ES 1123 Unit 2
removing introns, RNA splicing, adding 5' cap and poly-A tail.
"pre mRNA" processing includes:
promoter
"start transcribing" signal is a DNA sequence at beginning of gene called a
Transcription (simplified)
"start transcribing" signal is a DNA sequence at beginning of gene called a promoter RNA polymerase and transcription factors attach at promoter and RNA synthesis begins (5' -> 3' direction)
Natural selection
"survival (and reproduction) of the fittest"
Dominant
- in simple Mendelian inheritance, the allele that, when inherited, is expressed*
Polygenic Inheritance
-Multiple genes control a phenotype -Additive effects of two or more genes on a single phenotype -E.g., height and eye color in humans
Nondisjunction
-can occur during meiosis I or II
Thymine, cytosine
1. Adenine pairs with? Guanine pairs with?
she died before getting nobel prize, found X-rays on DNA.
2. Who was Rosalind Franklin?
Mendel's law of segregation
3:1 ratio Ratios of F2 generation from monohybrid cross became the basis for:
Turner Syndrome
45 chromosomes (has just one X chromosome)
A T C G
: nitrogenous base consist of
Nonrandom mating
: sexual selection, female choice
Handicap principle
: trait carries risk, so must be a strong mate
Gene flow
: transfer of alleles from one population to another (migration events)
clade
A group of species that includes an ancestral species and all its descendants.
Sexual selection
Acts on an organism's ability to obtain a mate and successfully reproduce
Peripatric Speciation
Agrostis tenuis plants span mine tailings and uncontaminated soils. Some individuals are tolerant of mine waste, some are not. This is a heritable trait. Though some hybridization could occur, differences in flowering times substantially prevent gene flow.
Genetic Drift
Allele and genotype frequencies change by chance
simple Mendelian inheritance
Allele is either dominant or recessive Two possible alleles per trait gene is found on autosome
Initiation of translation
An mRNA molecule binds to a small ribosomal subunit, then the initiator tRNA binds to the start codon, where translation is to begin on the mRNA. A large ribosomal subunit binds to the small one, creating a functional ribosome.
genotype
An organism's __________ is its genetic makeup, the sequence of nucleotide bases in DNA.
random nature of fertilization adds a huge amount of potential variability to the offspring of sexual reproduction
At fertilization event, how many possible combinations from two human individuals?
two complementary strands of DNA nucleotides
Basic DNA Structure
double helix
Basic DNA Structure is twisted into:
ZW = female; ZZ = male
Birds, Lepidoptera (moths, butterflies), and some fish:
Genetic Drift
Can have strong effects when bottleneck or founder effects have occurred to dramatically decrease allele frequencies
mRNA
Central Dogma: DNA -> ______ -> protein
protein
Central Dogma: DNA -> mRNA -> _______
DNA
Central Dogma: ________ -> mRNA -> protein
individuals that are best-adapted to an environment survive and reproduce more than those that are less well-adapted
Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection said that A. characteristics acquired during an organism's life span are passed onto offspring B. new species spontaneously arise as a result of mutation C. individuals that are best-adapted to an environment survive and reproduce more than those that are less well-adapted D. evolution happens very quickly
Sympatric Speciation
Chromosome doubling in plants is common mechanism
gene pool
Collection of all alleles in a population is called its
nitrogenous base, deoxyribose sugar, and phosphate group
DNA Nucleotide consists of:
a cell and an organism as a whole.
DNA provides instructions to
Transcription
DNA to mRNA
Struggle for existence, Heritable variation, Natural selection, evolution
Darwin's model of evolution by natural selection
charles lyell(founded fossils) and lamarck(founded inherited of acuired characteristics) influenced darwin's theory of natural selection. the mechanism for evolution ("descent with modification"). Struggle for existence which more offspring are produced than are able to survive, resources are limited, and competition for resources among individuals exists. Heritable variation is variation exist among individuals of population much of its variation is heritable. Natural Selections is individuals with traits best suited to local environment generally produce most surviving fertile offspring. traits will be better represented in next generation. evolution over many generations natural selection gradually produces new species based on population, not individuals. he also did Common descent: organisms inhabiting Earth today descended from one ancestral species. observing from phyogeny tree.
Darwin's model of evolution by natural selection
4 nonidentical haploid daughter cells
Diploid parent cell yields
Trisomy 21
Down's Syndrome has
50 years
Down's Syndrome has Trisomy 21, which has life span about:
Autosome Aneuploidy:
Down's Syndrome is example of
extra nucleotides at the ends of the RNA transcript
Eukaryotic mRNA processing, adding a 5' cap and poly-A tail consisting of:
Independent Assortment
Every chromosome pair orients independently of all of the others at metaphase I.
Punctuated Equilibrium
Explains discontinuous evolutionary changes observed in fossil record
Sympatric Speciation
Exploitation of new niche Apple maggot flies cichlids
XX
Females have this type of chomosome
16
For a species with four pairs of chromosomes (2n=8), ________ chromosome combinations are possible.
2
For any species, the total number of chromosome combinations that can appear in the gametes due to independent assortment is
Sex-linked Inheritance
Gene carried on sex chromosome
Law of Independent Assortment
Genes for different traits assort independently of one another in the formation of gametes*
transcription and translation
Genotype becomes phenotype through two consecutive processes:
accumulation of small changes over long period of time
Geological change occurs gradually by: (as opposed to catastrophic events in recent past) -> earth is very old
Incomplete Dominance
Heterozygote displays an intermediate/blended phenotype
5' ATG CCA TCA GTT TGA 3'
If one side of a DNA strand reads 3' TAC GGT AGT CAA ACT 5' other would read(complementary DNA sequence):
3' TAAGC 5'
If one side of a DNA strand reads 5' ATTCG 3' ,the other side would read
Dihybrid Cross
In Labradors, the allele for a black coat is dominant over the allele for a brown coat, and the allele for normal vision is dominant over the allele for blindness. example of
Sex-linked Inheritance
In humans, most sex-linked genes are carried on the X chromosome
During prophase I there is one diploid cell; during prophase II there are two haploid cells.
In meiosis, how does prophase I differ from prophase II? A) During prophase I there is one diploid cell; during prophase II there are two haploid cells. B) During prophase I chromosomes line up single file in the middle of the cell; during prophase II the chromosomes line up in double file in the middle of the cell. C) During prophase I the chromosomes coil up; the chromosomes are not coiled up during prophase II. D) In prophase I the sister chromatids are attached; in prophase II the sister chromatids are separated.
change the reading frame of the genetic message lead to disastrous effects.
Insertions and deletions can
XXY
Klinefelter's Syndrome has this type of chromosome
may develop certain traits that it passes on to its offspring, thus, acquired traits are inherited
Lamarck suggested inheritance of acquired characteristics Wrongly proposed that by using or not using its body parts, an individual
hemizygous
Males are _____________ for sex-linked genes because they have just one X chromosome
XY
Males have this type of chromosome:
two, gametes
Meiosis has one or two rounds of cell division? what is produced
Nondisjunction
Meiotic Error
the dihybrid cross
Mendel also crossed parent plants who differed on two characteristics
explains why pea plants can have yellow peas that are wrinkled or smooth, as well as green peas that are wrinkled or smooth
Mendel's law of independent assortment A) states that alleles segregate from each other in the formation of gametes B) was developed after Mendel observed the results of his monohybrid crosses C) explains why pea plants can have yellow peas that are wrinkled or smooth, as well as green peas that are wrinkled or smooth D) none of the above
Gene Flow
Migration in or out of a population can cause changes in allele frequencies
gene flow
Migration of individuals in and out of a population would increase A) genetic drift B) gene flow C) natural selection D) mutation rates E) bottleneck effects
Codominance
More than one dominant allele (but recessive allele can also exist) Heterozygous for two dominant alleles displays both
nucleotide substitutions (the replacement of one base by another) nucleotide deletions or insertions (the loss or addition of a nucleotide).
Mutations within a gene can be divided into two general categories:
Parapatric Speciation
New species is formed from a continuously distributed population There is no specific barrier to gene flow
Peripatric Speciation
Occurs when a smaller population is genetically isolated from a larger population, often on edge of geographic range
Klinefelter's Syndrome
Often not noticed until adolescence or adulthood Tall, feminine body shape, underdeveloped secondary sex characteristics, mainly infertile
Founder Effect
Over time, the new population becomes genetically isolated from original
sex chromosomes
Pair 23: (two types: X and Y)
Autosomes
Pairs 1-22: (do not determine sex)
easy to grow came in many readily distinguishable varieties can self-fertilize
Pea plants - model system in which are:
Allopatric Speciation
Populations are geographically separated from parent species, subsequently evolve
Recombination: Prophase 1
Prophase I of meiosis Nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange corresponding segments
probability
Punnett squares show the ______________ that a given offspring will display a particular genotype and phenotype
transcription Elongation
RNA grows longer, peels away from DNA template
RNA polymerases
RNA nucleotides are linked by the transcription enzymes called
Transcription (DNA to mRNA)
RNA nucleotides are linked by the transcription enzymes called RNA polymerases
transcription Termination
RNA polymerase detaches from the RNA and the gene
transcription Termination
RNA polymerase reaches ____________ in the DNA template, signaling the end of the gene
When two or more characteristics are inherited, the inheritance of one character has no effect on the inheritance of another.
Results of dihybrid cross told Mendel that:
Reproductive Isolation
Separation of species or populations so that they cannot interbreed and produce fertile offspring
46 in somatic cells
Sex Determination - Humans which in 2n =
Temperature-dependent sex determination in many egg-laying reptiles (turtles, crocodiles, tuatara)
Sex determination can be affected by environmental or behavioral conditions rather than by sex chromosomes
environmental or behavioral conditions
Sex determination can be affected by this rather than by sex chromosomes
Founder Effect
Small group of individuals splits from main population to found new colony
Turner Syndrome
Small, infertile females, webbed neck
1) Independent assortment of chromosomes 2) Random Fertilization 3) Recombination (Crossing Over)
Sources of Genetic Variation in Sexually Reproducing Organisms
translation Elongation
Step 1: Codon recognition. The anticodon of an incoming tRNA pairs with the mRNA codon at the A site of the ribosome. Step 2: Peptide bond formation. The polypeptide leaves the tRNA in the P site and attaches to the amino acid on the tRNA in the A site. The ribosome has an RNA-based enzyme called peptidyl transferase that catalyzes the bond formation between the two amino acids. *requires energy Step 3: Translocation. The P site tRNA leaves the ribosome. The tRNA carrying the polypeptide moves from the A to the P site.
-Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species
Taxonomic ranks- indicate the general degree of inclusiveness per group
AUG
The Genetic Code "special" because also "start codon" (always at beginning of protein)
tell ribosome to stop synthesizing protein
The Genetic Code -3 "stop" codons means:
phenotype
The _____________ is the organism's physical traits, which arise from the actions of a wide variety of proteins.
a repeating sugar-phosphate-sugar-phosphate pattern
The backbone of DNA consists of ______. A) nitrogenous bases B) a repeating sugar-nucleotide-sugar-nucleotide pattern C) a repeating sugar-phosphate-sugar-phosphate pattern D) paired nucleotides
Mendel's Law of Segregation
The fact that the recessive trait reappeared in the F2 generation meant that the traits remained separate (did not blend) in the plants of the F1 generation.
Speciation
The formation of two species from one original species Two new populations form from one original population Two new populations evolve to be unable to interbreed
peptidyl transferase
The ribosome has an RNA-based enzyme called ___________ ___________ that catalyzes the bond formation between the two amino acids. *requires energy
Mendel's Law of Segregation
The two members of a gene pair (alleles) segregate from each other in the formation of gametes.
Initiation, Elongation, Termination
Transcription (simplified) steps
uracil (U) for thymine (T)
Transcription: DNA to mRNA substitutes:
has an anticodon that is complementary to a corresponding mRNA codon
Transfer RNA (tRNA) A) has an anticodon that is complementary to a corresponding mRNA codon B) carries an amino acid to the site of transcription C) catalyzes bond formation between amino acids D) reads the mRNA and coordinates functions of the ribosome
anticodons
Transfer RNA (tRNA) matches amino acids with codons in mRNA using _________________, a special triplet of bases that is complementary to a codon triplet on mRNA
When the stop codon reaches the ribosome's A site, the completed polypeptide (amino acid chain) is freed, and the ribosome splits back into its subunits Then, protein folds into complex 3-D shape
Translation 3. Termination
The polypeptide leaves the tRNA in the P site and attaches to the amino acid on the tRNA in the A site The ribosome has an RNA-based enzyme called peptidyl transferase that catalyzes the bond formation between the two amino acids. *requires energy
Translation Elongation Step 2: Peptide bond formation.
The P site tRNA leaves the ribosome. The tRNA carrying the polypeptide moves from the A to the P site.
Translation Elongation Step 3: Translocation.
< 1 yr
Trisomy 18 and 13 can also produce live birth, but infants live
45 (has just one X chromosome)
Turner Syndrome has how many chromosomes?
segregation and independent assortment
Two mendel "laws" are:
XYY syndrome
Typically no unusual features Normal sexual development, fertile (typically) Behavioral and emotional difficulties possible
two haploid
Upon completion of telophase I and cytokinesis of meiosis, there is(are) ______ cell(s). A) four haploid B) two diploid C) two haploid D) one diploid E) four diploid
one allele, and the other half carry the other allele
We now know that this is achieved during meiosis (specifically Meiosis I), when half the daughter gametes produced carry
series of three nucleotides that codes for one amino acid, it is the smallest number of nucleotides to change the genetic message
What is a codon?
physical expression of the genotype
What is a phenotype?
allopatric
What type of speciation is illustrated in the figure? (The blue line represents a river.) A) allopatric B) sympatric C) peripatric D) parapatric
incomplete dominance
When a white rabbit and a black rabbit mate, their offspring are grey. What pattern of inheritance does this represent? A) codominance B) incomplete dominance C) sex-linked inheritance D) simple Mendelian inheritance E) dominant inheritance
Independent Assortment
When aligned during metaphase I of meiosis, the side-by-side orientation of each homologous pair of chromosomes is a matter of chance.
the ribosome attaches to the promoter
Which of the following does not happen during eukaryotic transcription? A) the RNA polymerase binds to a promoter region of the DNA B) transcription factors bind to a promoter region of the DNA C) the ribosome attaches to the promoter D) an RNA transcript of a gene is produced
in a sexually reproducing diploid organism, each body cell has four alleles per gene
Which of the following is not true of alleles? A) they are alternate forms of a gene B) in a sexually reproducing diploid organism, each body cell has four alleles per gene C) a diploid individual may inherit two of the same alleles D) they occupy the same position on homologous chromosomes E) all of the above are true of alleles
Daughter cells are identical to the parent cell
Which of the following is not true of cell division by meiosis? A) Daughter cells are identical to the parent cell B) daughter cells are haploid (1n) C) this process produces gametes D) two rounds of cell division occur
linkage
Which of the following patterns of inheritance violates Mendel's law of independent assortment? A) epistasis B) polygenic inheritance C) linkage D) pleiotropy E) incomplete dominance
Met - Gln - Arg
Which of the following polypeptides results from the RNA sequence 5' AUG - CAA - AGA 3'? A) Met - Tyr - Arg B) Tyr - Val - Ser C) Met - Gln - Arg D) Ser - Val - Tyr
inheritance of acquired characteristics
Wrongly proposed that by using or not using its body parts, an individual may develop certain traits that it passes on to its offspring, thus, acquired traits are inherited
Haplodiploidy
XX = female; XO = male males arise from an unfertilized egg
Dispersal
a few members of a species move to a new geographical area (founder effect)
Adaptation
a trait that increases an individual's chances of survival
Gradualism
accumulation of small changes over time lead to different life forms Calls for series of intermediate forms not seen in fossil record
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
acts as a molecular interpreter
Natural selection
acts on an individual; causes changes in gene frequencies of populations over time (evolution)
degradation
adding a 5' cap and poly-A tail consisting of extra nucleotides at the ends of the RNA transcript Protects mRNA from:
Thymine
adenine pairs with this only in DNA
uracil
adenine pairs with this only in rna
specific epithet
adjective must agree in gender with species and never used alone
universal code
all living things use same "code"
Phylogenetic species concept
all members of a species share a common ancestor (monophyly)
common descent
all members of species trace ancestry to common ancestor
adaptive radiation
alloatric species that occurs when individuals in population find different niches and diverge from funder species to many species
Alleles
alternate forms of a gene; occupy same position on homologous chromosomes.
one strand runs 5'-> 3', the other runs 3' -> 5'
anti-parallel of DNA structure:
taxonomic characters
any features used to study vartiation within and among species, may be morphological, biochemical or molecular features
evolution
as refinement of traits that equip organisms to perform successfully in their environment
RNA polymerase and transcription factors
attach at promoter and RNA synthesis begins (5' -> 3' direction)
Punctuated Equilibrium
brief events of rapid speciation, followed by long intervals of stasis
disruptive selection
can lead to a balance between two or more contrasting phenotypic forms in a population.
Linkage
carried on the same chromosome and located close together, and often violate the law of independent assortment
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
carries amino acids
microevolution
change in gene frequencies over time
Evolution
change over time
Genetic drift
changes in allele frequencies due to random forces (sampling error); strongest effects in small populations (such as in case of bottleneck effect or founder effect)
Mutation
changes in the DNA produce novel genotypes and phenotypes
derived characteristic
characteristic that appears in recent parts of a lineage, but not in its older members
homology
characteristics inherited with some modification from a corresponding feature in common ancestor
Morphological species concept
characterizes species by physical characteristics
scientific name
consist of two words, normally in latin
classification
constructiong groups of oplrganism based on common feauture
Ribosomes (rRNA)
coordinate the functions of mRNA and tRNA
sympomorphy
derived character share by ....
Sexual dimorphism
differences in appearances of males and females of species
homoplasy
due to convergent evolution, non homologus similar fuond in varoius, common descent misinterpret
Random Fertilization
each gamete represents one of _?_ different chromosome combinations from an individual
phylogeny
evolutionary tree
Stabilizing selection
favors intermediate phenotypes, occurs in relatively stable environments, and is the most common.
founder effect
few member of species move to new geographic area
scientific name
formal name of species
perpetually changing
fossil record as evidence that the living world is
Modern Synthesis: Darwin meets genetics
fusion of genetics with evolutionary biology -describes how evolutionary processes can affect population's genetic makeup
Nondisjunction
gametes with an incorrect number of chromosomes are produced; offspring resulting from these gametes have incorrect number of chromosomes
Epistasis
gene interactions affect phenotypes; often one gene masks or interferes with expression of another
Heterozygous
genotype in which alleles are different
Homozygous
genotype in which alleles are the same
phylogenies
goal of systemiatics to infer phylogeny relates all extent extinction
discover all speces, rebuild and classify organisms evolutionary relationships
goals of systematics
Population
group of individuals of same species, living in same place at same time; smallest biological unit that can evolve
Enzymes
help carry out translation
less than 20% of all extent organisms are known
how many species are on earth?
F1 generation
hybrid progeny of P generation; these were then crossed to produce F2 generation.
Recessive
in simple Mendelian inheritance, the allele that will only be expressed if the individual is homozygous for this allele*
taxonomic ranks
indicate general degree of inclusiveness per group
Biological species concept
individuals of the same species may interbreed with each other, but are reproductively isolated from other species
monohybrid cross
individuals who are "hybrids" for one trait from F1 generation are crossed
Natural selection
individuals with traits best suited to the local environment generally produce the most surviving, fertile offspring These traits will be better represented in next generation.
reproductive community
interbreeding is critical for maintaining reproductive community
Natural selection
is the mechanism for evolution ("descent with modification").
test cross
is used to determine a phenotypically dominant individual's genotype
RNA splicing
joining exons together to form messenger RNA (mRNA)
Reduction division
keeps the chromosome number from doubling every generation
Turner Syndrome, Klinefelter's Syndrome, XYY syndrome
list Sex Chromosome Aneuploidy:
amino acids
mRNA letters code for
phylogeny
major goal of systematics is to infer __________ that relates all exant and extinct species
taxon
major group of organism at each level in hierarchy
Transcription (DNA to mRNA)
makes complementary RNA strand from a DNA template
Probability
mathematical measurement of likelihood
Struggle for existence
more offspring are produced than are able to survive resources are limited therefore, competition for resources among individuals exists.
systematization
more specific form of classification, placing groups in units of common evolutionary descent.
redundant code
more than one codon for most amino acids
haploid number
n is the
taxomnomy
naming and classification of organisms; part of broader science of systematics
Sexual selection
natural selection arising from preference by one sex for certain characteristics in individuals of other sex
Vicariance
natural situation physically divides organisms
parapatric speciation
new species formed from continuosly distributed population- there is no barrier to gene flow
T
nitrogenous bases are paired to form "rungs of ladder" A pairs with:
G
nitrogenous bases are paired to form "rungs of ladder" C pairs with:
removing introns
noncoding regions of the RNA
genus name
noun and refer to only single group
Hymenoptera
occurs in Bees, ants, wasps
True-breeding
offspring of true-breeding individuals always have same traits of interest as parents
SRY
on Y chromosome, responsible for development of fetus into a male
monophyletic
one common ancestor and all descendent
Pleiotropy
one gene influences several characteristics E.g., sickle cell disease
hierachial system
organisms arrange in ascending groups with increased inclusiveness still use today, still use this hieracical system
Common descent
organisms inhabiting Earth today descended from one ancestral species.
evolution
over many generations, natural selection gradually produces new species
test cross
performed by crossing the individual in question with a homozygous recessive individual
common ancestor not homoplasies
phylogenetic reconst. compare characters from
taxonomic characters
phylogenies are build by analyzinf features called_______ that vary among species
Phenotype
physical expression of the genotype
Aneuploidy
presence of abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell
Sympatric Speciation
process of speciation within the same space
F2 generation
progeny of F1 generation cross
radiometric dating
radioactive decay of some naturally occurring elements is independent of heat and pressure ("radioactive clocks")
Allele frequency
rate at which specific allele is present in population's gene pool
Linkage
recombination can extensively reshuffle alleles, but genes close together typically inherited together
descent with modification, derieved characters, ansectral and then derived
reconstruct phylogenies princicple
law of stratigraphy
relative dating system for fossils, with older on bottom of rock layers, younger on top
Phylogeny
representation of evolutionary lineage in a branching tree
Natural selection
results in change in gene frequencies over time
evolutionary relationships
science of classifying organisms based on
italics or underlined if handwritten
scientific name should be named in
Gene
segment of DNA located on a chromosome that codes for a specific protein in an organism (typically thousands of nucleotides long).
Natural selection
selects for beneficial alleles, and against deleterious alleles
Linkage
separate chromosomes will always assort independently
Gene
sequence of DNA that codes for a protein ("trait")
codon
series of three nucleotides that codes for one amino acid
ancestral characteristic
similarity that arose prior to the common ancestor of the group
peripatric speciation
small population isolated from larger population
sympatric speciation
speciation occurs in same area
allopatric speciation
speciation occurs when populations become geo. separated from parent species
cosmopolitan
species having very large geographic ranges or worldjwide distribution.
smallest distinct groupings
species must be smallest unit sharing pattern of ancestry and descent
endemic
species very restricted geographic distributions, continuous or disjunct.
Natural selection
survival and reproduction of the fittest; alleles that confer adaptive advantage become more common in population
domain, kingdom, phylon, class, order, family ,genus, species
taxonomic ranks from general to specific
transcription Termination
the DNA strands rejoin and "pre-mRNA" is released
Genotype
the alleles for a gene that an individual possesses (in diploid organisms, homozygous or heterozygous)
mRNA
the code
Nondisjunction
the members of a chromosome pair fail to separate at anaphase I or II
the number of thymine (T) residues
the number of adenine (A) residues always equals:
the number of cytosine (C) residues
the number of guanine (G) residues always equals:
the number of pyrimidines (T+C)
the number of purines (A+G) always equals:
exons
the parts of the gene that are expressed
the dihybrid cross
the phenotypic ratios of F2 generation were 9:3:3:1
Genetic recombination
the production of gene combinations different from those carried by parental chromosomes
transcription
the transfer of genetic information from DNA into an RNA molecule
translation
the transfer of information from RNA into a protein.
Good genes hypothesis
trait signals good immune system/metabolism/genetic superiority
The anticodon of an incoming tRNA pairs with the mRNA codon at the A site of the ribosome.
translation Elongation Step 1: Codon recognition.
P0 (P) generation
true-breeding plants from different "strains"; these were crossed to produce F1 generation
Adaptive Radiation
type of allopatric speciation -population disperses throughout an area, individuals find distinct niches Multiple speciation events over time from a single ancestral (founder) species Darwin's finches are example
morphology
used differently between classification and systematization
Heritable variation
variation exists among individuals of a population much of this variation is heritable
Adenine and Guanine
what are purines?
thymine and cytosine
what are pyrimidines?
thymine and cytosine
what consist prymidine?
adenine and guanine
what consist purine?
met Pro ser val STOP
what is amino acid based of mrna strand 5' ATG CCA TCA GTT TGA 3' AUG CCA UCA GUU UGA
1:2:1, 3(red):1(pink)
what is genotype of Rr*Rr what is phenotype
AUG CCA UCA GUU UGA
what is mrna translate based of cmplementary sequence of 5' ATG CCA TCA GTT TGA 3'
sugar-phosphate
wht is back bone of DNA nucleotide?
