Educational Psychology
Tom has borrowed his father's car for the big dance. Tom is used to driving a car with standard, disk brakes. His father's car is equipped with very sensitive, power brakes. Operating under the theory of proactive inhibition, how might we expect Tom to react at an upcoming stop sign? a. Jam the breaks hard b. Pump the breaks c. Lightly touch the brakes d. Become indecisive e. At first touch the brakes lightly and then press into a skid
a) jam on the breaks hard Proactive inhibition would interfere with Tom's learning to use a more sensitive touch on the power brakes and rely on his previous experience, which required a more forceful reaction to standard brakes.
______________ is a broad process, common to instruction at all levels and in all subject areas. a. Assessment b. Measurement c. Testing d. Evaluation e. Synthesis
a. Assessment Assessment is the general term used for all forms of information gathering and interpreting of results.
A teacher finds that the students enjoy it when she places them in debate formats, where they can argue their perspectives in front of the judge. Under these situations the teacher is using which form of goal structure? a. Competitive b. Challenge c. Individualistic d. Mastery e. Cooperative
a. Competitive Competitive goal structures have students work against each other while pursuing an instructional goal; here, the better performance is the achievement.
Classical conditioning is based on which of the following principles of learning? a. Contiguity b. Reinforcement c. Effect d. Contingency e. Dual stage learning
a. Contiguity The principle of contiguity states that if two stimuli are paired together repeatedly, they will become associated; this serves as the principle behind classical conditioning (i.e. in Pavlov's famous experiment, a dog being conditioned to pair the sound of a bell with the contiguous presentation of a piece of meat).
This law (act) guarantees that students with cognitive, emotional, and physical disabilities will receive an appropriate education, and outlines educational policies for that purpose. a. IDEA b. HUD c. PL-94-198 d. Freedom of Choice Bill e. HIPPA bill
a. IDEA
Which of the following would Piaget posit is important for cognitive development? a. Interaction with the physical environment b. Conditioning c. Social modeling d. Reinforcement e. Shaping
a. Interaction with the physical environment Piaget believed that while biological readiness is important, it is through interaction with the physical environment that the individual gains experience that serves as the stimulus for growth.
A person with good self-awareness and insight would, according to Gardner, most likely score high in which form of intelligence? a. Intrapersonal b. Linguistic c. Logical-mathematical d. Interpersonal e. Insightful
a. Intrapersonal Intrapersonal intelligence refers to having an understanding of yourself, your abilities, your hopes, and your potential reactions to any given situation.
When attempting to quantify an event, a teacher would more appropriately use which term for the process employed? a. Measurement b. Evaluation c. Achievement d. Testing e. Grading
a. Measurement Measurement allows teachers to quantify or assign numbers to student performance or attributes.
Which of the following cognitive structuring techniques emphasizes linking new information with already familiar information to produce an association? a. Mediators b. Mnemonics c. Advanced organizers d. Scaffolds e. Accommodation
a. Mediators Mediators are cognitive structuring strategies of verbal phrases designed to link new and familiar concepts.
In assessment, which of the following would be considered a selected response item? a. Multiple-choice item b. Short answer c. Short essay d. Fill-in-the-blank e. Case analysis
a. Multiple-choice item Selected response type items present the student with an objective question followed by a pre-determined set of possible answers (i.e. multiple choice).
_____________ measures a student's performance in comparison to a sample taken of other similarly-aged students' performances around the country. a. Norm-referenced testing b. Formative assessment c. Criterion-referenced testing d. Authentic assessment e. Group testing
a. Norm-referenced testing Norm-referenced assessment arrives at scores based on a standardized sampling of similarly-aged students' performances on the same assessment tool.
Knowing the grammatically correct combinations of words involves which process? a. Syntax b. Semantics c. Context d. Pragmatics e. Dialetics
a. Syntax Syntax incorporates a set of rules that in effect makes up a language's grammar and allows for words to be put together in meaningful ways.
Under which of the following conditions can inhibition or interference occur? a. When the old and new learning concepts are very similar b. When the old and new learning concepts are the exact opposite c. When the old and new learning concepts are very dissimilar d. When the new and old learning concepts are taught at the same time e. When two concepts are learned in the same way
a. When the old and new learning concepts are very similar Sometimes previously retained information may interfere with the learning of new material (proactive interference/inhibition), or the learning of new material may interfere with the memory of previously retained information (retroactive interference/inhibition). Interference or inhibition is more likely when old and new materials are very similar in nature.
A positive reinforcer __________behavior; whereas a negative reinforcer _______behavior? a. increases, increases b. increases, decreases c. decreases, increases d. decreases, decreases e. Any of the above, depending on the actual situation
a. increases, increases A reinforcer by definition always increases behavior. A positive reinforcer works by its addition to a situation following a particular behavior, whereas a negative reinforcer works by its removal from a situation following a particular behavior.
Which of the following reflects the operations of the sensory register? a. You are able to remember what was said for a second or two even though you were not paying attention. b. You are able to recite a phone number after 5 minutes of practice. c. You are able to focus your attention on a noise. d. You are able to make a connection between new material and previously-taught material. e. You are able to repeat up to 9 digits said in rapid sequence.
a. You are able to remember what was said for a second or two even though you were not paying attention. Our sensory register allows us to hold on briefly to incoming information before it either undergoes processing or disappears from memory; therefore, if a student is not paying attention in class, that student still might be able to recall a few bits of information received a minute ago, since that information was indeed unconsciously registered.
The fact that a child in the pre-operational stage of development tends to focus on one perceptual aspect of an event to the exclusion of others demonstrates a. centration. b. transductive logic. c. egocentrism. d. seriation. e. primal thinking.
a. centration. Centration is the tendency to focus on one perceptual aspect of an event to the exclusion of others (size as opposed to amount, for example).
In Hunter's model, homework could be considered a. independent practice b. unnecessary c. a structured review d. extended set e. maintenance rehearsal
a. independent practice According to Hunter's model, homework is an independent practice conducted without the teacher's presence, an unassisted performance which allows the student to develop fluency of the objective.
According to Sternberg, a person's ability to think abstractly and process information effectively would be reflective of ___________ intelligence. a. componential b. experiential c. contextual d. combinatorial e. logical
a. componential According to Robert Sternberg, componential intelligence is comprised of the very basic set of tools that enables us to process information, identify problems, plan an action, and execute the information.
IQ, in the Stanford-Binet formulation, is found by a. dividing mental age by chronological age and multiplying by 100. b. dividing chronological age by mental age and multiplying by 100. c. dividing biological age by chronological age and multiplying by 100. d. adding the number correct on the Stanford-Binet IQ test. e. taking the chronological age and multiplying it by the number questions answered correctly.
a. dividing mental age by chronological age and multiplying by 100. IQ stands for the quotient derived by dividing the mental age (as determined by the score on the test) by the chronological age, and then, multiplying by 100 to remove decimals.
When teachers gather data in order to assess the efficacy of a current and ongoing pedagogic procedure, they are employing a. formative assessment b. diagnostic assessment c. summative assessment d. authentic assessment e. in-vivo evaluation
a. formative assessment Formative assessment occurs in order to revise an ongoing pedagogic procedure.
Working memory can be described as a. having a limited capacity b. having an unlimited limited time span for recording and holding c. another name for long-term memory d. the last stage of human information processing e. memory employed during problem solving
a. having a limited capacity Working memory (or short-term memory) is the site in the information processing system where a limited amount of information is stored for a brief time period to allow for it to be processed and moved to long-term memory.
One-word utterances carrying as much meaning for a child as a complete sentence does for an adult are called a. holophrasic speech b. overgeneralized speech c. ego-centric speech d. compact speech e. personalized speech
a. holophrasic speech For a child beginning to use words, a single word (i.e. "cookie" or "cow") can convey different sorts of meanings or intentions, such as labeling an item, questioning the name of an object, or requesting more of a piece of food. This phenomenon is referred to as holophrasic speech.
A focus of constructivism is a. how students process and absorb information, and arrive at a resolution b. how to maintain control of the classroom c. the use of teacher-directed strategies in learning d. how students feel about the material presented e. None of these is a focus of constructivism
a. how students process and absorb information, and arrive at a resolution Constructivism emphasizes learner interest in and accountability for their own learning which manifests in student self-questioning and discovery.
A primary concern of all constructivists is a. how to teach b. what to teach c. why to teach d. when to teach e. who to teach
a. how to teach Constructivists emphasize that learning occurs only when learners actively engage in schema-building experiences. It is the creation of these experiences, or the how of learning, that is the central focus.
Ralph enjoys practicing his violin, simply because it feels good and he likes the challenge. Ralph is motivated by a. intrinsic motivation b. extrinsic motivation c. aesthetic needs d. esteem needs e. creative needs
a. intrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation involves finding value and motivation within an activity itself, regardless of outcomes such as rewards or punishments.
Kohlberg's theory of moral development was based on a morality of a. justice b. economy c. equality d. care e. religion
a. justice Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development was derived from research on children's and adults' responses to moral dilemmas involving issues of justice.
A teacher who attempts to facilitate learning by adapting a presentation to the way a student tries to facilitate his or her own learning is employing: a. mathemagenic factor. b. advanced organizers. c. scaffolds. d. mediators. e. dual stage theory.
a. mathemagenic factor. Mathemagenic effects consider what students do to facilitate their own learning, noting especially their organizing and structuring strategies.
The direct imitation of a behavior that has been observed is called a. modeling b. imitation c. generalization d. mimicking e. shadowing
a. modeling Modeling is a social learning strategy that emphasizes learning by watching others.
A simple definition of an unconditioned stimulus would be a stimulus that a. naturally or automatically elicits a response b. has gained the power of eliciting a response through paired learning c. has reinforcing value d. causes a reaction in some people e. is ineffective
a. naturally or automatically elicits a response An unconditioned (or unlearned) stimulus is one that by its very nature elicits a particular unlearned response. In Pavlov's classic experiment, the meat that initially caused the dog to salivate was the automatic, initial, unconditioned stimulus.
The process of interpreting and attaching meaning to an experience is called a. perception b. encoding c. elaboration d. chunking e. labeling
a. perception Perception refers to the process of interpreting or giving personalized, individual meaning to an experience.
The most common form of word fluency disorder is: a. stuttering. b. echolalia. c. dyslexia. d. stagnation. e. dysnomia.
a. stuttering. Stuttering (dysfluency) is speech characterized by abnormal hesitations, prolongations, and repetitions; it is the most common form of word fluency disorder.
The fact that you see an after-image after someone has taken a flash picture of you is due to the operation of a. the sensory register b. sensory gating c. the reticular activating system d. short term encoding e. episodic memory
a. the sensory register The sensory register, the first port or site in the information processing model (or memory), briefly holds on to all incoming sensory information, such as the after-image from a recently-snapped photograph.
Which of the following is a strategy for moving material from working memory to long-term memory? a. A student thinks about the material. b. A student repeats the information over and over again. c. The student attempts to find a mental distraction. d. The student employs proactive inhibition. e. None of the above
b. A student repeats the information over and over again. Repetition (or rehearsal) is an effective way to move information from short-term (working) memory to long-term storage.
Which of the following teachers is most likely facilitating elaboration? a. A teacher who tells stories about her trip to Spain b. A teacher who asks the students to give examples of how gravity works in everyday life c. A teacher who requires students to write the formula three times d. A teacher who gives time to practice the words over in their head before asking them to recite the poem e. A teacher who outlines the lecture on the board
b. A teacher who asks the students to give examples of how gravity works in everyday life Since elaboration involves using prior knowledge to help make newly-learned material more meaningful, the teacher who helps students find examples of the forces of gravity at work in their everyday existences is enabling the students to elaborate on newly-learned material with the help of personal knowledge from their own lives.
Piaget would most likely agree with which of the following statements? a. Children are 'pre-wired' with basic knowledge which just needs to develop. b. Children are 'active constructors' of their knowledge. c. Children are like 'blank slates' to be formed through experience d. Children are passive recipients of learning e. Children are conditioned by their environments.
b. Children are 'active constructors' of their knowledge. Piaget believed that children, neither 'pre-wired' nor 'blank slates,' play an active and ongoing role in the continual mental construction and reconstruction of their environment.
Which of the following terms is an item analysis procedure designed to identify those items that differentiate students who score high on the test from those who scored low? a. Differential factor b. Discrimination index c. Disparity ratio d. Performance indicator e. Hi-lo differential
b. Discrimination index Discrimination indexing is a statistical procedure for examining whether a test item distinguishes between high-scoring and low-scoring students.
Which authentic assessment process involves students in the design, collection, and evaluation process? a. Performance assessment b. Portfolio assessment c. Action assessment d. Sample case assessment e. Test-retest assessment
b. Portfolio assessment An example of authentic assessment, which simulates real-life tasks students would be expected to perform in everyday situations, could be a portfolio of works designed, collected, and self-tested by students.
Using a higher frequency behavior as a reinforcer for a less frequent behavior is an example of the a. contiguity principle. b. Premack principle. c. principle of primacy. d. shaping. e. secondary gains.
b. Premack principle. The Premack principle employs preferred or high frequency behaviors as reinforcement for the performance of a less preferred and thus lower frequency behavior.
A teacher who attempts to pair words of praise, such as "Good job," with a tangible reward, such as a piece of candy, so that verbal praise will eventually serve as a reinforcer for a student, is employing which behavioral principle? a. Law of effect b. Principle of contiguity c. Law of least cost d. Principle of associated stimuli e. The Premack principle
b. Principle of contiguity The principle of contiguity states that if two events are presented together repeatedly, they will become associated, and the power inherent in the first event will then translate to the second one.
The concept of "least restrictive environment" would best be illustrated by which of the following scenarios? a. Placing a student with a learning disability in a residential school setting b. Providing a student the opportunity to attend as 'normalized' an educational experience as they are capable of experiencing c. Placing all children in regular classrooms, all of the time d. Providing special classes for children with hyperactivity e. Providing tutors and educational support for home study
b. Providing a student the opportunity to attend as 'normalized' an educational experience as they are capable of experiencing The concept of "least restrictive environment" refers to the placement of children with disabilities in as typical an educational setting as possible that can meet their needs.
According to Piagetian theory, a child develops object permanence in which stage of cognitive development? a. Preoperational b. Sensorimotor c. Formal d. Concrete e. Presensorial
b. Sensorimotor The development of object permanence, Piaget's term for children's understanding that objects continue to exist apart from their immediate perception of them, occurs during the first year of life, which falls under the sensorimotor stage of development.
Juan has just completed the unit on the structure of the cell. He is now preparing a unit test. Juan is using which type of assessment? a. Formative b. Summative c. Integrative d. Diagnostic e. Terminal
b. Summative Summative evaluations gather information about student knowledge and performance at the end of a unit of instruction.
According to research, what is felt to be typically characteristic of gifted students? a. They are generally high-strung, with a large anxiety level. b. They are highly creative in their ability to formulate new ideas and apply them to problem solving. c. They have low motivation and have difficulty committing to tasks. d. They are often socially isolated. e. They have a greater tendency than most people to be sickly.
b. They are highly creative in their ability to formulate new ideas and apply them to problem solving. Research suggests that gifted students not only have high intellectual ability but are also creative in their approach to problem solving.
Which characteristic of effective teachers seems most related to positive student attitudes toward the class? a. Knowledge b. Warmth c. Organization d. Good grades e. Same gender as students
b. Warmth Research emphasizes the value of a warm, caring environment as essential to the production of a positive student experience.
A behavior that is reinforced on _______________ schedule of reinforcement is most resistant to extinction. a. a continuous b. a intermittent c. a reciprocal d. a circular e. a graduated
b. a intermittent In an intermittent reinforcement schedule, the targeted behavior is reinforced some of the time, but not all the time it is performed. This form of reinforcement is resistant to extinction.
Anthony has finally stopped calling his grandfather "da-da," a term he originally created to label his father. Anthony now calls his grandfather "da-du" and his father, "da-da". Anthony is demonstrating a. assimilation b. accommodation c. schema spread d. overlapping e. transmuting
b. accommodation Accommodation is the process of creating a new schema or modifying an existing schema. In this case, Anthony modified a schema for labeling all male adults "da-da."
Prior to beginning a lesson in algebra, a teacher asks if anyone knows what a negative and a positive number is. This teacher's question is acting as a. arousal stimuli b. anticipatory set c. a mental tease d. a behavioral cue e. a prelude
b. anticipatory set Anticipatory sets are preliminary activities intended to arouse interest, gain student attention, and set the stage for the lesson to follow.
When confronted with a little man with a mustache, Howard declared: "Look mom, a baby with a mustache!" Howard is illustrating: a. stimulus dominance. b. assimilation. c. transductive logic. d. object permanence. e. accommodation.
b. assimilation. Assimilation was Piaget's term for the process of making sense of an experience or perception by fitting it into previously established cognitive structures (schemas).
Maria is very talented in math and science. She has a real chance at getting a scholarship to college for pre-med. However, her family feels that she should work in the family business and not go to college and won't give her permission to go. According to Bandura's Self-Efficacy theory, Maria may be expected to a. have a high drive to succeed b. become unmotivated c. to become a failure-avoidant student d. strive toward self-actualization e. employ external loci of control
b. become unmotivated Self-efficacy involves an individual's belief in his/her ability to perform a specific task or achieve a particular goal. For Maria, a lack of motivation would stem from her inability to attend college despite her academic successes; she can do the work to get into college, but due to her family circumstances won't be able to attend.
Even though Tania was terrified of her male teacher last year, she entered her new classroom this year calm and unafraid, even though she had another male as a teacher. Tania appears to be demonstrating a. stimulus reversal. b. discrimination. c. undergeneralization. d. differential reinforcement. e. fading.
b. discrimination. Discrimination learning occurs when one responds to differently to similar stimuli, even in similar situations.
Sheila was describing her Thanksgiving dinner, and was able to relate in great detail where people sat, what they were wearing, all of the food cooked, and the way the table was set. Sheila is exhibiting her a. procedural memory b. episodic memory c. semantic memory d. event memory e. Affective memory
b. episodic memory Episodic memory involves personal recollections of specific times and places.
If a conditioned stimulus is presented in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus, ______ may occur. a. discrimination b. extinction c. resistance d. spontaneous recovery e. generalization
b. extinction Extinction (in classical conditioning) occurs when a previously conditioned stimulus (having been associated with an unconditioned stimulus) is presented in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus and thus fails to continue to elicit the unconditioned response.
A person who is motivated to complete a task because it will provide some desired outcome is motivated by a. intrinsic motivation b. extrinsic motivation c. intrapsychic motivation d. extrapsychic motivation e. functional motivation
b. extrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation is based on external factors such as rewards and punishments.
Mr. Jordan is always concerned about Jaime. Every time there is a student project, Jaime proposes the most elaborate, most unrealistic project. Mr. Jordon doesn't want to discourage Jaime from aspiring to doing good work, but he is concerned that the projects Jaime presents never seem to get finished since they are so complicated. It is likely that Jaime is a a. mastery-oriented student b. failure-avoidant student c. failure-accepting student d. self-efficacious student e. learning-resistant student
b. failure-avoidant student Failure-avoidant students are motivated more by a desire to avert failure than by a will to succeed. These students may take the easiest task possible, thus insuring success, or the most difficult task possible, thus avoiding a sense of failure since 'no one could do it.'
Research suggests that training in metacognition benefits a. disabled students more than non-disabled students b. lower-ability students more than upper-ability students c. only gifted students d. varying cultures differently e. students based on learning style
b. lower-ability students more than upper-ability students Research has demonstrated that lower-ability students, who need to acquire studying and learning strategies in order to become more successful students, gain especially well from the acquisition of metacognitive strategies, as do students with particular learning disabilities (i.e. dyslexia).
If a teacher wanted to know what percentage of the comparison group of students was outscored by the test-taker, the teacher should employ a. stanines b. percentile scores c. standard deviations d. raw score e. norm adjusted scores
b. percentile scores Percentile scores or percentile ranks describe the number of students in the normal sample who scored above or below an individual student's score.
Dr. I. M. Curious has, for the past 20 years, kept a detailed log of his teaching experiences. He has listed the specific activities he has employed and has even made anecdotal notes about student reactions to each activity. Dr. Curious is a. obsessive b. performing descriptive research c. performing a soft experiment d. is employing correlational research e. is employing summative techniques
b. performing descriptive research Descriptive research employs systematic observations and recording of data without manipulation of the observed phenomenon. This sort of research is highly qualitatively (as opposed to quantitatively)-based.
Research has found _______________ correlations between low SES and achievement scores. a. negative b. positive c. inverse d. it varies with each study e. zero
b. positive Research shows that students from upper SES (socioeconomic status) families generally earn higher achievement test scores and better grades than students from lower SES families; the upper SES students also tend to stay in school longer than lower SES Students.
Howard has been trying to get into an exercise program with the goal of eventually being able to run 5 miles. He outlines a 4-week plan of activity in which the first week he would walk and run 1 mile a day followed by a treat of his choosing. Next he would have to walk and run 2 miles the second week in order to get a treat. And he would continue adding a mile a week from that point on as the requirement to receive his treat. Howard's plan a. reflects the concept of hierarchical learning b. reflects the concept of shaping. c. reflects the process of intermittent reinforcement. d. reflects the process of reciprocal inhibition. e. reflects the process of contiguity.
b. reflects the concept of shaping. Shaping occurs when behavior is reinforced incrementally; over time, these increments grow in size (i.e. in this case, Howard's reinforcement occurring after successively longer periods of exercise).
One model explaining the disparity in achievement across the races points to the long-lasting effects of a history of institutional racism in our society as an explanation. This is the a. genetic model b. socioeconomic model c. sociopathological model d. main culture model e. singular culture model
b. socioeconomic model The socioeconomic model assigns the differences in achievement to pervasive and long-standing effects of institutional racism.
A child with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is often prescribed medication such as Ritalin. The purpose of this medication is to a. sedate the child b. stimulate brain activity c. depress brain activity d. help the child feel less anxious e. relax the child
b. stimulate brain activity Children with ADD/ADHD have been found to have an understimulated and underaroused frontal lobe of the brain; accordingly, medication that stimulates the brain is often used in order to help this area of the brain better process information, maintain alertness, and control haphazard responses.
A mnemonic is a a. tool for helping teachers gain students' attention b. strategy to assist in committing information to long term memory c. teaching tool used by directive teachers d. part of the reticular activation system e. portion of the brain that houses long-term memory
b. strategy to assist in committing information to long term memory Mnemonics are cognitive structuring memory devices that facilitate storage and recall in long-term memory via elaboration and chunking; for instance, a mnemonic device might incorporate the first initials of the four lobes of the brain (PFOT- Parietal, Frontal, Occipital, Temporal) as a chunk to be more easily stored in long-term memory.
Ms. Jones has difficulty identifying a specific reinforcement for Joe, who is having trouble remaining quiet in class. It appears that Joe is always cracking jokes instead of paying attention and doing his work. Ms. Jones might have success if she used the Premack principle. In this case the reinforcement would be a. money b. time for Joe to tell jokes c. extra credit d. the opportunity to be the class monitor e. the use of a mild punishment
b. time for Joe to tell jokes The Premack Principle is a reinforcement strategy in which a high frequency or preferred behavior, in this case Joe's joke-telling, is used as a reinforcer for a less preferred activity, in this case work time. Ms. Jones could allow Joe specific time to tell his jokes once he got a certain amount of work done.
The students often complain that Ms. Lopez gives tests on material that they were not taught. Let's assume that this is true and that Ms. Lopez's test questions do NOT reflect the materials she states she is teaching and testing. Ms. Lopez's test would be of questionable a. reliability b. validity c. standardization d. projective utility e. formative value
b. validity In the field of psychometrics, a test's validity is its ability to measure what it was intended to measure. In this case, Ms. Lopez's test was of questionable validity because although it was intended to measure her students' knowledge of the course material, it wound up by measuring extraneous and unfamiliar material.
According to Vygotsky, a teacher should provide material that is a. beyond a student's zone of proximal development b. within a student's zone of proximal development c. tailored to the student's scaffolds d. within the student's functional zone e. within a student's zone of stimulation
b. within a student's zone of proximal development The Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky believed that children's learning is maximized when it occurs within the boundaries of the "zone of proximal development," which contains those abilities which are in the process of developing, but that can only develop and flourish with someone else's assistance.
Which of the following is (are) element (s) of "culture"? a. Mathematic ability b. Artistic abilities c. Concept of time and space d. Intelligence e. Creative abilities
c. Concept of time and space Culture consists of the socialized influences that govern how we think, feel, behave, and live; this includes how we view time (i.e. punctuality) and space (i.e. the distance a person stands from another person while engaged in a mutual conversation).
For Vygotsky, which of the following concepts appears central to learning? a. Disequilibrium b. Adaptation c. Culture and language d. Proximity e. Disequilibrium
c. Culture and language Vygotsky believed that children's learning cannot take place in a vacuum; children learn by using ways of acting and thinking provided by their culture, mastering tasks deemed to be culturally important.
Timothy thought he should invite Howard to his party because Howard had invited him to his party. However, he did not think he needed to invite Ed, since Ed didn't invite him. Timothy appears to be operating from which of the following moral orientations? a. Punishment-obedience b. Instrumental relativism c. Interpersonal-concordance d. Law and duty e. Market exchange
c. Interpersonal-concordance Kohlberg's stage of moral development called interpersonal-concordance or harmony is when moral/ethical decisions are based on what pleases, helps, or is approved by others.
One principle often cited by developmental theories is the principle of Universality. Which of the following best illustrates that principle? a. Timothy was potty trained at the same age as his sister. b. Children, regardless of culture, appear to use a pincer grasp as a method of initial grabbing. c. Language development during early childhood appears similar in pattern, regardless of the specific language being learned. d. Vygotsky's principle of proximal development. e. The fact that all children are afraid of monsters.
c. Language development during early childhood appears similar in pattern, regardless of the specific language being learned. Universality refers to developmental patterns, such as the hierarchical stages of early childhood language development, which appear at a certain point in time, independent of specific culture or social context.
Many of the pitfalls found in assigning grades can be reduced in number, if not completely avoided, by employing which of the following scoring methods? a. The use of only authentic assessments b. Grading scores on a curve c. Setting performance standards for each grade d. Complete focus on mastery e. The use of only standardized tests
c. Setting performance standards for each grade The assignment of grades is not easy, and is open to many factors that can undermine a grade's value and validity. Designing specific performance standards for each grade leads to less room for interpretation of a score.
David Ausubel believed which of the following? a. Students should discover knowledge on their own, without much teacher interference. b. Teachers need to be simple resources for learning. c. Teachers need to structure learning in a meaningful manner. d. Teachers need to allow students full autonomy. e. Teachers are first and foremost content experts.
c. Teachers need to structure learning in a meaningful manner. David Ausubel was a proponent of meaningful reception learning theory; as such, he promoted the value of teachers' structuring and organizing of information to facilitate learning in the most meaningful, context-driven manner possible.
Which of the following is (are) true? a. Research shows no real difference in achievement scores of children from upper SES (Socioeconomic Status) families when compared to those of lower SES. b. Research shows that children from upper SES drop out with the same frequency as students with lower SES. c. There are positive correlations between low SES and lower self-esteem, ability, and/or readiness. d. SES appears to be less predictive of a student's readiness than originally thought. e. SES seems highly predictive of school success for boys, but not so for girls.
c. There are positive correlations between low SES and lower self-esteem, ability, and/or readiness.
Alice is presented with two rows of coins that have the same number of coins in each row. The rows however, are arranged differently. Row 1 has the coins touching each other, whereas Row 2 has the coins spread out with more than an inch in between each coin. When asked which, if any, row has the most coins, Alice chooses Row 2. Alice is illustrating a. assimilation b. object permanence c. centration d. egocentrism e. transduction
c. centration Centration is the tendency to focus on one perceptual aspect of an event to the exclusion of others. In this example, Alice, like many preschoolers, could only focus on how long each row of coins superficially appeared, rather than on how many coins actually made up each row.
Dr. Zen randomly assigned his students to one of two lab experiences. One lab included a 'virtual' lab experience, while the second group engaged in the traditional curriculum without the aid of a 'virtual' lab. Dr. Zen discovered that the students who had the 'virtual lab' experience in addition to the traditional curriculum scored higher on a standardized science test. Dr. Zen's research could best be described as a. correlational research b. descriptive research c. experimental research d. naturalistic research e. meta-analytic research
c. experimental research Experimental research typically involves the testing of one element, the independent variable (in this case the presence or absence of the virtual lab), and the assessment of its impact on the second, dependent variable (in this case the students and their test scores).
Jerome is constantly making noises in class. In the past he would often get a lot of attention from his teacher and his classmates for his noises. A teacher who attempts to reduce the frequency of the behavior by simply ignoring it when it occurs would be attempting to use a. shaping b. negative reinforcement c. extinction d. deflection e. response cost
c. extinction Extinction (in operant conditioning) is a strategy in which voluntary, previously reinforced behavior is followed by the absence of reinforcement, resulting in a reduction of the behavior's frequency.
In defining a reinforcement, one must see evidence that it a. meets a need b. is valuable c. increases the behavior which preceded it d. makes the subject happy e. is tied to the stimuli eliciting it
c. increases the behavior which preceded it Reinforcement is defined by the way it works. By definition something is a reinforcer only if it works to increase the behavior that led to it.
Stickers, teachers' words of praise, and small gifts are a. positive reinforcers. b. negative reinforcers. c. may be reinforcers, depending on the effect they have. d. may be reinforcers, depending on the setting. e. may be reinforcers, depending on the timing.
c. may be reinforcers, depending on the effect they have. Reinforcement is defined by what it does, not what it is. If it increases the behavior that preceded it, then it can be considered a reinforcer.
Goal setting has been found to be an important motivator. Ideally, goals should be a. student-derived b. distant and terminal c. moderately difficult d. within the proximal zone of development e. general
c. moderately difficult A goal can certainly be student-generated, but for a goal to be truly motivating, it needs to be specific, concrete, and attainable with moderate effort.
It would appear that metacognition a. is possible at any developmental level b. requires special training c. relies on a fair amount of abstract reasoning d. declines with age e. peaks with school entry
c. relies on a fair amount of abstract reasoning By definition, metacognition involves "thinking about our thinking," and as such requires a fair amount of abstract reasoning.
A student who has memories of general facts and concepts would be said to have: a. didactic knowledge. b. process knowledge. c. semantic memory. d. eidetic memory. e. event memory.
c. semantic memory. Semantic memories are our memories for general facts and concepts. Most of what we learn in school (instructional content) is stored in our semantic memory.
In order to increase student motivation, DeCharms suggests that classrooms should be a. overstructured b. understructured c. structured to allow for student choice and control d. geared to student learning style e. tied to external reinforcement
c. structured to allow for student choice and control DeCharms, working with children from low-income families, stressed that allowing for increased choice and control within a classroom could lead to greater motivation, and greater belief that a task could be achieved through realistically-based, concrete steps.
Approaches that start with the language the student brings to the classroom and builds on family and cultural language to promote standard language usage are considered a. multi-lingual. b. immersion. c. transitional. d. balanced. e. familial.
c. transitional.
The process of grouping items into larger, meaningful units of storage in working memory is called a) elaboration b) Gestalt c) reframing d) chunking e) condensing
d) chunking Chunking is an information processing strategy which groups bits of information into more meaningful units that can be more easily processed, stored, and retrieved from memory.
This process refers to the event in which learning and remembering a new concept is interfered with by the presence of a previously learned concept. a. Fading b. Reciprocal inhibition c. Retroactive inhibition d. Proactive inhibition e. Regression
d) proactive inhibition Proactive inhibition occurs when the presence of previously learned material interferes with the learning of new material.
Which of the following statements is true? a) teaching can occur in isolation of interaction b) teaching imposes or directly implants learning c) teaching is intentional in that it is goal-directed d) teaching is a process that is too artistic to be explained by science e) teaching is a simple, straightforward process of giving information.
d) teaching is a process that is too artistic to be explained by science
Objectives that require the learner to differentiate among facts, opinions, and conclusions would be at which cognitive level? a. Valuing b. Evaluation c. Synthesis d. Analysis e. Comprehension
d. Analysis Analysis involves breaking down a whole into its constituent parts (i.e. facts, opinions, conclusions) in order to detect relationships and correlations between among these individual parts.
Students with which of the following cognitive styles have self-defined goals and function successfully in self-structured situations and impersonal learning environments? a. Reflective b. Kinesthetic c. Field dependent d. Field independent e. Field relative
d. Field independent Field independent learners perceive items as more or less separate from the surrounding field; they have self-defined goals and function successfully in self-structured situations
Horace is so excited in school. He has just learned to write his name. It would appear that Horace is in which stage of psychosocial development? a. Autonomy versus shame and doubt b. Identity versus confusion c. Initiative versus guilt d. Industry versus inferiority e. Trust versus mistrust
d. Industry versus inferiority Industry versus inferiority is one of Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. It generally occurs during middle childhood, when the child is eager to produce and interested in demonstrating competence or industry; the child feels a sense of inferiority when unable to master specific tasks.
Employing Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, it is possible to assume that a person with talent as a car salesman might have which form of intelligence elevated? a. Intrapersonal b. Linguistic c. Logical-mathematical d. Interpersonal e. Financial-economic
d. Interpersonal Interpersonal intelligence involves an increased understanding of other people's behavior and ways of thinking In order to make a large number of sales, a car salesman would rely on interpersonal intelligence to put a customer at ease, communicate effectively, and convince the customer to buy a car.
Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the concept of inclusion ? a. Lawrence often throws temper tantrums. He is allowed to join the class when he is in control of his anger. b. Kristie has been identified as having attention deficit with hyperactivity. She is allowed to participate in all classes involving physical activity, but not those in which students are required to do deskwork. c. Ramone has multiple physical disabilities and is provided a special classroom to go to and work with a specialist. d. Kim, who is deaf, participates in art and physical education by herself and has an adult who 'signs' for her in her other academic classes. e. Ginny, who has unusual art abilities, is allowed to do her English paper on the life of Monet.
d. Kim, who is deaf, participates in art and physical education by herself and has an adult who 'signs' for her in her other academic classes. Full inclusion is the belief that students with disabilities should be educated in regular classrooms in their neighborhood schools. In this case, Kim participates fully, sometimes with the aid of an interpreter, in a classroom alongside typically-developing children.
Which of the following would NOT be true of Gagné's learning hierarchy? a. The hierarchy is based on prerequisite skills. b. Verbal information is the most basic learning outcome. c. Higher-order outcomes are at the top of the hierarchy. d. Motor skills can only be taught at the base of the hierarchy. e. The hierarchy includes affective attitudes.
d. Motor skills can only be taught at the base of the hierarchy. Gagné's learning hierarchy consists of a "bottom-up" approach to learning, where the most basic, concrete components of learning are at the bottom of the hierarchy, and the most abstract principles are at the top. Gagné believes that even motor skills have cognitive and affective components, and as such are not necessarily restricted to the bottom (base) of the hierarchy.
Which of the following is NOT a theory attempting to explain the observed differences in academic performance noted between racial groups? a. Genetic model b. Socioeconomic model c. Sociopathological model d. Nutritional model e. Teacher expectations
d. Nutritional model Differences in achievement have been explained as a result of socioeconomic discrimination, cultural deficiencies, teacher bias, and long term evolution and genetic disposition.
Which of the following is the most likely to influence a student's sense of self-efficacy? a. Family background b. Genetic makeup c. Reinforcement schedule d. Past performance e. Level of cognitive development
d. Past performance Self efficacy is belief about one's personal competence within a particular situation and can be influenced by teacher expectations and previous successes or failures.
Jim stated: "I know it is my country, and as a citizen I should take up arms against our enemies, but I feel this is simply unjust and I can't participate". Jim appears to be reflecting which moral orientation? a. Obedience and punishment b. Instrumental relativism c. Social contract d. Universal ethical principles e. Law and order
d. Universal ethical principles In Stage 6 of Kohlberg's model, the Universal Principles stage of the Postconventional Ethics Level, ethics are determined by an individual's conscience and guided by the abstract principles of justice and equality. In this case, Jim's conscience and abstract, individual principles of morality affect his decision-making.
Which of the following is an example of 'expressive language'? a. Reading a book b. Mentally rehearsing a speech c. 'Imaging' the definition one has memorized d. Writing an essay e. Employing verbal encoding
d. Writing an essay Expressive language refers to the ability to employ language as a vehicle for conveyance of ideas to others
Assimilation and accommodation both reflect: a. imaginal manipulation. b. formal operations. c. the use of elaboration. d. a need to resolve cognitive disequilibrium. e. mental operations used to move items from working memory.
d. a need to resolve cognitive disequilibrium. Piaget theorized that when confronted with a new experience we are thrown into a state of cognitive disequilibrium. We use the processes of assimilation and accommodation to help us make sense of the new experience and return us to a state of cognitive equilibrium.
Which of the following terms refers to a slightly abstract summary passage of material, presented to students prior to their viewing of the actual material in its totality? a. Stimulant b. Cue c. Elaborator d. Advance organizer e. Teaser
d. advanced organizer An advanced organizer is a deliberately prepared, slightly abstract passage presented in advance of the main material and used to facilitate learning.
Assume that David got a score of 93 on an individual IQ test. It can be assumed that David is a. below average b. in the 93rd percentile c. at a minimal 7% below average d. average e. able to qualify for special educational services
d. average While the score of 100 is often identified as average, a range of scores typically varying 15 points (or one Standard Deviation) on either side of 100 (85-115) provides the full range of average scores.
Gilligan's model based moral decision making on the morality of a. justice b. economy c. equality d. care e. power
d. care Carol Gilligan found that moral decisions of females are based on the ethics of caring, both for the self and for others.
A child who understands that the "amount" of a particular substance remains the same even after the shape of that substance has been modified is demonstrating a. centration b. transformation c. equilibration d. conservation e. constancy
d. conservation Conservation is a Piagetian term for the realization that certain properties of an object remain the same regardless of changes in other properties of the object.
If an intelligence test truly measures intelligence, it could be said to have a. inter-item reliability. b. test-retest reliability. c. predictive validity. d. construct validity. e. accuracy.
d. construct validity.
This model of multiculturalism celebrates diversity by attempting to identify shared characteristics, as well as unique individual and family elements a. assimilation b. amalgamation c. transformation d. cultural Pluralism e. egalitarianism
d. cultural Pluralism By incorporating cultural pluralism, an educator would attempt to address both a shared national culture and individual/family cultures.
A teacher who is attempting to identify the specific factors that cause student achievement will do well using ______________type of research. a. descriptive b. correlational c. naturalistic d. experimental e. meta-analytic
d. experimental Since the goal of the teacher is to identify the cause for student achievement, experimental research is needed because it is designed to isolate cause. (Correlation may be involved as well, but cause is the important factor here.)
A student who believes his/her failure was a result of the teacher making an unfair test, would be exhibiting attribution based on a. internal, stable factors b. external, stable factors c. internal, fluctuating factors d. external, unstable factors e. external, fluctuating factors
d. external, unstable factors Attribution theory assigns a locus of control (external or internal) and a degree of stability (stable or unstable) to a given attribution. In this case, the student is attributing his failure to events outside of himself (with the teacher as the external source) and to a cause that is unstable (the teacher giving an unfair test could not have been predicted).
Dean has a history of stealing from his classmates. Dean is quick to blame others, and in fact accuses them of taking things from him. Dean is exhibiting a. specific learning disabilities b. ADHD c. internalized behavioral disorder d. externalized behavioral disorder e. global social disorders
d. externalized behavioral disorder Externalized behavioral disorders are characterized by aggressive acting-out behavior that affects others.
If the mother stops running to her child when the child cries for attention and as a result the baby's crying behavior eventually reduces in frequency, it may be assumed that _____________ occurred. a. punishment b. negative reinforcement c. fading d. extinction e. inhibition
d. extinction A key principle of operant conditioning, extinction is a strategy in which voluntary, previously reinforced behavior is followed by the absence of reinforcement, resulting in a reduction in the behavior's frequency.
According to Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a student who comes to class having first satisfied physiological needs and safety needs will most likely now be attempting to satisfy a. the need to know b. aesthetic needs c. self-esteem needs d. love and belongingness needs e. the need for achievement
d. love and belongingness needs According to Maslow's Needs Hierarchy, the next need to be aroused following physiological and safety needs is the need to connect with others, or the love and belongingness need.
A pedagogical technique that promotes the development of metacognition by the teacher's modeling of a strategy, practicing of the strategy, and subsequent assignment of the teacher's role to the students, is known as a. mediational learning b. peer modeling c. responsive teaching d. reciprocal teaching e. reflective learning
d. reciprocal teaching In reciprocal teaching, the teacher encourages the development of metacognition (self-awareness of knowledge and its use) by modeling a strategy for the students, practicing it with them, and then turning the teaching process over to the students, who in turn instruct other students in the class.
While behaviorists may differ on specifics about how learning occurs, they agree on emphasizing a. the importance of rewards. b. the power of individual choice. c. the role that thinking plays in processing information. d. the importance of the environment on learning. e. the importance of the dual-phase model of learning.
d. the importance of the environment on learning.
A child in Kohlberg's pre-conventional stage of moral development would most likely define "right" and "wrong" based on a. what Mom and Dad say. b. what the Bible says. c. what any adult authority says. d. what the consequences feel like. e. what peers do.
d. what the consequences feel like. In Kohlberg's pre-conventional stage of morality, children's ethics are based not on rules but rather on consequences of actions.
Which of the following belongs in a list of techniques to be found in Expository teaching? a) cooperative goal structures b) power tests c) schema facilitators d) cognitive maps e) advanced organizers
e) advanced organizers In expository teaching, where information is laid out in front of the student, advance organizers of material help the students predict how a lesson will unfold by giving an introductory overview of the material to be presented.
Which level of Bloom's Taxonomy is illustrated by a student's ability to translate the concept in her own language? a. Valuing b. Evaluation c. Synthesis d. Analysis e. Comprehension
e. Comprehension In Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, comprehension is a cognitive level that requires the understanding of material to the extent that it is possible to render the material in another form—such as one's own language.
Which of the following would illustrate the concept of transductive reasoning? a. A pound of feathers and a pound of lead weigh the same. b. Steam is just another form of water. c. 1+1=2 and, therefore, 2-1=1. d. If all men reason and John is a man, then John can reason. e. It is dark at nighttime because I am going to sleep.
e. It is dark at nighttime because I am going to sleep. Transductive reasoning is a feature of the preoperational stage of development in which a child reasons neither inductively nor deductively, but reasons instead from particular to particular.
Ralph attempts to remember the names of all his students by connecting their first name to a unique physical feature. Therefore, Fred has freckles, Louise has large lips, and Sidney wears spectacles. Ralph is employing which of the following techniques to facilitate long term storage? a. Elaboration rehearsal b. Maintenance rehearsal c. Sensory registering d. Chunking e. Mnemonics
e. Mnemonics Mnemonics are cognitive structuring memory devices which facilitate recall via chunking and, in this case, elaboration.
Which of the following is (are) true? a. Poverty rates are higher in cities. b. The majority of the poor children in the U.S. are people of color. c. The majority of poor families have heads of the households who are not wage earners. d. All of these are true. e. None of the above is true.
e. None of the above is true. The above are myths and stereotypes unsupported by census data.
Which level of Bloom's Taxonomy is illustrated by a student's ability to create a short story given a theme, and two characters? a. Comprehension b. Analysis c. Application d. Valuing e. Synthesis
e. Synthesis According to Bloom's Taxonomy, synthesis is the ability to put together parts in order to form a whole-in other words, arranging or combining elements to constitute a pattern or structure (such as a short story) not clearly present before.
Operant conditioning is associated with this concept of learning: a. The law of contiguity. b. The law of confluence. c. The law of primacy. d. The law of association. e. The law of effect.
e. The law of effect. The law of effect suggests that any behavior followed by a pleasing effect will tend to be repeated; behaviors followed by dissatisfying effects will tend to be discontinued. This is the basis for the use of reinforcement in operant conditioning.
The indication that research findings are statistically significant means that the results a. are important b. are likely to be factually-based c. need to be incorporated within practice d. are the outcome of a controlled experimental design e. are rarer than probability alone would predict
e. are rarer than probability alone would predict Statistical significance speaks to the degree to which the outcome observed may be the result of chance alone.
Which of the following elements are typically needed for observational learning to occur? a. Unconditional stimuli b. Aversive stimuli c. Extrinsic motivation d. Negative reinforcement e. Attention
e. attention Modeling or observational learning, one of Bandura's social learning strategies, involves four interrelated factors—attention, retention, production (reproduction) and motivation (incentive). The devotion of attention to an event is by definition the first condition necessary for a person to learn through observation.
The process by which students with exceptionalities are placed in environments as close to the regular classroom as possible is known as a. adaptive education b. inclusion c. IEP d. assimilation e. mainstreaming
e. mainstreaming Placing children with special needs in an educational environment that is as much of the mainstream of education as possible ("least restrictive environment") was mandated by Public Law 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act. For instance, children with special needs could attend a classroom for typically-developing children for a certain portion of the school day, and then return to their regular classroom for the rest of the day.
According to Erikson, the first psychosocial crisis encountered by children is a. autonomy versus shame and doubt b. initiative versus guilt c. industry versus inferiority d. identity versus role confusion e. trust versus mistrust
e. trust versus mistrust The first of many psychological challenges faced by children, according to Erik Erikson's theories of development, involves developing a sense of trust in others.