emerging dieases
exponetial growth
When resources are unlimited
Where did MERS-CoV originate from?
a camel reservoir with direct transfer to humans
chemokines
a chemical attractant to call white blood cells to the sites of the infection
Rh incompatibility is due to an immune reaction in a pregnant woman to which of the following?
a foreign antigen on red blood cells
The difference between a population and a community in the same location is that
a population includes members of one species, while a community includes members of multiple species.
disease
abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions(not due to injury)
next line of defense
adaptive immunity/acquired immunity
Mitochondria are proposed to have arisen after host cells engulfed __________ in endosymbiosis.
aerobic bacteria
survivorship factors
age and sex
how does tuberculosis spread
airborne
Why do glycoproteins exist in bacteria
all membranes need proteins within them to function
Antigens attached to harmless substances found in food, dust mites, pollen, fur, and some oils in plants that elicit an immune attack are called
allergens.
when are macrophages in your body
always
In a survivorship curve, a type II species, like a songbird, is a species that has
an equal probability of dying at any age.
Which of the following is part of the adaptive, rather than the innate, immune response?
antibody production
A Y-shaped protein that proliferates in response to a specific antigen and recognizes these antigens is a(n)
antibody.
what can you make an antibody against
anything
When does growth slow
as the population approaches carrying capacity
what do the spikes in coronavirus do
assist the virus in identifying and entering the host cells
disease manifestations stage 1
asymptomatic state(carrier for a disease but experiencing no symptoms) -virus is detected by a nasal swab and I shed by the host in repository droplets -progeny are released and propagated, mild innate immune response initiated
Where did SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV2 likely originate
bats
r=
birth rate-death rate
factors of population dynamics
birth/death, immigration/emigration, density, distribution, age structure, sex ratio
White blood cells are produced from
bone marrow stem cells.
how do dendritic cells help with immune response
by showing antigens on its surface to other cells of the immune system
The maximum number of individuals that a habitat can support is its
carrying capacity
what did the black plague do to the body
caused swelling
macrophages
cells that attack alien invaders in the body even without prior encounter of the alien cell
In a process called __________, an army of plasma cells and memory cells are produced from stimulated B cells.
clonal selection
Density dependent ex.
competition for resources, contagious diseases
antigen receptors
complementary molecules found of the surface of host cells
how do vaccines help prevent diseases
contain antigens and creates memory B-cells
what is the name of the coronavirus disease
covid-19
Mitosis results in
creation of two identical cells
what do the complement proteins do in the process of inflammation
damage bacterial membranes and release histamines
The number of individuals that die in a population per unit time is its __________ rate.
death
What helps with inflamation
dendritic cells
antibiotics
directly kill pathogens
what do the antibodies that the B cells create do
disable pathogen and flag it for destruction by macrophages
emerging disease
disease that is new to a particular population
what does cytokine storm lead to
dramatic drop in blood pressure, leaky blood vessels, formation of blood clots, organ failure
how do you help these defenses
energy and nutrition
A phagocyte is a cell that
engulfs other cells and debris.
how often did the black plague return
every 20 years
J-shaped curve
exponential growth
what are diseases caused by
external factors:infection internal dysfunctions:autoimmune
endemic examples
flu, common cold
An example of a density-independent factor that affects a population's growth is
frost killing all of your tomato plants.
what can an antigen be made of
glycoprotein or other molecule on surface of cell
G=
growth increment
G=
growth rate of a population
logistic growth
having all the resources to make something happen
pandemic
hits all populations
disease manifestations stage 3
hypoxia, progression to acute respiratory distress syndrome within 8 to 12 days
what do the cells in the next line of defense do
identify and disable pathogens
what is a function of B cells
identify, disable, and flag foreign cell
why are some people affected while others are not
immune system function, some people can better fight off certain pathogens
how is population density measured
individuals/unit area
Suzy is given an annual influenza vaccine. This gave her immunity later in the winter to that year's influenza because the exposure to the vaccine...
induces the formation of memory cells for the disease
First line of defense
innate defenses-skin
the 16 nonstructural proteins in coronavirus do what
involved in viral replication, maturation, and release
whats different about the Spanish flu
killed people in the prime of life
A population with a large fraction of pre-reproductive individuals is common in __________-developed countries; this population will most likely __________ in size.
less; increase
antibiotics are effective against what
living parasites such as: bacteria and protozoa
S-shaped curve
logistic growth
B cells and T cells are
lymphocytes
Which of the following exhibit phagocytic activity?
macrophages and neutrophils
Where is corona virus found
mammals and birds
At the end of the Cretaceous period, a mass extinction occurred and coincided with the impact of a large asteroid that hit Earth near the Yucatán peninsula; this impact likely produced __________, which created uninhabitable conditions.
massive volumes of debris that blocked out sunlight
incubation time
median 4 to 5 days, range 2 to 14 days
reasons why population has changed so much in the past
medicine, agriculture, education, transportation, and the industrial revolution
Immunological memory results from the production of
memory B cells and memory cytotoxic T cells.
In clonal selection, activated T helper cells divide and differentiate into __________ cells and into __________ cells that help activate cytotoxic T cells and B cells.
memory; effector
A population with a large fraction of post-reproductive individuals is common in __________-developed countries; this population will most likely __________ in size.
more; decrease
density independent ex.
natural disasters, non-contagious diseases
how many possibilities in somatic hypermutation
nearly infinite but most will fail
is carrying capacity constant
no
stage 3 of mechanisms of pathogenicity
nonspecific immune cells release chemokines and stimulate a targeted attack on the infected cells -by inducing inflammation, this process cripples normal cell function
P nucleotides
nucleotides are copied into palindromic sequences and inserted at the ends
how to calculate birth rate
number of births divided by population size
growth increment
number of individuals added to or lost from a population in one unit of time
Emigration happens when individuals move __________ a population, while immigration happens when individuals move __________ a population.
out of; into
Which of the following can be a target of an autoimmune disease but is not considered to be part of the immune system?
pancreas
The mass extinction of the Permian period
paved the way for the age of dinosaurs, was caused by a drop in sea level, was caused by a rise in global temperature, was caused by a long series of volcanic eruptions
Chloroplasts are proposed to have arisen after host cells engulfed __________ in endosymbiosis, allowing the engulfed cell to remain, with specialized function.
photosynthetic bacteria
In humoral immunity, cells that are produced by activated B cells and function by secreting antibodies are called
plasma cells.
disease manifestations include
pneumonia, difficulty breathing, persistent chest pain/pressure, confusion,, inability to stay awake, bluish lips or skin
how did tuberculosis spread
population dynamics
what affect disease risk
population dynamics, hygiene, age, nutrition, vaccines
rN
population growth rate x population size
what are vaccines
protect against bacteria or viruses
antigen
provoke immune response
somatic hypermutation
random changes to nucleotide sequnces
N nucleotides
random, untemplated nucleotides inserted into variable region sequences
epidemic
rapid spread or growth of disease in a population
somatic recombination
removes segments at random to generate new combinations
what does SARS-CoV stand for
severe acute respiratory syndrome; CORONAVIRUS
virulence
severity of disease
Evidence supporting the idea that mitochondria and chloroplasts in present-day cells originated as independent organisms includes
similarities in DNA sequences between mitochondrial and bacterial genomes, similarities in size and shape between mitochondria and some bacteria, similarity between photosynthetic pigments in chloroplasts and cyanobacteria, similarity in the way mitochondria, chloroplasts, and bacteria reproduce.
Scenerio:Why are some people more affected than others by tuberculosis
some people can better fight off certain pathogens
Which of the following is the large lymphoid organ in the abdomen that produces and stores large amounts of white blood cells?
spleen
what happens above carrying capacity
starvation, disease, accidents, weather, hunting
population dynamics
studies the quantitative factors that change a population
disease is cause by
-external factors: infection -internal dysfunctions:autoimmune
Pathogenicity
tendency to cause a disease
Corona virus characteristics
1. 7 known to infect humans 2. single stranded RNA 3. error-prone replication 4. positive sense 5. directly translated
Virus Charcteristics
1. acellular 2. only seen under electron microscope 3. infiltrate cells of host 4. lack cellular machinery 5.no cell walls 6. DNA or RNA 7. systematic infections 8. non beneficial viruses unless destroying harmful bacteria
steps of antibodies
1. binds the target 2. inhibits movement 3. clumps targets together 4. phagocytes "clean up" the bacteria 5. some T cells turn into memory cells for future infections 6. A few B cells will continue to produce antibodies 7. extra cells undergo apoptosis
steps of inflammation
1. blood flows into area causing swelling 2. brings complement proteins 3. brings dendritic cells
Steps of virus invasion
1. breathe it in, eat it, cut yourself 2. bacteria enter body 3. cells in the affected area send out signals 4. macrophages arrive 5. neutrophils arrive
parts of the antibody
1. constant region 2. variable region 3. heavy chain 4. light chain
steps of the dendritic cell
1. cut up invaders and display parts on the surface 2.goes to lymph nodes 3.find a helper T cell that matches the "parts" 4.activates the t cell to clone itself 5. T cells activate the correct B cells to clone themselves 6.T cells activate the correct B cells to clone themselves 7. B cells pump out antibodies
B cells
1. encounter the invader and learn how to attack it 2. remember the specific invader so that they can attack it quickly next time 4. create antibodies
what do macrophages do in an invasion
1. grab the bacteria 2. trap in a vesicle 3. fuse with lysosome
mechanisms of antibiotic action
1. inhibition of protein synthesis 2. inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis 3. inhibition of cell wall synthesis 4. disruption of cell membrane function 5. block pathways and inhibit metabolism
antibotic resistance
1. lots of germs and a few are drug-resistant 2. antibiotics kill bacteria causing the illness as as any good bacteria protecting the body from infection 3. the drug-resistant bacteria are now allowed to grow and take over 4. some bacteria give their drug- resistance to other bacteria, causing more problems
causes of antibiotic resistance
1. patients not finishing treatment 2. over-use in livestock and fish farming 3. poor infection control in hospitals 4. lack of hygiene and sanitation 5. lack of new antibiotics being developed
Bacteria characteristics
1. prokaryotic, single celled 2. visible under a light microscope 3.live between cells of host 4. have cellular machinery 5. DNA 6. localized infections 7. some are beneficial
the four main structural proteins that make up the capsid and envelope are
1. spike(S) glycoproteins- protrudes from the viral surface and aids to binding the envelope of the virus to the host cells 2.envelope(E) glycoproteins- production and maturation of the virus 3. membrane(M) glycoproteins- determines the shape of the virus envelope 4.nucleocapsid(N) proteins-involved in viral replication
what do the neutrophils do in an invasion
1. swallow and kill bacteria 2. dump toxins into area to kill bacteria
It is thought that eukaryotes probably originated about __________ years ago.
1.5 billion
how many people were killed per year from tuberculosis
1.5 million
how many covid-19 patients require oxygen and ventilation
15% require oxygen and 5% ventilation
how many chains in antibodies
2 identical heavy chains and 2 identical light chains
total death toll of black plague
200 million
how fast do B cells pump out antibodies
2000/second
how many coronaviruses have crossed the species barrier
3
It is thought that the first cells probably arose about __________ years ago.
3.85
genetic materials of coronavirus
4 main structural proteins and 16 nonstructural proteins
What is an example of adaptive cell-mediated immunity?
A cytotoxic T cell destroying a virus-infected cell.
If asked to sort cards of immune responses into boxes marked "active immunity" and "passive immunity," which of the following cards would go into the "passive immunity" box?
A fetus acquiring antibodies through the placenta, and a person receiving an injection of antibodies.
In 1992, there was a chicken pox epidemic in Asia. The virus did not infect individuals who had already suffered from chicken pox. Why?
A few memory B-cells were retained from the first attack
Why are the leading causes of death in high-income countries heart disease, stroke, and cancer, while in low-income countries infectious diseases are the leading causes of death?
Access to sanitation, vaccines, and antibiotics is greater in high-income countries.
Mitochondria are proposed to have evolved before chloroplasts based on which observation?
All eukaryotes have mitochondria, but not all eukaryotes have chloroplasts.
Photosynthesis probably originated during the __________ eon, and most likely used __________ as an electron donor.
Archean; hydrogen sulfide
Why are organ transplants sometimes rejected?
B-cells respond to antigens present on the organ
Why are antibiotics not effective against viruses?
Because they are only effective against living pathogens
In a survivorship curve, a type I species, like a human or elephant, is a species that has
the highest probability of dying as it reaches its maximum life span.
In a survivorship curve, a type III species, like most insects and plants, is a species that has
the highest probability of dying at a very young age.
The number of individuals produced per individual per unit time in a population is its __________ rate.
Birth
A country's ecological footprint can be calculated by multiplying its population size by the footprint of each individual. Why are some ecologists concerned about the ecological footprint of a country like India?
Both its population and standard of living are increasing.
Primitive reptiles first appeared during the __________ period.
Carboniferous
stage 2 of mechanisms of pathogenicity
the immune system triggers inflammatory response -if not blocked by the immune system, virions migrate to the lower respiratory tract where they infect the alveoli cells -extensive exocytosis of virus particles leads to apoptosis
carrying capacity
the maximum number of individuals in a species that an environment can support for the long term
what reduced infant mortality
the scientific revolution
The first amphibians appeared during the __________ period.
Devonian
tuberculosis is not common where
European and American populations
In a population of 10, if 3 are born and 1 dues what is G
G=rN=(b-d)N=(0.3-0.1)10=2
Which scientist is given credit for proposing the endosymbiont theory?
Lynn Margulis
Why do lymph nodes often become swollen during an infection?
Macrophages move to lymph nodes after engulfing pathogens.
stage 1 of mechanism of pathogenicity
the virus takes over the replicative machinery and multiples within the cell -viral coppes are released from cells thorugh exocytosis and ifect nearby cells
why do we need boosters
there are different strains and they mutate
what is tuberculosis caused by
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
N2=
N+G
What is a function of antibodies
they flag microorganisms for removal
Jawless fishes were the first vertebrates to leave fossil evidence during the __________ period.
Ordovician
Placental mammals appeared during the __________ period.
Paleogene
What do histamines do?
trigger blood vessels to leak even more adding to the swelling
The amniote egg, in which an embryo could develop completely on dry land, arose during the __________ period.
Permian
higher density = more disease spread
true
K-selected species
type 1
r-selected species
type 2
disease manifestations stage 2
upper airway and conducting airway response -robust immune system -clinical manifestations of disease appear 2 to 14 days pot-exposure and include cough, fever, shortness of breath, chills, muscle pain, loss of taste and/or smell, sore throat, nausea, diarrhea
Every year the common flu vaccine is designed to protect against three different strains of the influenza virus. How is your body able to raise antibodies against so many new forms of the flu virus?
Recombination of the gene used to make antibodies leads to variability.
what is the name of the coronavirus virus
SARS-CoV
when do oxygen levels fall
when lungs become filled with fluid, white blood cells, mucus, and cellular debris
