) Deterrence 3) Rehabilitation
Categories of Moral Though
1) Practical Reason (how to act) 2) Pure Reason (what exists)
Opinions on Abortion
1) Right-to-Life (immoral) 2) Woman is in control of her own body (moral)
Types of Existentialists
1) Theistic 2) Atheistic (Jean Paul Sartre)
2 Ethical Issues w/ War
1) When is it ok to resort to war 2) What are the moral limits in waging war
Commandments
1-4 relate to actions of individuals and God 5-10 govern relationships between individuals
Three types of punishment in the American justice system
1. Disablement - placing a convicted criminal in prison or executing a criminal 2. Deterrence - Potential criminals attempt to avoid being imprisoned or executed, so they do not commit crimes 3. Rehabilitation - Prisoners get an education or learn a trade to be used once released from prison to avoid the lure of criminal activity.
Just War Theory
1. It is declared by a competent authority. 2. It is fought for a just cause. 3. It is fought with the right intentions. 4. It is appropriate for the provocations. 5. It is used as a last resort. 6. There is a reasonable chance for success.
A Priori Concepts
1. Space 2. Time 3. Causality 4. Substance
St. Thomas Aquinas
13th Century Christian philosopher. Wrote "The Five Ways," which outlined five proofs for the existence of God.
John Locke
17th century English philosopher who opposed the Divine Right of Kings and who asserted that people have a natural right to life, liberty, and property.
sophists
1st relativists
Kant
If something is inherently wrong, it's always wrong regardless the outcome
Confucianism
3 Key principles Li - propriety, reverence, courtesy, ritual or ideal standard of religious, moral, and social conduct Provides the structure for social interaction Jen - virtue of goodness and benevolence Makes it a moral system Chun-Tzu - True gentleman; Man who lives according to the highest ethical standards. Self-respect, generosity, sincerity, persistence, and benevolence Son - he is always loyal; Father - he is just and kind; Official - loyal and faithful Husband - righteous and just; Friend - faithful and tactful
Feinberg
4 Principles to determine legitimacy in government intervention in individual freedom. The Harm Principle. The Offense Principle. The Paternalism Principle. Legal Moralism.
Joel Feinburg
4 principles to determine legitimacy of government 1) Harm Principle (prevent harm) 2) Offense Principle (prohibit offensive actions) 3) Paternalism (prevent people from harming selves) 4) Legal Moralism
Jean-Jacques Rosseau
A French philosopher who believed that humans were innately good and corrupted by society, and general will--power rests in the citizens.
Immanuel Kant
A German philosopher who believed in categorical imperatives, duty as the highest virtue, and that human beings were ends, not means, and to treat them as such was wrong.
Thucydides
A Greek historian who wrote The History of the Peloponnesian War, which presented a mixture of facts and fact-based fictionalization. In it he raises questions of the ethics of war. He equated freedom with happiness and courage.
Voluntary Euthanasia
A competent and completely informed patient consents to being euthanized.
Categorical Imperatives
A concept developed by Kant. In deciding whether an action is right or wrong, a person should evaluate the action in terms of what would happen if everybody else in the same situation acted the same way.
Carol Gilligan
A feminist psychologist who asserted that men and women have different approaches to moral decisions. Men have an ethics of justice, and focus on applying rules and minimizing emotions, while women have an ethics of care, and consider responsibilities, relationships and emotions. Both approaches are valuable to society.
Thucydides
A greek historian that wrote "The History of the Peloponneasian War". Raised questions about the ethics of war.
Not doing harm
A group of citizens form a knitting circle. This is an example of
Preventing harm
A group of citizens pledges to abstain from littering and hold without fail to this pledge. This is an example of
Doing good
A group of citizens volunteers time to rebuild a home destroyed in a hurricane. This is an example of
Sophists
A group of traveling teachers from the fifth century BC who were paid to lecture on a variety of topics. They can be considered the first relativists, and gained a reputation for being untrustworthy thanks to their reliance on persuasion over truth.
"If I want to pass the Ethics in America test, then I will have to study." This statement is an example of which of the following?
A hypothetical imperative
Martin Luther King
A just law is a man-made code that squares with the moral law or the law of God Any law that degrades human personality is unjust All segregation statutes are unjust because segregation distorts the soul and damages the personality
Aristotle
A philosopher and Plato's student who concentrated on empirical knowledge. He believed that change is necessary and natural, and everything has a purpose. He wrote Nicomachean Ethics, and that balance was the key to happiness.
Nel Noddings
A philosopher who studied the ethics of care, who asserted that studying how people care for those around them leads to understanding how to care for people in society.
Transcendental Idealism
A philosophical concept. Appearances should be viewed as only representations, not the things themselves--both the mind and understanding create reality.
Hinduism
A polytheistic religion in which moral guidance is based on principles like ahimsa (nonviolence), dharma (caste duties) and karma (consequences). It emphasizes detachment from pain and causing as little harm as possible.
Pythagoras
A pre-Socratic philosopher, mathematician and cosmologist who wrote nothing himself, but is historically thought to have believed in the magic of numbers and reincarnation.
Islam
A religion based on the Koran, which incorporates elements of Christianity and Judaism but declares itself to be the fulfillment of both through its prophet, Mohammed.
Christianity
A religion founded by Jesus Christ, based on the Bible, that teaches that humanity is fallen and can only find salvation through faith in Christ and his substitutiary sacrifice.
Veracity
A scientist who has faked results has interfered with which of the following?
Professional code of ethics
A solider asks his unit clergyman to pray that he will kill many of the enemy. The clergyman refuses. On which of the following grounds did the clergyman most likely refuse?
Who is Epictetus ?
A stoic philosopher Fate: Suffering: Happiness
The Moral Law theory is based on which of the following claims?
A system of morality is inherent in the universe. Human beings can understand the system of morality inherent in the universe. Human beings are capable of obeying the system of morality inherent in the universe.
Aquinas
A sysytem conception of natural law originated with which of the following ethical philosophers/
Intrinsic Value
A value that is a good thing in itself and is pursued for its own sake.
Just War Theory
A war is justified when: 1. It is declared by a competent authority 2. It is fought for a just cause 3. It is fought with the right intentions 4. It is appropriate for the provocation 5. It is used as a last resort 6. There is reasonable chance for success. Just war tradition stems from the Catholic Church and St. Thomas Aquinas is linked to the first three justifications.
Thomas Jefferson
Ability (legitimacy) to govern is derived from the consent of the people The idea of justice is embedded in the political framework of the society Society ruled by laws not men
Golden Mean
According to Aristotle, happiness as achieved by balance.
the results of a process by which individuals collectively agree upon a cohert view of what is just
According to Ralws, reflective equilibrium is
liberty extends up to the point of inflicting harm on another
According to the "harm principle"
a mistaken, short-term impression of humans who do not know (and can not know) all of God's plan
According to the Book of Job, if God is all powerful, all knowing and wholly good, then evil must come from
A convenant
According to the Old Testament, the Israelites were bond to God by which of the following
father
According to the Old Testament, the Israelites were to God as a child is to a
when faced with a choice, we must first consider the likely consequences of potential actions and, from that, choose to do what we believe will generate the most pleasure
Act Utilitarianism
Psychological Egoism
Actions are guided by motivations that advance their interest
Utilitarianism (Consequentialism)
Actions are morally acceptable if good consequences outweigh bad consequences
Plato
Actions are ok if they are reasonable, rational, and necessary
The original position is a contract in which every citizen
Agrees to regarding rights and duties.
Thomas Jefferson
All men are equal, had the right to life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness Rights are Self-Evident - they are inalienable and do not have to be proven Believed that it is government's duty to secure self-evident rights of its citizens
FOIA
Allows access to records held by government agencies on themselves and demand incorrect records to be changed
Ethical Relativism
Allows for rightness or wrongness to vary from person to person; society to society
Hedonists
Also known as Epicureans after their original teacher, these believed that happiness was the purpose of life, and anything that reduced pain and increased happiness was therefore good.
Distributive Justice
Also known as social justice, the extent to which institutions ensure that benefits and burdens are distributed fairly among society.
Dialectic
Also known as the Socratic Method, a method of argument in which one person asks the other questions to try to get them to realize their own answers or the flaws in their argument.
John Rawls
American philosopher who wrote "Theory of Justice" which refuted utilitarianism because he believed each person should have basic liberties. Freedom of speech for all. He said "Injustice is simply inequalities that are not to the benefit of all.
Robert Nozik
An American philosopher who addressed the issue of distributive justice, but stated that wealth redistribution was only justifiable if it was resolving a past injustice.
John Rawls
An American philosopher who revived the social contract theory and discussed distributive justice. He believed in basic individual liberties and reducing inequalities to benefit the less-advantaged (but at a pinch the former trumps the latter).
John Locke
An English philosopher who asserted that individuals have certain natural rights, like living without being harmed by others, make their own choices, and own property, and that the purpose of the government was to protect those rights.
Thomas Hobbes
An English philosopher who believed that humans live fearfully in a world full of insecurity and violence, and that submission to rulers is the only way to have harmony in a society. Wrote the Leviathan.
Bentham
An act is only morally wrong if it reduced overall happiness
Deontology
An approach to ethics that judges the morality of an action based on the action's adherence to rules.
Allegory of the Cave
An extended metaphor created by Plato. It describes a group of prisoners in a cave, chained so their backs are to the entrance. They believe that the shadows (sensed reality) before them are reality, until someone manages to get free, turn around and see the source of the shadows (the real world, which can only be experienced intellectually).
Ideal City
An imaginary city conceptualized by Plato, with three classes of citizens (workers, guardians and soldiers), ruled with wisdom, courage and temperance.
Nonvoluntary Euthanasia
An incompetent patient or one who has not given consent undergoes euthanasia.
Buddhism
An offshoot of Hinduism with saints instead of gods, and which emphasizes moral behavior to achieve happiness through many cycles of reincarnation.
Autonomy
Animals are often excluded from etical considerations on the grounds that they lack which of the following characteristics?
is a major concept in the field of environmental ethics and environmental philosophy, where it is often considered to be the root cause of problems created by human interaction with the environment, however; it is profoundly embedded in our culture and conscious acts
Anthropocentrism
That the unborn generations have rights
Anti-abortionist and environmentaltis share which of the following ethical commitments?
What ethical theory involves specific issues such as abortion, environmentalism, war, homosexuality, capital punishment and similar topics.
Applied
Royce
Approached ethics from a deontological perspective. The highest duty is Loyalty, or commitment in general to the idea of duty. Aspects of Loyalty: autonomy, justice, and benevolence
under some condintions, an act that causes harm many be perimssible if a good end is brought about. One act may have two effects, one intended and one unintended
Aquinas' "princple of double effect" states which of the following
Jeremy Bentham
Argued that service to society generates more pleasure than service to self. Believed behavior is wrong if it reduces overall happiness. Long term happiness to the community is preferred over short term personal happiness.
what is the golden mean
Aristole's ____________ is the desirable middle between two extremes, one of excess and the other of deficiency. A Greek belief in a triad of principles which infuses life i.e. Symmetry, proportion, harmony.
Aristotle
Aristotle - Philosopher and student of Plato. He was an authority of nearly every subject. Two of his key beliefs were A. Everything has a purpose B. Change is both necessary and natural. Physical pleasure derived from money, work, and sex fail to bring ultimate happiness. Aristotle equates virtue to happiness, and he distinguishes between two types of virtues-moral excellence & intellectual excellence.
"The Doctrine of the Mean" was conceived by
Aristotle and means that one should avoid extremes in behavior and action.
Judaism
As the oldest monotheistic religion. Judaism places importance on history, laws and religious community and is responsible for influencing both Islam and Christianity
Epicurus
Asserted that the universe was created by an accidental collision of atoms rather than by Greek gods. Upon death people's souls and body's would dissolve back into atoms therefore hedonists felt free to enjoy life to the greatest extent without worry of retribution from the gods.
What philosopher believed that happiness is the basis of philosophy. To be happy one must grow in the knowledge of God not by satisfaction of goods.
Augustine of Hippo
John Locke
Believed in majority rule. If society is not happy with government, they have the right to revolt. The state of nature is a virtual natural government in which all take part in the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. Believed private property should be protected by the government Believed that property interest can be obtained through an investment of labor
Rand
Believed individuals exist for their own Self-interest Self-interest to achieve greatest happiness - highest moral purpose in life Believed one should never sacrifice himself to others nor sacrifice others to himself Must exist solely for oneself Propounds that one should never serve another (Problem with her philosophy) We are dependant on government, parents, etc
Aristotle
Believed moral excellence is a result of habit and support of good laws We become brave by doing brave acts We become just by doing just acts We become temperate (moderate) by doing temperate acts
Epictetus
Believed only virtues and virtuous activities are good Believed only evil is vice and actions motivated by vice.
Dworkin
Believed rights can be overridden if there is a legitimate right to protect the rights of others Rights could be breached to save one's life (abortion could be right to save the mother's life)
Nietzsche
Believed that a person that was intellectually disabled was inferior to someone with high intellect It is right and natural for intelligent person to exploit or suppress intellectually disabled person Believed superior people could dominate and exploit the weak (Slave Morality)
Aquinas
Believed that faith and reason could exist together and that theology and science were not contradictory. Created the Theory of Natural Law.
Epicurus
Believed that it was possible to lead a calm and enjoyable life by carefully managing the appetites Hedonists believe that happiness can be attained by maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain
Thrasymachus
Believed that laws are made by the ruling party in its own interest. In making the laws, ruling class defines Justice "Might makes Right"
Carol Gilligan
Believed that men have ethics of justice and focus on applying rules while minimizing emotions and female ethics consider responsibilities and relationships when making decisions. Women's decisions appeal to emotions such as sympathy, love and concern.
Thomas Hobbes
Believed that obligations to tell the truth were voluntarily assumed and so need not be always followed Believed a person should only accept moral rules and duties as it benefited him/her
John Locke
Believed that our ideas and knowledge are limited because they are sourced from our experiences
David Hume
Believed that our moral actions were guided by our feelings (not reason)
Aristotle
Believed that to lead a good life, people have to fulfill their natural goals
J.S. Mill
Believed the government has a moral right to limit freedom (liberty) when danger of people harming each other State has limited authority to interfere with personal freedom as long as individual's actions are not harming others; when the state interferes with purely personal conduct, it usually interferes wrongly Individual can do as they wish as long as they do not harm others Competent individuals can take part in dangerous activities as they are aware of risks The right to autonomy is enshrined in medical ethics
Thomas Hobbes
Believed the most pervasive right is that of Self Preservation Person may do whatever is necessary to save his life and obtain the means to live Passions that incline men to peace are fear of death, desire of commodious living, hope by their industry to obtain them.
Thomas Aquinas
Believed: Natural Law Theory Laws stem from God Humas=naturally rational Doctrine of Double Effect Just War Theory
John Locke
Believed: Social Contract Empiricism (knowledge acquired by testing evidence) Tabula Rasa Natural Rights Life, Liberty, Property
Dworkin
Believes that rights can be overridden if there's a legitimate right to protect rights of others
Jane English
Believes the relationships between grown-up children and parents should be based on mutual friendship Rather than reciprocal favors
that all pleasures were equivalent in value
Bentham, unlike Mill, argued
Christianity
Bible instructs that personal salvation occurs through faith and that God is merciful and all knowing.
St. Thomas Aquinas
Capital punishment is morally acceptable because it is necessary to protect the common good
Adam Smith
Capitalism Moral Egoism "Wealth of Nations"
Virginia Held
Caring for other people's feelings and needs may be better indicators of what morality requires in specific situations than abstract rules of reason.
What imperative states that for an action to be worth it must be universal to all beings and it must be done with a sense of moral duty?
Categorical
must be consistently willed as a universal law
Categorical Imperative
Immanuel Kant
Categorical Imperative 2 (Respect the Persons) Human have intrinsic worth and so can not be manipulated or used as a means to an end Humans have dignity and have to be respected since they represent rational moral law itself Moral agency involves honoring the fundamental worth and dignity of people and treating them with respect. Moral agency presupposes that people are rational, autonomous beings They can make or follow laws as necessary and recognize others as autonomous
Kant created what imperatives
Categorical and hypothetical
Mercy, Grace, Forgiveness
Christian ethics then to empahasize which of the following
Rawls
Coined the phrase "Perfect Procedural Justice" - means that a fair outcome is stated in advance
Marx
Communist Manifesto of 1848
Environmental Racism
Condition where an unusually high percentage of polluting industries and hazardous waste facilities are located in poor minority communities
If the legal responsibility of a CEO is to maximize profit for her company's shareholders, and that responsibility entails "externalizing" as many costs as possible, such as health care and pension costs for that company's employees, then the CEO is faced with which of the following?
Conflict of duties
You are on a lake in a boat with your father and mother—neither of whom can swim. You can swim quite well. The boat capsizes during a storm, and your parents float off and sink in opposite directions. You can only save one. You are faced with a particularly terrible version of which of the following problems?
Conflict of duties
Covenant
Contract between God and His people
Marx
Cosmopolitan "of the world" character - "In place of old wants, satisfied by the production of The country, we find new wants, requiring for their satisfaction the products of distant lands"
Socrates
Critic of Sophists Believed people didn't knowingly do wrong Virtue=Knowledge
Aristotle
Crito - First appearance of what will be called Social Contract Theory
Relativism that is determined by society, such as acceptance of homosexuals, matricide, abortion, etc. is:
Cultural relativism
does not mean that morality is set in stone. Beliefs can change over time and just because it is acceptable at one point in time does not make it morally right.
Cultural relativism
believed that justice stems from just laws. Therefore, to deliberately break the law, even by going abroad to do so, would result in injustice.
David Hume, Humean
The 3 branches of ethics
Descriptive, normative, meta-ethics
Bentham
Devised an algorithm called the hedonistic or felicific calculus
Descriptive Ethical Relativism
Different people have different moral beliefs but no stand on whether Beliefs are valid or not
Aristotle
Disapproved of suicides to escape poverty, love, or anything painful (cowardice) Suicides with more virtuous motives such as courage may be ok
Epictetus
Discipline of asset Discipline of desire - must be managed and kept in check to avoid disappointment Discipline of action
Homosexuality
Disobeys the will of god and is considered unnatural. Sexual organs are used for procreation so homosexual acts are an unnatural use of the body.
J.S. Mill
Distinguishes between higher and lower pleasures Disapproved of Paternalism Exception: only if for a short period of time where actor was not aware of circumstances Once awareness, intervention must cease
refers to the distribution of burdens and benefits in society
Distributive justice
states that whatever God permits is right.
Divine Permission Theory (DPT
Scripture and "God's Will," and divine commands such as "murder is wrong," are called ...
Divine command theory or voluntarism.
Hippocratic Oath
Doctors take oath to do no harm, assisting in suicides is wrong
Aristotle
Doctrine of the Mean (Virtue is a mean) Correct course of action is the mean or average Constantly shifting science as human behavior and motivations vary Ex: Courage - Extreme / Foolhardiness - Cowardice Actions can be determined according to circumstances of each situation promoting equity promoted a f air and equitable outcome for parties involved Develop virtues that lead to rational, practical actions; this enables us to respond with the right emotions and the right actions. To fail to respond is a defect, to over-respond is an excess
The New Testament's ethics differs from that of the Old Testament in that it
Does not follow the dietary laws in the Old Testament and is not limited to one's family or ethnic group.
Martin Luther King
Drew from Biblical tradition, Aquinas, Hobbes, Locke, Jefferson, and Kant Believed that God's law is higher than civil law Right to justice is a moral right entitled to all Obligation to do justice overrode the possibilities of violence and threats to order
Normative Ethical Relativism
Each culture or group's beliefs are right within their culture. Cannot Validly judge another culture's values from the outside
Rehabilitation
Educating or training prisoners to be used when they are released so they do not fall back into criminal activity.
Which of the following most closely approximates the three parts of the soul, according to Plato?
Emotion, reason, appetites
Thomas Hobbes
English Philosopher developed a theory that humans live fearfully in a natural world full of insecurity and violence. Wrote a book called Leviathan. Felt insecurity forces people into surrendering their rights to a leader and forming a social contract. Failure to submit to a rule will result in conflict and savagery.
Prominent stoic philosopher
Epictetus
our ability to achieve happiness is whilly under our own power and only the pursuit of viture is morally good
Epictetus stated that
The earliest proponent of social-contract theory was
Epicurus
David Hume
Ethical course of action is guided by our feelings
Belmont Report
Ethics guiding biomedical and behavioral research involving humans Respect for Persons - all volunteers are treated as individuals and are entitled to protection Informed consent Information Comprehension Beneficence - do not harm Justice - fairness in distribution
Living well and doing well
Eudaimonia requires which of the following
Socrates
Even if you are wronged, do not commits a crime
Arete
Excellence
arete
Excellence in attaining and practcing the virtues is described by which of the following Greek terms
Rousseau
Excessive inequality destroys freedom through loss of liberty
What philosophy holds that we are fully responsible for what becomes of us, that we are hurling ourselves toward our own future, and we are responsible for our own ethics, not God.
Existentialism, especially the works of Sartre
Utilitarianism
Features external and internal sanctions
David Hume
Feelings of pleasure when we act virtuously; Feelings of pain when we act viciously. Experience teaches us to avoid vicious acts
Thucydides
First recorded political and moral analysis of a nation's military policies
Stoics
Followers of Zeno, Greeks who believed that absolute laws and destiny ruled the universe, and that since humans could not change fate, they were happiest when they simply accepted it and lived with self-control.
Confucianism
Follows the Silver Rule - Do not do to others what you would want other to not do to you Taught a pragmatic and utilitarian system
An attacker gives up his right to life. Self-defense theory is covered by what philosophy:
Forfeiture
Stage 3
Fostering good interpersonal relationships - thinkers take the needs and interests of others into account - it is important to make others happy
Zeno
Founded Stoicism Absolute laws rule the universe
Epicurus
Founder of Hedonism/Epicureanism Happiness=purpose of life
Plato
Founder of the Academy and writer of the Republic.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
French philosopher who believed humans are innately good but that society, with its desires and greed corrupts them. Believed citizens could act as legislators to determine the laws and legislation of society. According to the concept of general will power rests with the citizens and society and becomes highly democratic. France banned his controversial writing and he fled to Switzerland
Epictetus
Fundamental rule - understanding that some things are in our control and some things are not.
Immanuel Kant
German Philosopher who was one of the greatest influences on Western Philosophy. His work attempts to answer three primary questions 1. What can I know 2. What should I do 3. What can I hope for.
Gottfried Leibniz
German philosopher and mathematician who thought that our universe was the best of all possible worlds.
Sex
God forbid it outside of marriage. Utilitarianism believes if it increases the overall happiness of unmarried couples it is morally acceptable. Aristotle and the Dalai Lama focus on long term happiness which might not be achieve through sex outside of marriage.
Eternal law
God's device to govern the whole community of the universe towards the common good
Immanuel Kant
Good will - morality of our actions depends on our intentions, rather than the results Universal Law and Moral Rules are absolute, regardless of circumstances
Examples of categorical imperatives
Good will, respect for every person as a human
John Stuart Mill
Government only has the moral authority to limit a person's liberty when harm may occur otherwise people should be allowed freedom to behave as desired.
J.S. Mill
Greatest Happiness Principle
Rule Utilitarian
Greatest good for greatest # but obey correct moral principles
Act Utilitarian
Greatest good for greatest number despite laws
Epicurus
Greatest pleasure attained through simplicity and moderation to achieve tranquility
Epicurus
Greatest pleasures attained through simplicity and moderation to achieve tranquility & serenity True happiness comes from life of simplicity and moderation devoted to health & peace of mind Theorized that upon death we no longer exist - should not fear gods Work is a source of pain rather than pleasure so we should only do what is necessary to meet our essential needs
Epictetus
Greek Stoic Philosopher who was born a slave
"Arete"
Happiness in Grrek
Plato
Happiness is not the result of appearance of justice but of the very nature of justice Those who are just in this sense will reap numerous rewards and avoid punishment in the afterlife
Hedonism (Epicureanism)
Happiness=the purpose of life -Increase pleasure and avoid pain (Epicurus) -the universe is an accidental collision of atoms
J.S. Mill
Harm Principle
A soldier receives an order from his commanding officer to commit torture in order to get information a prisoner of war is assumed to have. If the soldier refuses to follow the order because he believes it to be illegal, that soldier most likely disobeys the order for which of the following reasons?
He ranks his duty to his professional code of ethics above his duty to his fellow troops.
believed a person should only accept moral rules and duties if it benefited him/her.
Hobbes
the nation-state
Hobbes "Leviathan" is a metaphor for which of the following?
that obligations to tell the truth were voluntarily assumed and so need not be always followed.
Hobbes believed that
Deterrence
Making potential criminals attempt to avoid being imprisoned or executed by not committing crimes.
Environmental Ethics
Human responsibility to nature
Immanuel Kant
Humanity or End in Itself Formulation: "Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end"
What imperative covers actions that are not universal or not in keeping with a sense of duty?
Hypothetical
Confronted with the criticism that "feminist ethics" cannot be true ethics since it is exclusionary, a feminist ethical philosopher would likely say
I. Ethics need not be universal II. Ethics has never been universal until very recently
Which of the following are Rawls's principles of justice?
I. People have an equal right to as much political liberty as possible without infringing upon others' political liberties. II. That social and economic inequalities should be adjusted to the greatest benefit to the most disadvantaged and that there should be equality of opportunity.
A government is planning a secret military assault. A reporter who is a member of that government's nation learns of this assault. The question of whether the journalist should report what he knows entails questions of
I. Professional code of ethics II. Right to information III. Confidentiality
If a newspaper does not print certain stories because of pressure from advertisers who are uncomfortable with those types of stories, then that paper is falling short in its
I. Professional code of ethics II. Veracity III. Function in providing the right to information
"Somatic" gene therapy changes genes for medical purposes only in the body of the person being treated. "Germline" gene therapy, however, affects genes in the sperm, eggs, and stem cells, and thus can affect the medical situation of future generations. Which of the following ethical issues is brought up by germline gene therapy?
I. Professional ethics II. Obligations to strangers III. Autonomy IV. Informed consent
In a situation in which a physician must either give chemotherapy or do surgery, she cannot simply "do no harm." According to traditional medical ethics, what must she then consider?
I. The consequences of each action II. The desire of the patient
In the late 1980s and 1990s, the usual double-blind, placebo-controlled tests of anti-HIV drugs were sometimes waived. Which of the following tenets was involved in the decision?
I. Veracity II. Professional code of ethics III. Balancing harms
A photojournalist doing a shoot on a bridge sees a person jump off the bridge into the water to drown himself. If the journalist decides to shoot the picture rather than try to save the person, the journalist is privileging
I. her professional duty over her duty to help a stranger III. the right of the public to information over the confidentiality of the stranger IV. her responsibility to her newspaper over her responsibility to the stranger.
The hierarchy of pleasures
I. prevented all pleasures from being treated equally. II. ranked intellectual and moral pleasures above the physical.
Consequentialist theories of ethics can consider the consequences of an action for
I. the actor II. the acted-upon
The balancing of financial commitments to one's spouse, one's children, and one's parents is one of
II. Conflict of duties III. Distributive justice
The problem utilitarianism has historically had with notions of distributive justice is that
II. social utility requires that some individuals suffer for the greater good III. those individuals who must suffer do not have to give their consent to suffer
The phenomenon that most people knowingly allow starvation to occur across the world, but would most likely give food to a family member starving right in front of them means that people are
III. more likely to help a family member than a stranger IV. more likely to act to help someone in need that is right in front of them
Stoicism
Idea that absolute law rules the universe and humans cannot change fate (Zeno)
Plato
Ideal gov't: not a democracy or communist state, but rather a state ruled by highly educated individuals forced to live in poverty with no possessions
Martin King
If laws are unjust then it's justifiable to disobey them
Epictetus
If people conform to whatever nature sends them, they make the best of things to their ability and take the rest as it comes.
Consequentialists
If the good consequences of an action outweigh the bad consequences, the act is morally right. Defines rightness of an act based on its outcome
Rawls
Imagine yourself in an original position behind a veil of ignorance . Behind this veil, you know nothing of yourself and your natural abilities, or your position in society. You know nothing of your sex, race, nationality, or individual tastes. Behind such a veil of ignorance all individuals are simply specified as rational, free, and morally equal beings. You do know that in the "real world", however, there will be a wide variety in the natural distribution of natural assets and abilities, and that there will be differences of sex, race, and culture that will distinguish groups of people from each other." Thus, the key is that people make decisions based on what is good for their community as a whole, and without regard to their own self-interest (since they operate behind a veil of ignorance and don't know enough about what would benefit them)
Immanuel Kant
Immorality is a product of individuals trying to create a different standard for themselves compared to the rest of humanity
because they, the Athenians, have the power to do so.
In Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War, the Athenians believe that they have the right to dominate the Melians
Thucydides
In matters of foreign war there is a lack of moral rules and so the stronger country can dominate the weaker one
Enchiridion
In philosophy, the collection of compiled and edited teachings of Epictetus, a guide to moral conduct based on principles and precepts of Stoicism.
Friedrich Nietzsche argued that an individual created his own morality. This ties in with the "becoming" of a superman. This creation of morality distinct from society is:
Individual relativism
Moral relativism is split into two categories:
Individual relativism and cultural relativism.
Aristotle
Individuals must not be coerces into making decisions, they must exercise free will
Involuntary Euthanasia
Intentionally killing a patient against his or her will, considered murder.
Active Euthanasia
Intentionally killing a patient by legal injection, smothering or some other method.
Active Euthanasia
Intentionally killing a patient by lethal injection, smothering or some other method.
Passive Euthanasia
Intentionally withholding medical treatment to allow a patient to die.
Passive Euthanasia
Intentionally withholding treatment to allow a patient to die
Moral Egoism
It's always moral to act in a manner that benefits self-interest. Happiness of achieved by focusing on own happiness (Adam Smith)
Which of the following philosophers could fairly be called "Utilitarians"?
Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
The hedonic (or "felicific") calculus was worked out by
Jeremy Bentham in order to reduce moral choices to a universally applicable algorithm
The prophets
Jesus is most similar to which of the following Old Testament groups
Confucius
Jesus' Golden Rule, do unto others as you would have them do unto you, was anticpated by which of the following philosophers?
Which philosopher, greatly influenced by Kant, wrote A Theory of Justice?
John Rawls
Economic Inequality
John Rawls said economic inequality is justified only when it benefits everyone. For example to encourage people to be more productive. Jean Rousseau believed that an excessive degree of inequality destroys freedom if wealthy citizens act as tyrants in a society.
Thrasymachus
Justice is bad for the person doing the just act but good for someone else - the stronger, who would punish The person if he or she failed to act to benefit the stronger. People just want to avoid consequences imposed upon them by the stronger
Plato
Justice: all social classes (rulers, soldiers, people) performing their duties and roles satisfactorily And did not try to usurp (take without legal claim) the roles of others
This philosopher believed in reason, universal application of morals applied by a sense of duty.
Kant
What philosopher might say, "I ought never to act except in such a way that I could also will that my maxim should become a universal law."
Kant
it takes the consequences of action into account in moral judgement
Kant would object to Mill's ethics in which of the following ways?
deontological
Kant's ethical system is
The categorical imperative was
Kant's notion that certain actions are necessary in all circumstances
kingdom of ends
Kant's notion that one should act as thought one were recommending ones's act as an unbreakable, eternal and universal law to fully rational free agents is called the
Immanuel Kant
Kingdom of Ends formulation: "All maxims as proceeding from our own (hypothetical) making of Law ought to harmonize with a possible kingdom of ends"
Islam
Koran believed to have been written by the prophet Mohammed under the direction of God. Muslims are instructed to be generous and obedient and to avoid being greedy or prideful.
Leopold
Land Ethics - reflects a conviction of individual responsibility for the health of the land
Thomas Jefferson
Laws are made for the common good, concern for welfare or happiness of citizens is institutionalized in the political system Intermingling of the ethical and the legal in the political theory makes ethical and legal issues intertwined in the American mind. Revolution is justified when a government becomes destructive of its citizen's rights to life, liberty, and the Pursuit of happiness.
Plato
Liberty and Freedom - Happy medium between Slavery and License (excess liberty-chaos) Liberty achieved when people have hand in making laws and enforcing them Laws are not unduly restrictive, unreasonable, and irrational
The word eudaimonia most closely translates as which of the following?
Living well and Doing good
The only source of legitimate political authority is the consent of the governed. Which of the following philosophers believed this?
Locke
Deontologist
Looks at motivation and duty rather than outcome (kant)
Though he accepted the Ten Commandments, Jesus valued which of the following as the "Greatest Commandment"?
Love
Socrates
Most influential thinkers of all time. Considered Sophists empty and manipulative. He never wrote any books. Plato was one of his students. Socrates employed a questioning technique, later termed the "Socratic Method" or dialect. Socrates held that people never knowingly do wrong; wickedness results from ignorance. He was seen as a threat to society and was condemned for his teachings. When given the choice of renouncing his work or death, Socrates opted for a cup of poisoned hemlock.
Epictetus
Most prominent Stoic that told his students "live according to nature". He was a Roman slave often tortured by his master exemplified the Stoic philosophy by refusing to moan during beatings because he accepted his fate in life.
Genesis,Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy
Name the first 5 books of the Old Testament
Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John
Name the four authors of the Gospels
the denial of a shared basic human nature and the lack of natural rights
Natural law is incompatible with which of the following claims?
John Locke
Natural law obliges people to preserve not only themselves but other as well, as long as their own Preservation is not threatened. People can expect assistance from others in preserving themselves.
St. Thomas Aquinas
Natural law tradition, the Biblical law tradition, and Artistotle philosophy are united. Believed God's will is affected by reason and God uses reason as base for his will Believed that all things subject to God are rules to some extent by God's eternal law
Bentham
Negative Act Utilitarianist
Socrates
No ruler acts for his own interest but the best interest of his subjects (In response to Thrasymachus).
In Plato's view can moral abstractions be altered?
No. Plato's view was that moral and ethical ideas existed as abstract concepts such as math. Humans can't change numbers and math (1+1 will always equal 2) and he believed morals existed in the same realm.
What is the more "practical" ethical theory, concentrating on our standards of behavior and duties to others?
Normative
A group of citizens gets together for a weekly film series. This is an example of
Not doing harm
Medieval philosophers believed morals were "eternal law." Would this be a worldly/relativism view or an other-worldly/objective view?
Objective view/other-worldly. Medieval philosophers relied on superstition and religion to define morality.
What system of ethics holds that ethical standards exist as absolutes outside the physical in a sort of spiritual realm?
Objectivism. And other-worldly.
is concerned primarily with retributive hustice, whereas Jesus is primarly concerned with distributive justice
One major difference between the Gof of the Old testament and Jesus in the New Testament is that the Old Testament God
Socrates
One of the most famous thinkers of all time, not for his beliefs, but his dialectic method of teaching. He never wrote anything himself, but was memorialized in the works of his student, Plato. For him, virtue and knowledge were the same, and all wickedness stemmed from ignorance. The Athenian government saw him as a threat and had him executed.
Achieving righteousness through faith and the doctrine of original sin originated with
Paul
achiving enternal life and the importance of the Holy Spirit
Paul argues which of the following
His own
Pauls command not to divorce devires from what authroity
Libertarianism
People have rights 1) No Paternalist Legislation (seat belts, helmets, etc.) 2) No Moral Legislation (gay marriage laws, abortion laws) 3) No Redistribution of Income from Rich to Poor
Greatest Happiness Principle
People long for a state of being in which they are as happy as possible. Defines Utilitarianism
Thrasymachus
People want appearance of justice, not justice itself
Greek Views
People=the center of everything world=playground
Plato
Philosopher and mathematician, student of Socrates. Taught Socrates work at the Academy which was considered the first university. First writing was "Socratic dialogs". Most famous work is "The Republic". Was unhappy with democracy and tyranny of Greek Govt. His ideal republic "utopian thinking". Three classes of citizens A.Philosopher-Kings B. Soldiers C. Workers or Producers. Some people are less virtuous than others, which is why govt. is necessary. "The Republic" explained that the world may not acknowledge or reward virtue, but ultimate happiness can only be achieved through virtue.
Notions such as "Truth," "Beauty," "Justice" and so forth are considered to be eternal "forms" by which philosopher?
Plato
The notion that "justice" simply means "might makes right" was put forward by which Greek writers?
Plato and Thucydides
that suicides reflected 'unmanly cowardice' and would consider lying to be a wrongful act unless it was done for the good of society.
Plato believed
Organization of social classes in an ideal society
Plato believed the organization of the soul of a good person is similiar to this
Suicide
Plato disapproved of suicide unless you face hardship, disgrace or extreme stress. Aristotle agreed that suicide to "fly from evil' is acceptable. However it is not ok to when used to escape from poverty or love. Jews and Christians believe God prohibits suicide. "You shall not murder" Kant thought suicide was always an immoral act.
What philosopher likened ethics and morals to spirit-like objects that exist as abstractions? Such as math (1+1=2)
Plato.
Epicurus
Pleasure is the first good; it is the basis of every choice we make for or against something Pleasure is the standard by which we judge what is good. Pleasure means freedom from pain in the body and from trouble in the mind Physical pleasure and pain Mental pleasure (acquiring knowledge, listening to music - appeal to the senses) Mental pain (types of fear)
Affirmative Action
Policies and programs (preferential treatment)
Aristotle
Political Teachings Justification of slavery - some people are so inferior they are better under rule of kind master Condemnation of Usury - money is meant to be used for exchange, not to increase interest
Feminism
Political theory that proposes that men and women are equal Goal is to change society and liberate women from male oppression
David Hume
Possession of virtues is in self-interest of possessor and promotes social harmony Understanding of virtues and vices is not driven by self-interest but by benevolence and sympathy Once cannot completely ignore the pleasure and pain another was experiencing Morality based on motives Believes justice stems from just laws. Deliberately breaking laws, even going abroad to do so is unjust
Aristotle
Principle of Justice - individual should not be discriminated against for irrelevant reasons
Intuitionist
Principle of Self-Evidence - does not need proving, it is obvious to person
Bentham
Principle of Utility
Socrates
Propounded that one should never commit a crime or disobey the State.
Epicurus
Prudence is the greatest virtue for it enables us to live pleasantly, managing our desires.
Aristotle
Prudence or practical intelligence results in individual making decisions based on desires
Conflicts of interest
Public funding of elections has been proposed in order to eliminate which of the following problems that lawmakers and executive branch officials currently face?
Rawls
Published A Theory of Justice. He reasoned that it was right for governments to redistribute wealth in order to help the poor and disadvantaged. He argued for a just distribution of society's resources by which a society's benefits and burdens are allocated fairly among its members.
Disablement
Punishing a convicted criminal by imprisonment or execution, so that he or she can no longer commit crimes.
Stage 1
Punishment and reward - thinking is animalistic - actions are in ways that anticipate reward and avoid punishment
Veil of Ignorance
Rawls' means of "shielding" the eyes from things that mights bias one against an argument--race, gender.
Ayn Rand
Reality exists independent of consciousness. Facts are always facts. (objectivism)
To Kant, what is the basis for morality?
Reason
Immanuel Kant
Reason is the central concept key to making moral judgments
Immanuel Kant
Reason is the foundation of Moral Law Ethics does not come from higher authority nor does one need to weigh competing interests
What topics comprise metaphysical ethics issues?
Relativism and Objectivism.
17th Century British philosopher ________ likened morals to spiritual "relationships" rather than spiritual objects.
Samuel Clarke
David Hume
Scottish philosopher whose sceptical philosophy restricted human knowledge to that which can be perceived by the senses (1711-1776)
Rawls
Self-interested individuals in the Original Position behind the veil of ignorance would want economic equality. Economic inequality would lead to vice-like behavior such as envy and arrogance.
Skeptics such as _____________ did not deny moral values only that they were divine or willed by God.
Sextus Empericus
Three cultural relativists:
Sextus Empiricus, Michel Montaigne, and William Graham Sumner
issues addressed in the History of the Peloponnesian War
Should a whole society be responsible for the actions of a few? What are the justifications of any actions against an enemy?
Plato
Social Classes: Rulers - wisdom, Soldiers - courage, People - moderation, temperance
John Locke
Social Contract Primary objective is the protection of Private Property (person's body, freedom, and fruits of labor) Physical property is most at risk under natural law so civil law is needed primarily to protect lands and industry. Believed primary reason men leave state of nature and enter into civil society is to obtain protection of life, liberty, and property Fundamental rights of citizens are life, liberty, and property, and the role of law is to protect those rights
Thomas Hobbes
Social Contract Theory - The members of society agree to live by a set of rules formed by the group. Sovereign Power - Absolute Monarch. The citizens survival depends on accepting authority of the monarch because revolution cannot be justified on the grounds of individual liberty.
Stage 5
Social Contracts - think in terms of laws because of majority agreements
Double Effect
Some harm results from a good action. Ex: chemo is harmful but necessary
Aristotle
Some rules (moral laws) are inviolable and absolute such as murder and theft
Accountability
Some worry about increasing amount of military outsourcing because of which of the following?
Extrinsic Value
Something that is valued for the effect that it causes.
Aristotle
Sophist Observation & Experience
Protagoras
Sophist "Man is the measure of all things"
Thucydides
Sophist Discussed Ethics of War
Plato
Sophist & Utopian Some less virtuous than others
Rational
Soul. Capability of reason
Spirited
Soul. Will
Appetitive
Soul. Will power
Socrates
Speaker in Plato's Republic
Peter Singer
Speciesism
Singer
Speciesism - equality should apply to animals as well as humans Extends utilitarianism principles to animals because they experience pleasure (max) and pain (min)
Utilitarianism
States that the moral course of action is the one which maximizes the total well-being of all humans Two absolutes in the world - Pleasure and pain Moral law follows the Principle of Utility (what motivates human beings) We all have equal rights Decisions not based on rank, status, wealth, race, gender, or personal relationships Good has priority over Right (justice) Ethical decisions determined by "The greatest good for the greatest number of people" Good equals happiness (pleasure) and bad equals pain (displeasure which has no value) Maximized good takes into account all those who are affected by the actions under consideration.
Divine Permission Theory
States whatever God permits is right
Epicetus
Stoic "Live according to nature"
What philosophy believes the virtuous life is the only way to attain happiness and that vice leads to unhappiness. (Also, objectivism/other-worldly)
Stoicism
Views on Suicide
Stoics: acceptable when reasonable Utilitarian: Moral is it increases happiness of everyone involved Kant: Suicide is always immoral Plato: wrong unless encouraged by gods Aristotle: ok if to fly from evil. wrong if to escape love/poverty
Cosmogony
Study of the origin of the universe
Cosmology
Study of the physical world
Epictetus
Suicide was a viable option for those who could no longer endure what life had in store for them
Plato
Suicides reflecting cowardice was immoral; Suicide permitted by the Gods was moral
Extraordinary Treatment
Surgery, medication, dialysis, oxygen, CPR or any other treatment needed to care for an unhealthy patient, in contrast to ordinary treatment, which are basic essentials like food or water.
Sophists
Teachers that taught for money. Emphasized persuasive skills rather than honest analysis of issues. Protagoras was one of them. Sophists are considered the first Relativists.
Principle of Utility
That principle which approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever, according to the tendency Which it appears to have to augment or diminish the happiness of the party whose interest is in question: or what is the same thing in other words, to promote or to oppose that happiness
The Melian Dialogue
The Athenians, in a frank and matter-of-fact manner, offer the Melians an ultimatum: surrender and pay tribute to Athens, or be destroyed
Feinberg
The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law
"If the God of the Bible is omnipotent and omniscient, why then does He allow evil to occur?" This question is a statement of which of the following?
The Problem of Evil
Tranquility
The Stoics beleived that happiness consisted of which of the follwing?
St. Thomas Aquinas
The Summa Theologica
Denotological
The Ten Commandments are which of the following?
Ethics
The academic discipline of analyzing morality, based on reasoning, rules and logic.
Distributive justice
The allocation of public funds in the annual ferderal budget is a clear statement of the executive and legislative branch's collective view on which of the following?
Divine Command Theory
The belief that all moral obligations originate from God Whatever God commands is right
Relativism
The belief that every point of view and standard of behavior is equally valid.
Autonomy
The capacity to take actions that are intentional, understood and chosen freely. Valued highly by Kant and Aristotle.
Retributive justice
The debate over the death penalty is primarily a matter of which of the following?
positive act of omission
The dictume "do no harm" is a
this is a a feminist theory
The ethics of care is the approach to ethics is based on relationships
Compensatory Justice
The extent to which people are fairly compensated for their injuries by those who have injured them.
Retributive Justice
The fairness of punishments.
there is enough time to use the calculus in real-life situations
The felicific calculus assumes that
Moral Egoism
The idea that it is always moral to act in a way that promotes self-interest. Supported by the founder of capitalism, Adam Smith, and Ayn Rand.
Utilitarianism
The idea that the consequences decide the morality--if the good consequences outweigh the bad, then the action is right, or vice versa.
Social Contact Theory
The idea that the right to rule and obligation to obey are based upon an agreement between an individual and society. Thomas Hobbs, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote about the social contract theory. They felt people join the society for the purpose of security and societal order.
Determinism
The idea that thoughts, behaviors and decisions have to happen because of previous events and the laws of nature.
Natural Law theory
The laws discovered in nature stem from the eternal God. Human beings are naturally rational, so it is moral for humans to behave rationally. Based on the idea that the moral standards guiding human behavior originate in human nature and in the universe. Deviating from the norm is immoral, sinful, evil and harmful.
Thomas Hobbes
The laws of nature are rules of reason that indicate the best way to further our self-preservation People avoid war and seek peace as a means to self-preservation People are lead to war by their reason also as a means for self-preservation
Jeremy Bentham
The man who modified Epicurus's ideas into British Utilitarianism. His ideas led to the Philosophical Radicals, a group of social reformers, and inspired John Stuart Mill, who wrote in favor of individual freedom and female equality.
Rawls
The medical code of ethics is closest to which of the following philosopher's theories?
Socrates
We behave the way we do because we are seeking happiness, the ultimate human good
Empirism
The notion that reliable knowledge is acquired by testing ideas against sensory evidence.
Judaism
The oldest monotheistic religion, it is based on the Old Testament or Hebrew Bible, and influenced both Christianity and Islam. It places emphasis on history, laws and religious community.
Feminism
The philosophical and political discourse geared toward exposing, analyzing, and addressing sexual inequality. It emerged because it was believed philosophical research omitted woman and that there was a masculine bias in philosophical research so a woman's morals was either neglected or distorted.
The notion of perfect Forms, of which the Good is one
The relation of Plato's The Allegory of the Cave to his ethical sys tem is which of the following
Dharma
The righteous duties of a person toward people and gods.
Cosmogony
The study of the origin of the universe.
Viture
The word arete translates to
Children do not have as much liberty as adults because of which of the following?
Their minds are not developed enough to make moral choices, so their parents must use coercion at times for their children's own good.
who is AQUINAS philosopher?
Theologian of the dominican order, who was influenced by Aristole
Utilitarianism or Consequentialism
Theory that actions are moraly acceptable if good consequences outweigh bad consequences. Similarly, if bad consequences outweigh good consequences then an action is morally wrong.
Emotivism
There are no moral truths. Our moral judgments are an expression of our feelings. Merely an expression of approval or disapproval; not reasoned or true or false
Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agreed that
There was an original condition of humanity called the "state of nature" and civil society changed the state of nature.
Who determined there were four cardinal virtues (prudence, temperance, fortitude, justice) and three theological virtues (faith, hope, and charity)?
Thomas Aquinas
Who said, "Good is to be done and promoted and evil is to be avoided?"
Thomas Aquinas. This concept has to do with the blending of virtue, theology, law, reason, and revelation. It's an idea that the very basis of ethics is God and we are to follow God's will. It's a reckoning of law with God.
Policy of Deterrence
Threatening to retaliate in order to discourage attack
Care Ethic
Through mutual interdependence, emotions empower the individual's cognitive ability Compassionate and sensitive perspective / outside the scope of rules and duties
Heteronomy
To act according to desires I haven't chosen myself
St. Thomas Aquinas
To determine good or evil, one must look to the results. Good if promoting God and His honor. Natural Law - humans have a rational nature, are subject to God's eternal law, and have a share of God's eternal reason. The rational human participation in eternal reason is natural law. Through our natural reason, we can discern good and evil and know the difference between right and wrong
Total Utility
Total Pleasure - Total Pain =
Eudaimonia
True, Aristotelian happiness, which extends through a lifetime.
Rawls
Two Principles of Justice Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar Liberty for others. Social inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both a. reasonably expected to be to everyone's advantage b. attached to positions and offices open to all
Reparative
Type of Justice. Ability to make up for past discrimination or injustices through preferential treatment
Corrective
Type of Justice. Attempts to restore the balance after wrongful acts
Distributive
Type of Justice. Fair distribution of (resources) burdens and benefits (according to need) to society. Example: Slavery in U.S. and apartheid in South Africa both unjust based on race
Retributive
Type of Justice. Fairness of punishments. Form of criminal justice where punishment should be proportionate to the crime "Eye for an eye" Punishment, deterrence, protection of community
Procedural
Type of Justice. Relates to the assessment of agreements, contracts, and processes to ascertain their fairness and correctness
Natural
Type of Justice. Rightness is determined by the strong
Redistributive
Type of Justice. Take form the rich and give to the poor (Robin Hood style)
Compensatory
Type of Justice. The extent to which people are fairly compensated for their injuries by those who have injured them. Example: Smokers suing tobacco companies
Socrates
Unity of Virtues: A person who knows that acting virtuously will be to his own good will act virtuously In all areas of life - personal, social, military, and religious
Aristotle
Universal Justice Allows for the correction of individual
Immanuel Kant
Universal Law Formulation: "Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law"
Categorical Imperatives
Universal Moral Laws
Categorical Imperative
Universal moral laws that act as the basis for practical reason and help people behave morally. Kant believed a behavior conforms to categorical imperative if it is moral for all human beings.
Jeremy Bentham
Utilitarianism
Act
Utilitarianism type. Does not assess moral rightness or wrongness because it depends on the circumstances
Rule
Utilitarianism type. Individuals should follow the correct moral rules based on the test of total well-being
Rawls
Veil of Ignorance
Aristotle
Virtue is reduced if other goods are lacking such as friendship and power
St. Thomas Aquinas
Virtue must be perfected through training Those prone to vice must be restrained from doing evil through force and fear. The means by which this force, fear, and retraining is accomplished is human law. Human law, if it is just, is derived from natural law (do harm to no man) Evil-doers should be punished, but the human law may determine many different ways to punish
Thomas Hobbes
Virtues such as modesty and equity promote social harmony - benefits possessor and recipients Virtuous behavior stems from our own self-interest
Socrates
Virtuous Souls is good. Vicious Soul is bad. Virtue is knowledge. Ignorance is why we act without virtue. No one acts contrary to what he perceives as good.
Hinduism
Virtuous acts will benefit us all by ensuring a favorable rebirth Believes transgression of souls, and how a person lives determines how a person will be reborn
Just War Tradition
War is just if declare by competent authority, is for just cause, fought with right intentions, fought as a last resort, and proportional to provocation
Allison Jagger
Western ethics shortchange women in 5 ways They take only small account of women's interest and rights Excludes moral conundrums that arise in a woman's world Defines women as morally underdeveloped compared to men Overvalues male traits such as independence Undervalues feminine traits such as emotions Prefers culturally male methods of moral reasoning
Passive Euthanasia
When medical treatment is intentionally withheld resulting in eventual death
Active Euthanasia
When someone deliberately kills a patient
Thucidides
Where there's lack of moral rules, the stronger country can dominate the weaker (Peloponnesian War)
Plato insisted on an absolute moral goal (the Good), whereas Artistole insisted that moral rules or beliefs that hold most of the time are often the best that can be achieved
Which of the following is a major difference between Plato's ethics and Aristole's?
Neither beleived that women were equal to men in moral abilities
Which of the following is a major similartity between Plato and Aristole?
Libertarianism
Which of the following is not distinctive feature of an apporoach to feminist ethics?
rule utilitarianism>Mill; act utilitarianism>Bentham
Which of the followng pairings of philospher and ethical theory or nation is accurate?
Aristole
Which philosopher is most closely assoicaited with the "Doctirine of the Mean:?
A metaphysical philosopher of the Middle Ages who believed in libertarian ideals such as separation of church and state and who also believed that the simplest explanation is most likely the correct one:
William of Ockham
One medieval philosopher who believed in divine commands was ...
William of Ockham
The notion that women are innately less morally developed (or developable) than men is denied by which of the following?
Wollstonecraft
social mores, especially education, made most women inferior to men as moral actors
Wollstonecraft argued that
Patriarchy
Women are subordinate to men Men hold a disproportionately large share of power Economic, legal and social status of women has been historically patriarchy
Carol Gilligan
Women have ethics of care and emotion but is is equal to the ethics of men (Justice)
Gilligan
Women's basic moral orientation was to care for others (personally, not humanity in general) and to attend to their needs Believed women's decisions are based on the relationships they build rather than on logical principles Women lean more towards the love and care mentality when it comes to morality Men mostly follow justice mentality
Thucydides
Wrote History of Peloponnesian War (Athens vs Sparta)
Thomas Hobbes
Wrote Leviathian
Martin Luther King
Wrote famous Letter form Birmingham Jail Explained he could simultaneously urge people to obey the law and break the law Agreed with St. Augustine that "an unjust law is no law at all" Greatest stumbling block was not KKK but white moderate more devoted to order than justice Unjust law is no law at all and should not be obeyed
Plato
Wrote the Republic
Socrates
You must always obey the state (contract between citizen and state)
John Stuart Mill
advocates that moral values are relative to likely social consequences - we must act in a way as to help bring about the greatest good for the greatest number of people (Standard of Happiness)
To Socrates, self-interest and virtue were always
aligned with each other as long as the subject has all the knowledge needed to truly know what is in the subject's true self-interest.
Ecocentrism
also known as eco-holism or deep ecology
Moral Egoism
always acceptable to do what we believe is in our own self-interest
Act utilitarianism
an action is morally obligatory if it produces the most good for the most people
unconditional
an agreement between two parties, but only one of the parties has to do something
conditional covenant
an agreement that is binding on both parties for its fulfillment
Contractarianism
an agreement which validates the moral principles agreed upon
John Rawls
an american philosopher in the liberal tradition - had theory of justice as fairness
paradox?
an argument that produces an inconsistency, typically within logic or common sense.
feminist ethics
an attempt to revise, reformulate, or rethink traditional ethics to the extent it depreciates or devalues women's moral experience
justice
applied to determine on what basis scarce resources will be distributed or alternatively on what basis burdens will be distributed
Kant believed that humans should never be treated only as a means to an end because people
are rational, autonomous actors that should be treated equally
What is THEODICIES?
attemp to resolve the evidential problem of evil by reconciling the traditional divine characteristics of omnibenevolence, omnipotence, and ominscience with the occurrence of evil or suffering in the world.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
claims that humans are naturally self-interested and they are not naturally selfish or motivated by pride
three natural reasons people fight according to Hobbes
competition over material good; general distrust; glory of powerful positions
If a judge has a large investment in a company involved in a case that is due to come before him, and the judge does not "recuse" (i.e., remove) himself from the case, then that judge is guilty of
conflict of interest.
social contract theory
consent is the basis of government - people have agreed to be ruled that governments are entitled to rule
Procedural Justice
contracts/processes t0 ascertain fairness and correctness
natural virtues
courage, magnanimity, ambition, friendship, generosity, fidelity, gratitude
When God promises Abraham that his progeny will live in the land of Israel as Abraham and his progeny worship God and follow his laws, this is known as the
covenant
Patriot Act
criticized for giving excess powers to law enforcement agencies to interfere in the privacy of individuals
substantive ethics
defining rights opposed to giving rules. firm basis in reality
Kant's ethical system was
deontological, because it was based on the notion of a priori moral tenets that are eternal
Descriptive ethics
describes the ethical standards of a person, community, culture, etc. (controversial topics)
Voluntary Active Euthanasia
direct action that causes death (lethal injection)
Whistle blowing
disclosing information to outside sources without permission of the company regarding unethical practices
disclosure of information
disclosing relevant information regardng a medical diagnosis or treatment
components of informed consent
disclosure of information, comprehension, voluntariness
Immanuel Kant
divides moral philosophy into two domains - justice or law and ethics or virtue
Cultural Relativism
do according to that culture
A group of citizens volunteers time to build houses for the homeless. This is an example of
doing good
Doctrine of Right
duties that form this subject matter are precise, owed to specifiable others, and can be legally enforced
Doctrine of Virtue
duties to adopt certain ends - many are imperfect in that they do not specify how, when, or for whom they should be achieved
Duty of Beneficence
duty to help others in need
Duty of Nonmaleficence
duty to not harm others
Existentialists
each person must chose own way without guidance of universal, objective standards (Founded by Kierkegoad)
applied ethics
philosophical examination, from a moral standpoint on matters of moral judgement.
locke
empiricism (testing ideas)
theory of justice as fairness
envisions a society of free citizens holding equal basic rights of cooperating within an egalitarian economic system
Professional Code of Ethics
ethical responsibilites at work - avoiding conflicts of interest
normative ethics
evaluates people's actions and their moral character (it is concerned with the content of moral judgments or principles, rules, or theories that guide our actions and judgments, and the criteria for what is right or wrong- it argues for particular standards or norms for behavior)
ethical relativism
every point of view is valid (persuation rather than truth)
rawls
everyone has equal rights
Consent Form
evidence of a valid consent
corrective justice
explores when and how to compensate someone for a loss
Distributive Justice
fair division of limited resources according to demand
What is the problem of omnipotence
family of semantic paradoxes which address two issues: Is an omnipotent entity logicaly possible? And what do we mean by omnipotence?
Socrates
felt that ethics was born of human conflict
Environmental Ethics
focuses on human responsibility to nature. It is practical and ethical to protect the future of humanity.
Conventional level
genuin care for others (stages 3 and 4 of Kohlberg's hierarchy)
Enchiridion
guide of moral conduct based on the principles of Stoicism
Doctrine of Double Effect
harm is sometimes endured to cause good: like treatment side effects (Aquinas)
consequentialists
hold that choices and/or acts or intentions are to be morally assessed solely by the states of affairs they bring about
seven features of pleasure
intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity (nearness), fecundity, purity, extent
paternalism
interference of an individual with another person, against their will, and defended that the person interfered with will be better off or protected from harm
artificial virtues
justice, promise-keeping, allegiance to legitimate government
charles murray
libertarian
hedonic calculus
lists seven features of pleasure to which attention must be paid in order to assess how great it is
who is LOCKE
philosophical work, an Essay Concerning Human Understanding and epitemology and metaphysics
Virtue ethics
moral character - a theory of morality that makes virtue the central concern
It is the view of anthropologists and others that we cannot criticize cultures that we do not understand
moral isolationism
theonomy
morality and religion are thought to come from a common source of inspiration and knowledge, a source that religion may refer to as God
autonomy
morality based on religion alone, without any reference to religious ideas
heteronomy
morality depends on religious belief or on a set of values given by a religion
deontoligism
obligation, duty
Post conventional level
people think of their duties towards others in terms of abstract rules that transcend the particular cultures of historical situations that specific people find themselves in (stages 5 & 6 of Kohlberg's hierarchy)
protagoras
people, not nature determine behavior
it means that a fair outcome is stated in advance
perfect procedural justice.(Rawls)
four roles of political philosophy according to rawls
practicality; help citizens orient themselves within their own social world; probe the limits of practicable political possibility; reconciliation
pragmatism
prediction, action, problem solving
promotes actions that fulfill the interests (preferences) of those beings involved
preference-utilitarians
A group of citizens pledge not to drink and drive, and hold without fail to this pledge. This is an example of
preventing harm
Rehabilitation
prisoners spend earnings on education or a trade to use when released so they can avoid criminal activity
The government would like to create a giant database that records all your personal information—from medical history to what books you buy online or take out of the library to where you go every day, based in Global Positioning System chips in your cell phone or car. This program is primarily an issue of
privacy.
informed consent
process by which patients are asked to consent to procedures after being sufficiently informed to make a rational decision
stoic moral virtues
prudence, courage, justice, temperance
Pre-conventional level
selfishness and lack of concern for other (contains first two stages of Kohlberg's hierarchy)
St Thomas Aquinas
puts forth the notion of eternal law as the road map for ethics - the ultimate purpose of life was not happiness here on Earth but eternal bliss in the hereafter
principle of subjectivity
reasons, beliefs, feelings, judgements (kant)
Voluntary Passive Euthanasia
refusal of medical treatment that could save life
John Rawls
refutes Utilitarianism Liberties shouldn't be hindered
Skepticism forms a basis for moral __________
relativism.
virtues
reliable habits you engrave into your identity
SO
removed self regulation of companies
If a judge punishes a starving man for stealing a loaf of bread to feed himself, that judge is favoring
retributive justice over distributive justice, because punishment for breaking a law has been privileged over the just allocation of goods in society.
The main difference between the concept of justice in the Law and in the Prophets in the Old Testament was that in the law, justice was
retributive, whereas in the Prophets, it was distributive
According to Locke, when the social contract has been broken irreparably, the proper response is
revolution
If a representative government begins operating more and more in secret, it is in danger of abrogating the public's
right to information
The relationship between natural law and natural rights is that natural
rights derive from natural law because the universal standards that govern ethics are inherent in human nature, wherever human nature comes from.
nonconsequentialist normative theory
says we should always do the will of God
metaethics
seek to understand nature of ethical properties
Courage
self-mastery according to Kant
Happiness
socrates believed that whatever action a man chooses is motivated for his desire for this
Plato
student of Socrates who suggested the good life is one of intelligence
Ethics
system of moral principles - affects how people make decisionss and lead their lives
retributive justice
talks about what punishments are appropriate for wrongdoing
distributive justice
talks about who should get which benefits and which burdens
The Gospels
tell about the life and ministry of Jesus - in the New Testament
categorical imperatives
tell us what to do irrespective of our desires
hypothetical imperatives
tell you what to do in order to achieve a particular goal
To Plato and Aristotle, the ultimate source of justice is
the soul
teleology
the study of ends or final causes or purposes that things serve
normative ethics
the study of ethical action, investigates how someone ought to act.
Paternalism is unavoidable in the Bible's ethical system because
the ultimate basis of the law and commandment to love is based on a male deity's insistence
Natural Law Theory
the view that there exists an eternal moral law that can be discovered through reason by looking at the nature of humanity and society
plato
the world can only be understood intellectually
Ethics of care
there is moral significance in the fundamental elements of relationships and dependencies in human life (care-givers)
divine command theory
things are morally good or bad, or morally obligatory, permissible, or prohibited, soley because of God's will or command
meta-ethics
this lays the groundwork for normative ethics - it deals with the nature of moral judgment. It looks at the origins of meaning of ethical principles. It studies the nature of morality and questions the abstract meaning of ethical terms
In nature, everything has a purpose; nature and its moral laws are knowable through common sense and reason; since every living thing has a nature that is appropriate to the kind of thing it is, failure to develop this nature to its fullest is an imperfecton. Each thing in nature ought to develop its natural potential as much as possible.
three Aristotelian principles followed by Aquinas
I WANT
to add
primary purpose of the Leviathan
to punish subjects who break the law
Non-Maleficence
type of duty. Not to harm others
Prima Facie
type of duty. apparent, self-evident; do not need proving
Beneficence
type of duty. doing or producing goods as in acts of kindness, helping or charity
Deontology
type of ethical theory which is concerned with moral rules which are generated by non-consequentialist methods - based in the nature of rationality or other principles of duty not consequences - theory of moral obligation
axiological
value
According to Rawls, an ethical situation can be determined with a thought experiment that assumes no social class, race, or hierarchy is involved. This is called the __________.
veil of ignorance
Aristotle
view holds that the good for which all humans aspire is happiness, which is the activity of the soul
John Stuart Mill's notion of liberty
was based on the "harm principle," which was that liberty extended up to the point of inflicting harm on another.
Utilitarianism
way of evaluating moral decisions based on the amount of pleasure that it provides
Hedonistic Utilitarianism
we always ought to perform that act that leads to the most pleasure
