D265 - Section 1

d

Some arguments are such that the premises of the argument entail its conclusion, which means that if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true. What are such arguments called? a) Inductive arguments b) Abductive arguments c) Fallacious arguments d) Valid arguments

formal fallacy

an argument with bad structure

modus tollens

if X, then Y --- Not Y --- Therefore, not X

modus ponens

if X, then Y --- Therefore, Y

antecedent, consequent

in a conditional "if..., then..." statement, the part after "if" is called the _____ and the part after "then" is called the _____

propositions

statements that can be true or false

nonpropositions

statements that cannot be true or false ; you cannot disagree with them, argue about whether they are right or wrong, or question them because they are undoubtable/indubitable and would not make any sense to disagree

informal fallacy

the structure of the argument is not an issue - there is an exception to the content of the argument

arguments

these are composed of premises and conclusions

conclusion indicators

these feel conclusive and have the general sense of "I have told you some things or I am about to tell you some things, now here is what I want you to believe" -common examples: therefore, so, it follows that, hence, thus, entails that, we may conclude that, implies that, wherefore, as a result

informal fallacies

these have a problem with their content

informal fallices

these have a problem with their content

formal fallicies

these have bad structure

complex propositions

these have in internal logical structure ; whether they are true or false depends on whether their parts are true or false -examples: --- The GPD of Canada is either 3 trillion or it is 12 trillion ^this is true whether the GPD is 3 or 12 trillion --- The sky is blue, but it does not look blue to me right now ^this is true if the sky is blue and if it doesn't look blue

simple propositions

these have no internal logical structure ; they are simply true or false on their own -examples: --- The GDP of Canada is 1.7 trillion --- The sky is blue --- Freedom should be the highest value for its citizens --- Harry Potter wears glasses

premise indicators

these have the general sense of "from this fact I am going to infer something else" -common examples: because, for, given, in that, as, since, as indicated by

a, b

"Since we cannot go out until the restaurant opens, and given that we are trying to save money, we should just hang out here until closer to dinner." ^Which statements are the premises of the following argument? Choose 2 answers. a) We cannot go out until the restaurant opens. b) We are trying to save money. c) We should just hang out here until closer to dinner. d) We can have a good time without spending money.

a, c

A formal fallacy concerns _____, but an information fallacy concerns _____. 1) a) the structure of an argument b) the relation between cause and effect c) the official instructions for reasoning d) the form of language used in an argument 2) a) the rule of deductive logic in an argument b) the unofficial but acceptable ways to follow those instructions c) informational content of an argument d) the structure of an argument

c

A formal fallacy is a type of _____ a) good structure b) good statement c) bad argument structure d) bad statement

b

Consider the following argument: If Jones is a baseball player, then Jones is an athlete. Jones is a baseball player. Thus, Jones is an athlete. Which kind of argument is this? a) A conditional proposition b) A valid argument c) A strong argument d) An invalid argument

a

Consider the following argument: Smith inspected 990 jellybeans in the jar. Each of the beans Smith inspected is red. Therefore, all 1000 of the beans in the jar are red. Which kind of argument is this? a) A strong argument b) Deductive argument c) A weak argument d) A valid argument

d

Did the company really close that deal? It has had a great year. Where is the president right now? Let's go ask whether the deal was closed. ^ In the above paragraph, which sentence expresses a proposition? a) Where is the president right now? b) Did the company really close that deal? c) Let's go ask whether the deal was closed. d) It has had a great year.

c

If the computer is not fixed, then the company either needs to buy a new one or will not be able to keep up productivity. ^Which of the following breaks down the complex proposition above into the simple propositions? a) If the computer is not fixed, then the company needs to buy a new one. The company will not be able to keep up productivity. b) The computer is not fixed. The company needs to buy a new computer. The company will not be able to keep up productivity. c) The computer is not fixed. The company either needs to buy a new one or will not be able to keep up productivity. d) The company does not have enough computers.

sound

If the deductive argument is valid and all premises are true premises then this is a _____ argument

a

If the new employee wants to succeed, then they need to show up on time. How many times have we heard the manager complain about tardiness? Nobody likes a 7 a.m. start time, but it was in the job description. We should remind the new employee how important this is. ^Which is a simple proposition that is expressed in the above paragraph? a) The new employee wants to succeed. b) How many times have we heard the manager complain about tardiness? c) The employees look out for each other. d) If the new employee wants to succeed, then they need to show up on time.

deductive

In a good _____ argument structure, true premises make the conclusion necessarily true

inductive

In a strong _____ argument, true premises make the conclusion probably true

b

In deductive reasoning, what is the difference between validity and soundness? a) Validity concerns the truth of an argument's premises, but soundness requires a high degree of probability. b) Validity only concerns the structure of an argument, but soundness requires both validity and true premises. c) Validity concerns an argument's probability, but soundness requires clearly defined terms. d) Validity concerns the inductive strength of an argument, but soundness requires both strength and plausible premises.

a

Most students in the class scored less than 70% on the exam. This means that the exam was too difficult to accurately assess student learning. Therefore, as exams are supposed to accurately assess student learning, the exam must be revised and re-administered. ^Which statement is the conclusion of the above argument? a) The exam must be revised and re-administered. b) Some students in the class scored higher than 70% on the exam. c) Exams are supposed to accurately assess student learning. d) Most students in the class scored less than 70% on the exam.

a

The U.S. healthcare system is difficult to navigate, and this negatively affects many of us. Many people are unsure exactly how their health insurance coverage works and are not sure where they can go to get care. What can be done to improve this? If changes are not made soon, the problem will only get worse. ^Which is a simple proposition that is expressed in the above paragraph? a) Many people are not sure where they can go to get care. b) The U.S. healthcare system is difficult to navigate, and this negatively affects many of us. c) What can be done to improve this? d) Many people are unsure exactly how their health insurance coverage works and are not sure where they can go to get care.

d

Which of the following is an accurate characterization of "fallacy" as that term is used in logic? a) A fallacy is a formal violation of a state law. b) A fallacy is a false claim. c) A fallacy is a deliberate attempt to deceive. d) A fallacy is a common mistake in reasoning.

a, b

Which pairs of sentences are arguments? Choose 2 answers. a) Every time I walk by here, Chris is doing nothing. Chris must not do anything with the available time. b) We need to act now to reverse greenhouse gas emissions. If we do not, the earth will soon become inhospitable to human life. c) John Lennon was shot and killed. So were Bobby Kennedy and his brother John. d) One student cheated on the test. But it was only because the student felt ill prepared.

b

Which sentence expresses a complex proposition? a) Birthday parties can be really fun. b) The cat ate the food, but did not like it. c) Too many employees are used to high-stress work environments in the United States. d) Why did the monkey escape, and who is responsible?

c

Which sentence is a non-proposition? a) If the burglar did not go out the front door, they must have gone out a window. b) The earth is the third planet from the sun. c) Where are the keys to my car? d) Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the world.

a, c

Which sentences are arguments? Choose 2 answers. a) We know the student cheated on the exam because the instructor caught the student stealing glances at their neighbor's test. b) The student only cheated on the exam because their financial aid depended on it. c) No one has ever been to the moon, so we do not know that it is not made of cheese. d) If you suspect you have been infected with rabies, then you should contact a medical professional immediately.

a, c

Which words or phrases are conclusion indicators? Choose 2 answers. a) As a result b) For c) Hence d) As indicated by

a, d

Which words or phrases are premise indicators? Choose 2 answers. a) In that b) Consequently c) It follows that d) Because

strong inductive

_____ argument: if the premises are true, the conclusion is probably true

valid deductive

_____ argument: if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true

cognet

_____ argument: is strong and has true premises

sound

_____ argument: is valid and has true premises

deductive

_____ argument: supposed to guarantee their conclusions

inductive

_____ argument: supposed to make their conclusions probable

true

_____ propositions accurately represent reality

unsound

a _____ argument is an argument that either is invalid or has at least 1 false premise

truth

a property of propositions

premise

a proposition lending credence to the conclusion ; provide a reason for thinking the conclusion is true ; made up of claims, evidence, ideas, etc. intended to support the conclusion

inference/argument

any purportedly rational movement from evidence or premises to a conclusion

nonpropositions

not statements about fact or fiction ; they do not make a claim that can be true or false ; they exhort, command, plead/request, question, and or perform

critical thinking

the ability to think carefully about thinking and reasoning

validity

this is a property of an argument structure ; it means this structure is such that if the premises of any argument with this structure are true, then the conclusion of that argument must be true

fallacy

this is a type of bad argument

soundness

this is about both structure and truth: you must have a good structure and true premises to make this argument

conclusion

this is the claim that the whole argument is intended to support or demonstrate or prove

invalid argument

this structure is one where the premises do not guarantee the truth of the conclusion, but they should, given the type of argument involved -example: If it is a mathematical argument, then it's premises should guarantee its conclusion, so it is deductive. But if its premises do not, in fact, guarantee its conclusion, then it is an invalid deductive argument.

valid argument

this structure is where the premises guarantee the conclusion ; if the premises are true, the conclusion follows - it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false - example: If 2+2=3, and 6-3=3, then necessarily, beyond any doubt, 2+2=6-3

formal

this word refers the structure of things

false (because of the way the world is, no one is an elephant)

true/false proposition: I am an elephant

true (complex proposition)

true/false proposition: I am an elephant, or I am a human