EXS test 3

*Stages of General Learning

1. Unconscious Incompetence. 2. Conscious Incompetence. 3. Conscious Competence. 4. Unconscious Competence.

What is the Shea and Morgan Experiment and why is it important? What did it find the most effective in practice?

Blocked vs. Random: which is more effective? Exp: Rapid arm movements in response to light stimulus. Blocked > Random in practice. Blocked = Random when retention test blocked. Blocked << Random when retention test is random. Random is better for RLS.

Describe Blocked vs. Random practice. Which one has high contextual interference, and which has low?

Blocked: Many trials on one task practiced consecutively. Low contextual inference: Little interference from performing one task in context of another. Ten serves, then ten volleys, then ten backhand, then ten backhands. Easier to learn and good initial performance, but bad on retest. Random: Practice trials on several different tasks are mixed. High contextual interference: A lot of interference from performing one task in context of another. Serves, then volleys, then backhand, then backhands all at random times. Harder to learn and bad initial performance, but good on retest.

*Complexity and organization of skill.

Complexity: Number of parts or components a skill has. A high complexity example would be a tennis serve since there are a large number of components. A low complexity example would be throwing a dart since there are a small number of components. Organization: Are component parts interdependent? A high level of organization skill would be a basketball shot since it uses your legs, shoulders, elbows, and wrists. Some low level of organization skills are handwriting (print) and playing chords in music.

What does Concurrent vs. Terminal Feedback refer to?

Concurrent - Providing feedback during the performance/action. Terminal - Providing feedback after performance/action.

How does practice effect myelin in a neuron? What is saltatory conduction?

Consistency and precision of skills developed with practice. Quality practice enhances neural pathways and conduction velocity of synaptic pathways. Velocity of neural impulses determined by axon myelination. Large diameter myelinated axons = fastest impulse conduction. Practice -> large diameter myelinated axon -> fastest impulse conduction -> enhances neural pathways -> increased consistency and precision of skills. *Saltatory conduction: Propagation of Action Potential along myelinated axons from one Node of Ranvier to the next. It's the way an electrical impulse skips from node to node down the full length of an axon, speeding the arrival of the impulse at the nerve terminal.

Constant vs variable practice

Constant Practice: Many repetitions of single variation. Variable Practice: Many variations of similar movement. Performance during practice trials: Variable < Constant. Transfer to novel task: Variable > Constant.

Define neuroplasticity. What are the major two mechanisms underlying the neuroscience of skill development?

Def: Ability of the brain to re-organize itself and create new circuits in response to stimulation/environment. 1) New synapse development (synaptogenesis). 2) Synapse strengthening.

How is Motor Learning defined? If performance improves, does it automatically mean that Motor Learning has occurred?

Def: Processes associated w/ practice or experience leading to relatively permanent gains in capability for skilled performance. *Capability = potential for improved skill performance (may not happen every time). Improvements indicate that learning may have occurred. *Improved performance does not, by itself, define Motor Learning. By definition, motor learning results from practice/experience. *Improvements can result from changes in physical maturation. Improvements via physical development ≠ motor learning. To be considered Motor Learning, improvement in skill performance must be relatively permanent. Some transient factors can temporarily affect skill performance (for better or worse). *Transient factors: Sleep, environment, etc.

In regard to skill retention, what skills are easily forgotten and which are easily remembered?

Discrete, cognitive-based task are quickly forgotten. (*May need to be re-learned during retention tests.) Continuous tasks retained for long time (*Especially with lots of prior practice).

*Minimal effective dose

Efficiency vs. Effectiveness. More practice does not necessarily mean greater improvement. There is a limit.

List and describe each of Fitts' Stages of Motor Learning.

Emphasis on how cognitive requirements change based on amount of practice (or level or expertise). Stage 1: Cognitive Stage Task or goal identification. Gathering information. What/when/how to do task. Gains are rapid & large. Stage 2: Associative Stage Smaller, steady improvements. Putting actions together. Smaller gains. Relate it to other known tasks. Fast tasks: build motor programs. Slow tasks: learn to use feedback. Stage 3: Autonomous Stage Performance automatic & smooth. Decreased attentional demand. High level of anticipation.

*Separating Temporary & Permanent Effects of Practice

Example: New teaching aid for golfers to help align swing. It may help in practice but not legal for competition. *So Is this beneficial? Is the technique retained and able to be transferred into actual competition (Real Life Scenario) and are aftereffects permanent or just temporary in practice?

What's the difference between External and Internal cues? Which type is generally more effective?

External cue: Focus on outcome of movement/environment. Ex: Push ground away during acceleration. Internal cue: Focus on Body Movement. Ex: Fully extend hips during acceleration. External cues are generally more effective.

What is Faded feedback? What is Bandwidth feedback?

FF: More feedback at beginning, less as learner progresses. *Goal is to make learner independent by the end. BF: Feedback only provided when performance threshold not met. Instructor usually decides performance threshold. *Critical that learner know that no feedback = successful rep.

*Feedback and Effect on Motivation

Indirect effect: Feedback = ↑ Motivation = ↑ Practice = ↑ Learning.

What are the types of inherent and augmented feedback? As an instructor, should you provide the learner with inherent feedback? Why or why not?

Inherent: Intrinsic info, obvious to learner. 5 senses we have, we already know these. Instructor does not need to provide. *Detrimental because attention is limited. Augmented - Info that is not known by learner. Knowledge results, knowledge performance, this is what is taught to the learner. Usually provided by instructor. *Beneficial if provide correctly. No because it would not be any more beneficial to the learner because the information is obvious to them and their attention is limited.

What is the Constrained Action Hypothesis?

Internal cues are worse due to paralysis by analysis (too many cues is bad). Gabby Wolf?

List and describe each of Bernstein's Stages of Motor Learning. What is the "solution" for Bernstein's first stage of motor learning?

Involves Degrees of Freedom of movement. Each segment can have up to 6 DoF: Three planes, three directions. Bernstein (1967): Practice is not repeating same solution with each repetition but rather solving a slightly different problem. Stage 1: Many possible DoF's of movement is problem. Solution: Reduce Nonessential movement in initial stage. Freeze the DoF's that you don't need. Stage 2: Learner uses some DoF's that had initially been controlled aka releasing the previously frozen DOF's. Good for speed or power tasks: Released DoF's = more force & momentum. Stage 3: Performer learns to use passive dynamics aka external forces rather than to fight them. Energy that comes "for free" (plyometric SSC, physics, etc.).

Summarize Knowledge of Results vs. Knowledge of Performance

KoR: Verbal feedback to learner about success of action WRT goal. *Can be redundant with Inherent Feedback...but not always. Goal outcome, how well did you do in relation to your goal. KoP: To be effective, KoP needs to be tied to correcting cues. Kinematic feedback, in relation to technique rather than results.

What can happen if there is too much dependency on feedback in practice?

Learner can sometimes become dependent on guidance. *Can result in poor performance when feedback is removed.

How should part practice and whole practice be used to teach a skill (for which skills/situations)? When might Whole-Part-Whole strategy be effective?

Low Organization Low Complexity: Not many good examples (More a movement then skill). Low Organization High Complexity: Part Practice Ex: Grasp cup of tea. High Organization Low Complexity: Whole Practice Ex: Golf putting. High Organization High Complexity: Depend (Mostly Part Practice). Whole-Part-Whole: Used to re-integrate into the whole skill. Demo (or describe) whole skill and have learner complete if possible. Break skill into components & complete part practice. *Look for errors to correct as the learner performs the skill.

What is the difference between Massed Practice and Distributed Practice?

Massed Practice: Short rest, often even less than trial itself. Lot of practice in short amount of time. Distributed Practice: Rest period > practice rep period. Better for both practice & retention. Lot of practice over long amount of time.

How is performance measured in practice? What is the Law of Practice?

Measured: Progress evaluated with performance curves. Can be based on individual performance or group-average performance. *Early in practice, gains are rapid but then improvement is gradual. LoP: Indicates RATE of performance decreases with more practice.

Is Mental Practice without physical practice better or worse than no practice at all?

Mental practice without physical practice > no practice but Mental practice combined with physical practice is the best.

As an instructor, why and how do you prioritize feedback?

Need to prioritize list of errors for each skill. *Give feedback on 1-2 errors highest on priority list.

*Limitations of Fitts's & Bernstein's Stages

Neither Fitts's nor Bernstein stage are meant to describe learning as a series of unidirectional stages (2 steps forward, 1 step back).

Is it always a good idea to have a novice learner practice under testing conditions? Why or why not?

No. You don't want to overwhelm them. You want to start them slow. You want them to feel comfortable in a changing environment.

Part Practice vs Whole Practice

Part practice: Divide task into component parts with the goal being to integrate parts back into whole skill for performance. *Effectiveness of part practice depends on the complexity and organization of skill. Whole practice: Involves practicing a motor skill in its entirety.

What are the pros and cons of augmented feedback?

Pros: Enhances motivation & effort. Direct learner's attentional focus. Provides info to help correct errors. Cons: May create dependency, bad when no AF available.

As an instructor, approximately how often (on what percentage of trials) should you give feedback?

Provide feedback 1 out of every 2 or 3 trials (33% - 50%). *May lead to self error correction and better skill retention.

What are the three components of the Self-Determination theory? What is one way you could potentially increase a learner's sense of Intrinsic Motivation?

Relatedness: What I do has meaning for myself, my team, our patients and our community. Autonomy: I have choice and can determine what I contribute and how. Mastery: I can make progress and develop mastery. Giving more choices to someone thus enhancing autonomy.

*Part practice strategies

Segmentation: Analyze skill & whether Part Practice would be beneficial. Break whole skill into part components...up to instructor. Install and practice parts in logical order. Fractionalization: Progressive part practice can help integrate parts into whole skill. *Takes advantage of both Part and Whole. Practice concepts. Practicing asymmetric coordination skills where limb movements not symmetrical.

What are the similarities and the differences between Summary and Average feedback?

Sim: Both are forms of terminal (after the set) feedback. Dif: Summary-Perform a set, feedback given after each rep. Average-Perform a set, feedback given after on most common error.

*Whole practice strategies

Simplification: Reduce task difficulty (*juggle scarves vs. tennis balls). Reduce balance demands. (*Training wheels on bike.) (*Rehab walking with body weight supported.) Reduce speed (*learning a play slowly in football or basketball). Add auditory cues (*clapping in sprint march or high-knee drills). Attentional Focus: Have learner perform the entire movement but only focus on one part of movement.

What is the difference between a Transfer Test and a Retention test? Provide an example for each.

Transfer = Change of task conditions. Ex: Shooting a gun vs shooting a bow and arrow. Ex: Putting with helper vs putting in real competition. Retention = Same test but after period with no practice. Ex: Shooting a gun after not doing it for some time. Ex: Putting normally, waiting a few days, putting in competition. Washout period = Need enough time for temporary practice effects to dissipate.

What is the difference between Positive Transfer and Negative Transfer?

Transfer: When practice on one task contributes to performance in some other related task. Positive transfer: When a previous practice on skill facilitates or makes easier performance over and above no practice. Negative transfer: When a previous practice or skill degrades or interferes performance in comparison to those that received no additional practice.

What is the difference between Expert vs. Novice demonstration 'models'?

Watching expert demo can promote modeling of "what to do". Watching novice demo can call attention to potential errors.

Describe Schmidt's Schema Theory.

When new movement is made, learner "records" result and surface parameter that was used (force, speed, etc.). Eventually relationships are generalized into set of rules (schemas) to relate parameters needed to achieve certain goals.