Comprehensive final AP II
Describe the basic function of Lymphocytes
- Destroy specific bacteria and their toxins - Attach viruses, fungi, cancer cells, foreign cells.
Describe the basic function of Neutrophils
- First responders to injured or infected tissues. - Phagocytize bacteria and fungi - secrete lysozyme (antibacterial enzyme)
Describe the basic function of Albumin
- Maintains osmotic "sucking" pressure in blood - acts as a buffer - ↑ viscosity of blood - Transports lipids
Describe the basic function of Eosinophils.
- Phagocytize anything labeled with antibodies - Destroy parasitic worms - Play rile in allergy and asthma
Describe the basic function of Hemoglobin
- Transports o2 - Transports some CO2 - Acts as a buffer (can bind to H+ ions)
Describe the basic function of Basophils
- repair damaged tissues by releasing histamine - release heparin (anticoagulant)
State the function of Arteries
1. Take blood away from the heart. 2, Supply blood to an organ /tissue. 3. Are pressure reservoirs. (have pressure needed for perfusion)
State the function of the coronary arteries and coronary veins.
1. The coronary ARTERIES Supply blood to the heart itself (myocardium) 2. The Coronary VEINS drain blood from heart itself.
Summarize 4 major functions of the lymphatic system.
1. Transports excess interstitial fluid and leaked proteins back to bloodstream 2. Transports lipids in food eaten. 3. Produces and matures B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes and natural killer cells. 4. Lymphocytes generate an immune response.
Body temp. pH of blood total volume (L) in adult males vs. adult female Hematocrit % in adult males vs. adult female.
37.C or 98.F 7.35-7.45 M= 5-6L F= 4-5L M= 39-49% F= 35-45%
Appendix What is the function or what does it filter?
Antigens in waste passing through the cecum
Describe the basic function of Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)
Are "sacs" of hemoglobin. The H: - Transports O2. - Transports CO2 - Acts as a buffer (can bind to H+ ions)
Summarize the flow of the blood through the blood vessels, starting with arteries and ending with veins.
Arteries → arterioles → capillaries → venules → veins.
State the formula for blood pressure
BP = CO X TPR
State how oxygen is transported in the blood.
Bound to hemoglobin (bind to the iron atoms)
What is the CRH and what does it do?
Corticotropin Releasing Hormone which stimulates and release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Name the two pressures involved in exchange at the systemic capillaries. _____________________________ and _______________________________
Hydrostatic pressure and Osmotic pressure.
Which pressure is greater at the arteriole end of the capillary
Hydrostatic pressure.
Where is ADH made?
Hypothalamus
Steroid hormones, T3 and T4 work by binding to target cells with __________________ _______________ that eventually TURN GENES ON OR OFF.
INTRACELLULAR RECEPTORS
Use the formula for blood pressure, to answer the following: a. If cardiac output increases, then blood pressure _________ b. If total peripheral resistance increases, then blood pressure ___________
Increase both
Describe the basic function of Plasma
Is mostly H2). The water transports substances in blood and carries heat.
What stimulates the release of ADH?
Low blood volume, increase solute concentration in blood and dehydration.
Identify what causes each of the following sounds of the heart: lubb dupp
Lubb: Closing of the AV valves Dupp: Closing of the SL valves.
Angiotensin II is released by who? and functions or effects.
Made in blood when AGI in blood converted to AGII 1. ↑ Na+ reabsorption from kidneys (from forming urine back to blood) 2. ↑ release of aldosterone and ADH 3. ↑ vasoconstriction of arterioles 4. Stimulates thirst center in hypothalamus (so person drinks H2O)
What part of the brain receives the info from the chemoreceptor?
Medulla Oblongata.
What part of the brain receives the info from the baroreceptor?
Medulla oblongata.
Name the region of the brainstem that contains the DRG and VRG (groups of neurons) that control the breathing rate
Medulla oblongoota.
In an ECG what do the following represent? P wave QRS wave T wave
P wave: Atrial depolarization QRS wave: Ventricular depolarization and atrial repolarization T wave: Ventricular repolarization.
Glucagon is released by who? and functions or effects.(remember GI)
Pancreas - ↑ Blood glucose levels. (GI=Glucose increase)
Insulin is released by who? and functions or effects. (remember ID)
Pancreas - ↓ blood glucose levels. (ID= Insulin Decrease)
Parathyroid hormone is released by who? and functions or effects. (remember Pi)
Parathyroid Gland - ↑ blood Ca+2 levels (PTH Decrease)
Define perfusion and state the role of the heart in perfusion.
Perfusion is the process of delivering blood to a capillary bed in the tissues. When the ventricles of the heart contract they create the pressure needed for the bloods to move to the capillaries for gas and nutrients exchange with the tissues.
Describe the basic function of Monocytes
Phagocytize debris, dead cells, ect.
Name the region of the brainstem that modifies the breathing rate such as when exercising, speaking, and sleeping
Pons
+ or - chronotropes or + or - inotropes for sympathetic neuron release of NE
Positive for both
+ or - chronotropes or + or - inotropes for epinephrine (85%) and norepinephrine (15%) hormones released by adrenal medulla after stimulation from the sympathetic neurons
Positive for both.
What organ is ADH released from?
Post. pit glands
What is PrPH and what does it do?
PrPH is the hypothalamus which releases prolacting (PRL) to mammary glands.
Prolactin stimulates what?
Pregnant = Production of milk Non pregnant = Breast swelling and tenderness Male = cells in testes more sensitive to LH
_____ , __________ AND _____ work by binding to target cells with receptors that work by RECEPTOR ENZYME PATHWAYS
Prolactin, growth hormone, and insulin
State the "simple" formula for resistance
R = 1/(radius) over the 4th power.
Prolactin, growth hormone, and insulin work by binding to target cells with receptors that work by _____________________________________________.
RECEPTOR ENZYME PATHWAYS
Use the formulas for resistance and blood pressure to answer the following: a. If the radius of a blood vessel decreases, then resistance ___________. b. If resistance increases, then blood pressure ___________. c. Vasoconstriction of an ARTERY or ARTERIOLE will _____ the radius of the artery or arteriole which will _______ resistance which will _______ blood pressure BUT _____ blood flow to a tissue.
a & b: both increase C. It will DECREASE the radius of the artery or arteriole which will INCREASE resistance which will INCREASE BP but DECREASE blood flow to a tissue.
What does "FLAT PG" mean?
The hormones from the Anterior Pituitary gland which are released from another hormone from the Hypothalamus. FSH LH ACTH TSH PRL GH
Describe the role of the lymphatic system in maintaining normal tissue fluid volume
The lymphatic vessels return fluids NOT returned to the venous end of a capillary to the subclavian veins.
TSh stimulates what?
The release of T3 and T4
ACTH stimulates what?
The release of cortisol
Afterload means? and does it ↑ or ↓ Stroke Volume?
The resistance against which the ventricles must pump ↓ SV
Contractility means? and does it ↑ or ↓ Stroke Volume?
The strength of contraction ↑ SV
Pre-Load means? and does it ↑ or ↓ Stroke Volume?
The stretch on the ventricles before they contract during ventricular systole ↑ SV
Haldane effect
The unloading of O2 from Hb ↑ the ability of Hb to pick up CO2 and so allows more CO2 to be carried by the blood back to the lungs to be exhaled.
Which part of the lymphatic system helps to return to the subclavian veins, the fluids not returned to the venule end of capillaries during bulk flow?
Thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct (lymphatic ducts)
Calcitonin is released by who? and functions or effects. (remember CD)
Thyroid Gland - ↓ blood Ca+2 levels. (CD = Calcitonin Decreases)
Thyroid Hormones (T3and T4) is released by who? and functions or effects.
Thyroid gland 1. Set the basal metabolic rate (BMR) 2. Needed for bone and muscle growth. 3. Needed for brain development. 4. ↑ # of receptors for NE.
What is TRH and what does it do?
Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone: increases TSH
Vasodilation vs. Vasoconstriction
Vasodilation is the relaxation of a blood vessel and vasoconstriction is the contraction of a blood vessel.
Name the organ that creates the hydrostatic pressure needed for nutrient exchange at the capillaries.
heart
+ or - chronotropes or + or - inotropes for parasympathetic neuron release of ACh
negative for both
Describe the 3 ways in which carbon dioxide is transported in the blood. Which method is the most used?
1. 70% of Co2 is transported as bicarbonate (HCO3-) ions. 2. 20% of Co2 is bound to hemoglobin (bind to globin proteins) 3. 10% of Co2 is dissolved in plasma.
what are the hormones releases by the Ant. Pit. Gland.
1. ACTH 2. TSH 3. Prolactin 4. Growth Hormone (GH)
Name 5 major hormones that regulate BP. (think of the 5"A's"!) and Which is the only one released in response to HIGH BP?
1. ADH 2. Aldosterone 3. AG II 4. Adrenaline (EPI) and NE (1-4 all ↑ BP) 5. ANH (atrial Natriuretic Hormone) this is the only one that ↓ BP
Name the 2 types of cardiac muscle cells and the function of each
1. Autorhythmic cells: generate an action potential and spread it to cardiac contractile cells. 2. Contractile cells: after receive AP from autorhythmic cells. they contract this cause hear chambers to contract.
Name 2 major that hormones regulate blood Ca+2 levels.
1. Calcitonin (Ct) 2. Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Basic structural and functional unit. 1. All living organism 2. Skeletal and cardiac muscle. 3. Cardiovascular system 4. Respiratory system 5. Urinary system
1. Cells 2. Sarcomeres 3. Capillaries 4. Alveoli 5. Nephrons.
Name 6 major hormones that regulate blood glucose levels.
1. Cortisol 2. Epi & NE 3. Growth hormone 4. T3 & T4 5. Glucagon 6. Insulin (1-5 ↑ BP and 6 ↓ BP)
Summarize the pathway air takes through the respiratory tract and indicate where the respiratory division begins (that is where the actual exchange of gases can occur).
1. External nares 2. Nasal cavity 3. Internal nares 4. Nasopharynx 5. Oropharynx 6. Laryngopharynx 7. Larynx 8. Trachea 9. first bronchi 10. second bronchi 11. tertiary bronchi 12. terminal bronchioles. 13. Respiratory bronchioles to alveolar ducts to alveolar sacs to alveoli.
The flow of blood in the hear starting by IVS,SVC and Coronary sinus.
1. IVS,SVC and Coronary sinus. 2. R atrium 3. Tricuspid 4. R ventricle 5. Pulmonary SL valve 6. Pulmonary trunk 7. R and L pulmonary arteries. 8. Lungs 9. R and L pulmonary veins 10. L atrium 11. Bicuspid 12. L ventricle 13. aortic SL valve 14. Aorta to the rest of the body.
1. Name the two body systems/organ systems that control homeostasis and identify which system deals with SHORT-TERM CRISIS and which deals with LONG-TERM crisis.
1. Nervous system deals with short term crisis. 2. Endocrine system deals with long term crisis
Oxytocin is released by who? and functions or effects.
1. Post. Pit. Gland 2. Nursing F= release of milk Pregnant F= Contract uterus myometrium during labor initiates labor. Non pregnant F= sexual arousal trust, bonding, ect. Males= Semen release from prostate during sexual activity.
1. What does a baroreceptor senses? 2. Where are the baroreceptors are located?
1. Pressure 2. Carotid arteries, aortic arch and R atrium.
1. Name the location where erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets are formed. 2.Name the organ that makes most of the proteins in the plasma (except immunoglobulins)
1. Red bone marrow 2. Liver.
State the function of Veins
1. Return blood to the heart. 2. "drain" blood from an organ/tissue. 3. Are volume reservoirs (65% of blood in veins at most time. )
Name 4 factors that that increase venous return (return of blood from the veins to the right atrium of the heart) and then explain why.
1. Slow Heartbeat: more time to fill the ventricles. 2. ↑ Sympathetic activity (NE): Increases HR and Increases FOC 3. Sk. Muscle pump: Moves blood in veins back to hearts. 4. Respiratory pump: Moves blood in veins back to heart.
What effects does acetylcholine (ACh) secreted by parasympathetic division have on 1. heart rate _____ 2. diameter of bronchiole _____ 3. pupil diameter _____ 4. blood flow to digestive organs _____ 5. secretion of tears and saliva _____ 6. relaxation of urinary and digestive tract sphincters _____ 7. release of digestive enzymes _____
1. heart rate decrease 2. diameter of bronchiole decrease 3. pupil diameter decrease 4. blood flow to digestive organs increase 5. secretion of tears and saliva increase 6. relaxation of urinary and digestive tract sphincters increase 7. release of digestive enzymes increase
What effects does norepinephrine (NE) secreted by the sympathetic division and epinephrine (EPI) and norepinephrine (NE) hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla have on 1. heart rate _____ 2. heart contractility _____ 3. diameter of bronchiole _____ 4. pupil diameter _____ 5. blood flow to skeletal muscle _____ 6. blood flow to digestive organs _____ 7. blood glucose levels _____ 8. secretion of sweat _____
1. heart rate increase 2. heart contractility increase 3. diameter of bronchiole increase 4. pupil diameter increase 5. blood flow to skeletal muscle increase 6. blood flow to digestive organs decrease 7. blood glucose levels increase 8. secretion of sweat increase
Growth Hormone stimulates what? (4 THING)
1. ↑ IGF-1 release which then ↑'s growth. 2. ↑ muscle uptake of glucose 3. ↑ Fat break down. 4. ↑ glucose release by liver.
What 2 major effects does ADH have?
1. ↑ reabsorption of water in the kidneys (water moves out of the collecting ducts and into the surrounding capillaries.) 2. Increase vasoconstriction of arterioles.
Blood pressure for standard man (ml/beat) Heart rate range in an adult (bpm) Stroke volume for standard man (ml/beat) Cardiac output for standard man (L/min)
120/80 mm Hg 60-80 bpm 70ml/beat 5L/min
Lymph nodes What is the function or what does it filter?
Antigens in lymph passing through lymph nodes.
ADH is what? released by who? and functions or effects.
ADH means Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) (=Vasopressin) Released by the Post. Pit. gland It ↑ reabsorption of water in kidneys (from forming urine) It also ↑ vasocontraction of arterioles.
State the hormone secreted by the heart and then state the effect of that hormone
ANH decreases blood volume and BP 1. It ↑ secretion of Na+ ions by the kidneys and h20 follows by osmosis 2. ↑ vasodilation in arterioles (especially in kidneys) 3. inhibits aldosterone and renin.
Cortisol is released by who? and functions or effects.
Adrenal Cortex (helps cope with stress by) 1. ↑ blood glucose aa's and fatty acids. 2.↑ vasoconstriction effects of NE to maintain blood pressure. 3. When oversecreted inhibits inflammation and immune system.
Aldosterone is released by who? and functions or effects.
Adrenal cortex 1.↑ Na+ reabsorption from Kidneys (from forming urine back to blood) 2. ↑ Secretion of K+ from Kidneys (from blood to forming urine)
Epinephrine (=adrenaline) and Norepinephrine (=noradrenaline) is released by who? and functions or effects.
Adrenal medulla 1. ↑ Heart rate 2. ↑ contractility = ↑ force of contraction 3. ↑ dilation of pupils and bronchioles 4. ↑ Blood glucose levels 5. ↑ blood flow to SK muscles 6. ↓ blood flow to digestive organs.
State the function of Capillaries
Allow exchange of gases, nutrients, ions, hormones and waste with body cells.
Know that the target cells for _______ ______ hormones have G-protein coupled receptors and so the hormone has its effect through second messenger systems(cAMP or phospholipase C pathways).
Almost all
Tonsils What is the function or what does it filter?
Antigens in Food Drinks and air or anybody fluids passing through the ear nose and throat.
Spleen What is the function or what does it filter?
Antigens in blood passing through the spleen
Peyer's patches What is the function or what does it filter?
Antigens in food passing through small intestine.
MALT What is the function or what does it filter?
Antigens in food, air, urine, waste or any body fluids passing through the respiratory, urinary, reproductive or digestive system.
Write the equation that summarizes cellular respiration
C6HO6 + 6O2 →(many enzymes and many steps)→ 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy + heat
Bohr effect
CO2 and H+ ions weaken the HbO2 bond and thus ↑ unloading of O2 from Hb that O2 can move into the body cell.
Explain why CO2 is toxic to the cells and fluids of the body. Include the reactions that supports your explanation.
CO2 combines with H2O to form CARBONIC ACID. Thus the body fluid becomes acidic. Acid environment denatures proteins and so proteins shape gets destroys and no longer function. CO2 +H2O ←→ H2CO3 ←→ H+ + HCO3-
Where the chemoreceptors are located ?
Carotid arteries and aortic arch.
What does a chemoreceptor senses?
Chemicals such as H+, CO2 and O2
Describe the basic function of Platelets (=thrombocytes)
Clotting of blood
Which pressure is greater at the venule end of the capillary?
Colloid osmotic pressure.
Thymus gland What is the function or what does it filter?
Does not filter antigen! Instead, serves as organ where T cells mature and differentiate.
Define Carbonic anhydrase
Enzyme that speeds up this reversible reaction in both directions.
What is GHRH and what does it do?
GHRH( hypothalamus) which releases the Growth Hormone (GH) for bone and muscle.
What is GnRH and what does it do?
Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone it releases FSH(+) and LH
Name the 3 chemicals that are sensed by the chemoreceptors in the aortic and carotid bodies
H+ ions, PCO2, PO2
Oxytocin
Signals the uterus to contract which induces labor and stimulates the mammary glands to release mail when nursing.
___________ ___________ ,___ & ___ work by binding to target cells with INTRACELLULAR RECEPTORS that eventually TURN GENES ON OR OFF
Steroid hormones, T3 and T4
Insulin
Stimulates the cells to take up glucose from the blood which decreases blood glucose levels.
Define stroke volume and cardiac output
Stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped by L ventricle in ONE BEAT. Cardiac Output is the amount of blood pumped by L ventricle in ONE MINUTE.
Systole vs. diastole
Systole: Contraction of the heart chamber and Diastole is the relaxation of ta heart chamber
Steroid hormones, T3 and T4 work by binding to target cells with INTRACELLULAR RECEPTORS that eventually ______ ______ ___ ___ _______.
TURN GENES ON OR OFF.
a. Which type of blood vessel which has the greatest total cross-sectional area? ______________ b. The greater the total cross sectional area, the ____________ (faster or slower?) the blood flow through the blood vessel.
a. Capillaries b. Slower
Use the formula for cardiac output, to answer the following: a. If stroke volume increases, then cardiac output __________ b. If heart rate increases, then cardiac output
a. If stroke volume increases, then cardiac output increases b. If heart rate increases, then cardiac output INCRFEASES
Identify the part of the hemoglobin molecule that each of the following binds to: a. O2 b. CO2 c. H+
a. Iron atoms b. Globin proteins. c. Globin proteins.
a. contraction of a blood vessel is called? b. relaxation of a blood vessel is called? c. contraction of a chamber of the heart is called? d. relaxation of a chamber of the hear is called?
a. Vasoconstriction b. Vasodilation c. Systole d. Diastole.
Identify whether each of the following increases or decreases resistance to blood flow through a blood vessel. a. increase in length _____ resistance to blood flow b. increase in viscosity _____ resistance to blood flow c. decrease in radius _____ resistance to blood flow
a. ↑ b. ↑ c. ↑
State the formula for cardiac output
cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume (CO = SV X HR)
