Fallacies and Rhetorical Terms

Periodic Sentence

. The effect is to add emphasis and structural variety. And though I have the gift of prophecy, and understand all mysteries, and all knowledge; and though I have all faith, so that I could remove mountains, and have not charity, I am nothing."

Figure of Speech

A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. Examples are apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, metonomy, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.

arbiter

A judge who decides a disputes issue

Allusion

A reference contained in a work

Paradox

A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity.

Parody

A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule.

Allegory

A work that functions on a symbolic level

Satire

A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and convention for reform or ridicule. Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform humans or their society, ___ is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing. The effect of __, often humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition.

What is circumlocution? What is it also known as? What falls under this category?

Also known as: periphrasis ambiguous or roundabout figure of speech; evasion in speech or writing Types: 1) Amphilogism/amphilogy: equivocation to deceive others without blatantly lying e.g., instead of saying "She made dinner for me last night", an amphilogistic statement would be "Dinner was already made for me last night" 2) Euphemism: "He who must not be named" is a euphemism for Lord Voldemort

Pedantic

An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish.

Authority

Arguments that draw on recognized experts or persons with highly relevant experience.

Chiasmus

Arrangement of repeated thoughts in the pattern of X Y Y X. It is often short and summarizes a main idea.

Asyndeton

Commas used (with no conjunction) to separate a series of words. The parts are emphasized equally when the conjunction is omitted; in addition, the use of commas with no intervening conjunction speeds up the flow of the sentence. X, Y, Z as opposed to X, Y, and Z.

cogent

Convincing, reasonable. A cogent argument.

What is a non sequitur argument? Is this a formal or informal fallacy? Why?

Formal: the conclusion does not follow its premises stating as a conclusion something that does not strictly follow from the premise; there is a disconnection between the premise and the conclusion E.g., "If you want a 5 on the ap exam, you need to stop listening to hip hop."

What is rhetoric?

From greek: orator the art of speaking or writing effectively

Causal Relationship

In __, a writer asserts that one thing results from another. To show how one thing produces or brings about another is often relevant in establishing a logical argument.

Third Person Omniscient

In ___, the narrator, with a godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of any or all characters.

Point of View

In literature, the perspective from which a story is told.

Wit

In modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. Usually uses terse language that makes a pointed statement.

Dramatic Irony

In this type of irony, facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or a piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work

Verbal Irony

In this type of irony, the words literally state the opposite of the writer's true meaning

Ellipsis

Indicated by a series of three periods, the __ indicates that some material has been omitted from a given text.

Abstract Language

Language describing ideas and qualities rather than observable or specific things, people, or places.

What is an ad hominem argument?

Latin: against the man attack an opponent's character rather than argument Form: 1) Person A makes claim X 2) Person B makes an attack on person A 3) Therefore A's claim is false

What is petitio principii? What else is it also known as?

Latin: assuming the initial point Circular Reasoning Begging the Question fallacy in which the premises include the claim that the conclusion is true or (directly or indirectly) assume that the conclusion is true Form: 1) Premises in which the truth of the conclusion is claimed or the truth of the conclusion is assumed (either directly or indirectly). 2) Claim C (the conclusion) is true. E.g., 1) Bill: "God must exist." Jill: "How do you know." Bill: "Because the Bible says so." Jill: "Why should I believe the Bible?" Bill: "Because the Bible was written by God." 2) "If such actions were not illegal, then they would not be prohibited by the law." 3) Interviewer: "Your resume looks impressive but I need another reference." Bill: "Jill can give me a good reference." Interviewer: "Good. But how do I know that Jill is trustworthy?" Bill: "Certainly. I can vouch for her."

What is Ad Ignorantiam? What is it also known as?

Latin: to ignorance Is included in the fallacy of Burden of Proof arguing that something is true simply because it hasn't been proven false or that something is false simply because it hasn't been proven true

What is an ad verecundiam argument? What is its other name?

Latin: to reverence Appeal to authority Appeal from modesty/respect person in question is not a legitimate authority on the subject; claim is fallacious Form: 1) Person A is (claimed to be) an authority on subject S. 2) Person A makes claim C about subject S. 3) Therefore, C is true

incontrovertible

Not able to be disputed

Prose

One of the major divisions of genre, ___ refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms, because they are written in ordinary language and most closely resemble everyday speech.

What is a weak analogy? what else is it known as?

Questionable analogy False analogy Arguments by analogy rest on a comparison; analogy is illogical Form: 1)A and B are similar. 2) A has a certain characteristic. 3) Therefore, B must have that characteristic too. E.g., William Paley's argument from design suggests that a watch and the universe are similar (both display order and complexity), and therefore infers from the fact that watches are the product of intelligent design that the universe must be a product of intelligent design too.

Consonance

Repetition of a consonant sound within two or more words in close proximity.

Assonance

Repetition of a vowel sound within two or more words in close proximity

Cumulative

Sentence which begins with the main idea and then expands on that idea with a series of details or other particulars

Tone

Similar to mood, __ describes the author's attitude toward his or her material, the audience, or both.

What is a red herring? What else is it known as?

Smoke Screen Wild Goose Chase fallacy in which an irrelevant topic is presented in order to divert attention from the original issue Form: 1) Topic A is under discussion. 2) Topic B is introduced under the guise of being relevant to topic A (when topic B is actually not relevant to topic A). 3) Topic A is abandoned. E.g., 1) "I think there is great merit in making the requirements stricter for the graduate students. I recommend that you support it, too. After all, we are in a budget crisis and we do not want our salaries affected." 2) "You know, I've begun to think that there is some merit in the Republican's tax cut plan. I suggest that you come up with something like it, because If we Democrats are going to survive as a party, we have got to show that we are as tough-minded as the Republicans, since that is what the public wants."

Backing

Support or evidence for a claim in an argument

swag 2

Swag 2

What is a slippery slope? What is it also known as?

The Camel's Nose an argument that something is wrong because it will inevitably lead to something bad Form: 1) Event X has occurred (or will or might occur). 2) Therefore event Y will inevitably happen. E.g., 1) "We have to stop the tuition increase! The next thing you know, they'll be charging $40,000 a semester!" 2) "We've got to stop them from banning pornography. Once they start banning one form of literature, they will never stop. Next thing you know, they will be burning all the books!"

Explication

The act of interpreting or discovering the meaning of a text. __ usually involves close reading and special attention to figurative language.

Semantics

The branch of linguistics that studies that meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.

Irony

The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant. The difference between what appears to be and what actually is true.

Rhetorical Modes

The flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing.

Syntax

The grammatical structure of prose and poetry.

Deduction

The process of moving from a general rule to a specific example.

Exposition

The purpose of this rhetorical mode is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion.

Description

The purpose of this rhetorical mode is to re-create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that the reader can picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses.

Narration

The purpose of this type of rhetorical mode is to tell the story or narrate an event or series of events.

Alliteration

The repetition of initial consonant sounds, such as "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers."

Imagery

The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, __ uses terms related to the five senses; we refer to visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, or olfactory. For example, a rose may present visual __ while also representing the color in a woman's cheeks.

Thesis

The sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author's opinion, purpose, meaning, or proposition.

Narrative

The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.

Epigraph

The use of a quotation at the beginning of a work that hints at its theme. Hemingway begins The Sun Also Rises with two. One of them is "You are all a lost generation" by Gertrude Stein.

Stream-of-consciousness

This is a narrative technique that places the reader in the mind and thought process of the narrator, no matter how random and spontaneous that may be.

Narrative Device

This term describes the tools of the storyteller, such as ordering events to that they build to climatic movement or withholding information until a crucial or appropriate moment when revealing in creates a desired effect.

Mood

This term has two distinct technical meanings in English writing. The first meaning is grammatical and deals with verbal units and a speaker's attitude. The second meaning is literary, meaning the prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work.

Homily

This term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

Third Person Limited Omniscient

This type of point of view presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all remaining characters

Infer

To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented.

exculpate

To free from guilt or blame

discourse

Verbal exchange, conversation. Their discourse varied widely

Ethical Appeal

When a writer tries to persuade the audience to respect and believe him or her based on a presentation of image of self through the text.

Figurative Language

Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid.

Conflict

a clash between opposing forces in a literary work, such as man vs. man; man vs. nature; man vs. God; man vs. self

Deconstruction

a critical approach that debunks single definitions of meaning based on the instability of language. It "is not a dismantling of a structure of a text, but a demonstration that it has already dismantled itself."

Analogy

a literary device employed to serve as a basis for comparison. It is assumed that what applies to the parallel situation also applies to the original circumstance. In other words, it is the comparison between two different items.

Balance

a situation in which all parts of the presentation are equal, whether in sentences or paragraphs or sections of a longer work.

Metonomy

a term from the Greek meaning "changed label" or "substitute name" __ is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. For example: a news release that claims "The White House declared" rather than "The President declared"

Situational Irony

a type of irony in which events turn out the opposite of what was expected.

What is malapropism?

act of using an incorrect word in place of one that is similar in pronunciation E.g., Having one wife is called monotony (monogamy)

Pathos

an appeal based on emotion.

Logos

an appeal based on logic or reason

Ethos

an appeal based on the character of the speaker. An __-driven document relies on the reputation of the author.

What is invective?

an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.

Style

an evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices.

Ambiguity

an event or situation that may be interpreted in more than one way.

Example

an individual instance taken to be representative of a general pattern

What is dogmatism?

assertion of principles as absolutely true, without consideration of evidence or the opinions of others

Voice

can refer to two different areas of writing. One refers to the relationship between a sentence's subject and verb (active and passive). The second refers to the total "sound" of the writer's style.

What is a straw man argument?

committed when a person simply ignores a person's actual position and substitutes a distorted, exaggerated or misrepresented version of that position Form: 1) Person A has position X. 2) Person B presents position Y (which is a distorted version of X). 3) Person B attacks position Y. 4) Therefore X is false/incorrect/flawed. E.g., "Senator Jones says that we should not fund the attack submarine program. I disagree entirely. I can't understand why he wants to leave us defenseless like that."

What is an equivocation fallacy?

committed when a term is used in two or more different senses within a single argument/telling part of the truth, while deliberately hiding the entire truth. Lying by omission. E.g., 1) Jesus is the Word of God. The Bible is the Word of God, therefore, Jesus is the Bible. *what is the word of god?* 2) Christianity teaches that faith is necessary for salvation. Faith is irrational, it is belief in the absence of or contrary to evidence, therefore, Christianity teaches that irrationality is rewarded. NOTE: This is a formal fallacy; words in the premises and the conclusion mean different things, then the premises and the conclusion are about different things, and so the former cannot support the latter

What is a hyperbole?

deliberate exaggeration not intended to be taken literally

Annotation

explanatory notes added to a text to explain, cite sources, or give bibliographical data.

What is a bandwagon fallacy/appeal?

fallacy in which a threat of rejection by one's peers (or peer pressure) is substituted for evidence Form: 1) Person P is pressured by his/her peers or threatened with rejection. 2) Therefore person P's claim X is false.

What is a synecdoche? (Sin-nect-to-key)

figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole or the whole for a part E.g., 1) "bread" can be used to represent food in general or money (he is the breadwinner) 2) "sails" is often used to refer to a whole ship 3) "plastic" is commonly used to refer to credit cards. 4) Facial tissue is often referred to as "Kleenex"

What is a syllogism?

form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion

What is cacophony?

harsh and discordant sounds in a line or passage in a literary word

What is bombast?

pretentious language with little meaning NOTE: More interest in vocabulary/show than getting to the point

Anaphora

repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences in a row. This is a deliberate form of repetition and helps make the writer's point more coherent. vs polysyndeton = repititon of conjuctions This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle, This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars, This other Eden, demi-paradise,

What are overgeneralizations?

sweeping generalizations that oversimplify reality

Diction

the author's choice of words that creates tone, attitude, and style, as well as meaning

Comic Relief

the inclusion of a humorous character or scene to contrast with the tragic elements of a work, thereby intensifying the next tragic event.

Connotation

the interpretive level or a word based on its associated images rather than its literal meaning.

Dialect

the recreation of regional spoken language, such as a Southern one. Hurston uses this in Their Eyes Were Watching God.

Attitude

the relationship an author has toward his or her subject, and/or his or her audience

Antecedent

the word, phrase, or clause to which a pronoun refers.

Character

those who carry out the action of the plot in literature. Major, minor, static, and dynamic are the types.

Didactic

writing whose purpose is to instruct or to teach. A ___ work is usually formal and focuses on moral or ethical concerns.