Final

A lot

"A lot" is always TWO words. Always.

No. 2: Separating adjectives

A comma separates two or more adjectives in a row IF the adjectives can switch positions without changing the meaning. For example: The sunny, cool day was perfect for lying in the dark green grass. There is no comma between dark and green because these adjectives cannot switch positions: The grass is not green and dark; it is dark green. We did use a comma between sunny and cool because we could say either "sunny, cool" or "cool, sunny" and they mean the same thing.

Who's/Whose

Another exception... WHO'S is reserved for the contraction WHO IS WHOSE is used to show possession. WHO'S in charge here? There is a young child without a parent, and I don't know WHOSE child she is.

Rule No. 7: nonrestrictive appositives

Commas set off a nonrestrictive appositive, a word or words that rename the noun or pronoun that appears before them. Jenny Flores, my best friend, is a pediatrician. Alice decided to call Ricardo, a man she had met at in English class. Dr. Harris, my surgeon, is a skilled doctor.

Rule No. 6: Transitional words

Commas set off a transitional word or phrase from the rest of the sentence. Therefore, the bus finished its route late. Consequently, we were all late to class. We were all late to class; however, we did arrive in time for the pizza party.

Lead/Lead/Led

Lead is a noun meaning "a soft heavy toxic metallic element." Lead is (also) a verb meaning "take charge or be at the front." The past tense of the verb lead is led. Juan led me to my new office. Juan and I will lead a new team to find more efficient methods to run the office.

Loose/Lose

Loose means "not tight." Lose means "to fail to keep or win." The lock was loose. I was afraid that it might fail completely, and I would lose my bike.

Than/Then

Than is used when making a comparison. Then is used when referring to time or a sequence of events At first, Jason had more money than I had, but then he had less money after the stock value fell.

Which/Who and That

WHICH/WHO usually start nonessential (nonrestrictive) clauses THAT starts essential (restrictive) clauses The car, which is in the driveway, will not start. A car that will not start must be fixed.

We're /Where/Were

We're is a contraction that means "we are." Where is a location. Were is the past tense of are. We're going back to the spot where we were fishing yesterday.

Capitalization

Capitalize words at the beginning of a sentence. Capitalize titles when they precede a specific name: Presidents Bush and Clinton Do NOT capitalize titles when a name does not follow the title. The presidents worked together to help end hunger.

Watch out for exceptions to the possessive apostrophe rule

It's = it is Its = possessive Who's = Who is Whose = possession You're = You are Your = possession They're = They are Their = possession

Ten comma rules

Knowing these 10 comma rules will help you craft sentences that are clear, crisp and concise. See what we did there? We just illustrated rule No. 1 about the Oxford comma, the comma that sometimes comes between the last two items in a series. Oxford commas are rare in journalism Commas generally separate items in a series. In journalism, we don't use the Oxford comma between the last two items in a series, even though writing for English classes, books and research projects often will include the Oxford comma. An exception to the rule allows the use of the Oxford comma in journalism IF it helps avoid confusion. For example, this would be acceptable: Sandwich choices include ham and cheese, peanut butter and jelly, and tuna fish.

LESS/FEWER

Less refers to a proportion. It cannot be counted. Fewer refers to a definable amount that can be counted. In the following examples, notice which nouns can be counted - baths, assignments, coins - and which cannot - water, homework, money. Showers use less water than baths. Therefore, I take more showers and fewer baths. I have less homework and fewer assignments. He has less money and fewer coins.

Hyphens: Special Rule

NEVER hyphenate adverb-adjective combinations. Remember: Adverbs tend to end in "ly." EXAMPLES: The professionally trained pianist made quite an impression on the young students. The highly regarded technician was stumped by my computer problem. The slowly moving truck was a traffic hazard. To shorten a sentence, use suspended hyphens. Four- to six-week-old puppies are usually eating solid food instead of milk. Many three- to five-year-old preschool students receive little science instruction. The plan to renovate the hospital was part of a two- to three-year plan.

How to Punctuate Quotes Within Quotes

Sometimes there may be a quote within another quotation. In these cases, the quote within your quote will take single quotation marks, as in the following example: My professor said, "Oscar Wilde claimed that 'all art is quite useless.'" In the above example, I am referencing a quote by Oscar Wilde that my my professor quoted first. My professor's quote begins with the double quotation. Then notice that I use a single quote before the word 'All' to indicate where Oscar Wilde's quote begins. Finally, I close the entire sentence with three quotation mark. And notice that the period goes inside all three!

Apostrophes with Names

The rules for using apostrophes with proper names are a little different: The possessive of a singular name is formed by adding an apostrophe followed by an "s," even if the name already ends in "s": John's book Chris's book If the name is plural, add "s" followed by an apostrophe. This usually occurs with last names: The Smiths' house. The above example tells us that there is more than one person in the Smith family, and the house belongs to all of them.

Rule No. 3 Examples

The team scored 30 points in the first half, and Marelisa Moran made most of those points. We want to avoid comma splices, so the comma and word "and" are necessary in the above sentence. Another example: We went to the grocery store, and my husband picked out the biggest watermelon for our picnic.

Rule No. 2 Examples

Try this trick. If you reverse the order of the adjectives, does the sentence still make sense? If so, then add a comma. Examples: He was a precocious, adorable boy. Meteorologists predict that the dry, hot weather will continue in West Texas. She loved the smooth, soft jazz.

Rule No. 1: Oxford commas

Under rule No. 1 on Oxford commas, these sentences would all be correct. Note that there is no comma between the last two items in these lists. He went to the grocery store to get milk, bread, eggs and bacon. My classes for next semester include philosophy, multimedia design, Spanish and political science. Mindy lived in Dallas, San Antonio and Tyler before moving to San Marcos.

It's/Its

An exception to the apostrophe/possession rule is ITS. IT'S is reserved for the contraction IT IS. The laptop was not working properly. Its power cord was damaged. It's a bad day for this to happen because I have a paper due tomorrow.

Rule No. 8: nonrestrictive elements

Commas set off nonrestrictive elements, clauses, words, and expressions that are inserted into a sentence but do not add essential information. EXAMPLE: The train, coming from Dallas, stopped on the downtown tracks. The vines, which were nine years old, were still bearing fruit.

Rule No. 3: Coordinating conjunctions

Use a comma with a coordinating conjunction to create a compound sentences. Coordinating Conjunctions can be remembered by the mnemonic FANBOYS FOR, AND, NOR, BUT, OR, YET, SO Example: Georgia has great peaches, but peaches host terrible parasites. Watch this TED Ed video to learn more about coordinating conjunctions.

Rule No. 5: Introductory phrases

A comma sets off an introductory phrase of three or more words coming BEFORE the subject of a sentence. On my way to school, I met three of my classmates. Having already completed my homework, I spent the afternoon by the river. After practicing my swing, I got a double on my first turn at bat. When they come for the holidays, we'll make a trip to the River Walk to see the lights. More examples: In the fall of 2021, he plans to graduate and begin work in the public relations field. INCORRECT: In the fall of 2020 6,500 freshmen are expected to register for classes. TO CORRECT THIS SENTENCE separate the numbers (to avoid confusion) and add a comma after the introductory phrase. CORRECT: In the fall of 2020, the freshman class is expected to included 6,500 students.

Rule No. 4: dependent and independent clauses

Use commas to join dependent and independent clauses to create complex sentences. A comma separates a dependent clause from an independent clause when the dependent clause appears before the independent clause. When the meeting was over, the refreshment committee served coffee and cake. The refreshment committee served coffee and cake when the meeting was over.

Commas and Restrictive / Nonrestrictive Elements

When information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence, place it between two commas. You should NEVER have a SINGLE comma between a subject and a verb. Elements between the subject and verb are set off with a pair of commas. For example: Jake Holmes, my accountant, prepared my tax return this year. When information is essential, do not place it between commas. Students who fail their their classes must forfeit their scholarships. Tennis players who don't make the qualifying round are out of the tournament. Cars that don't meet emission standards will not be put up for sale. Mothers who abuse their children should lose parental rights. Weightlifters who use steroids should not be allowed to compete. Eva Kaufmann, who was on the honor roll three semesters in a row, will perform in the national dance competition.

you're/ Your

You're is a contraction that means "you are." Your shows possession. You're standing on your jacket.

Apostrophes: The Basics

Apostrophes are used to show possession. In other words, they tell us when something belongs to someone. Check out the following example: the teacher's book The apostrophe between "teacher" and the "s" tells us that the book belongs to the teacher. There are a few rules that govern where the apostrophe should be placed when showing possession. Let's take a look. If a word is singular, add an apostrophe before the "s" to show possession, as in the following example: The dog's bowl was full. The above example tells us that there is one dog, and the bowl belongs to her. If a word is plural AND ends in an "s," add an apostrophe after the "s" to show possession, as in the following example: The seven dogs' bowls are full. The apostrophe after the "s" tells us that there are seven dogs and the bowls belong to those dogs. If a word is plural BUT doesn't end in an "s," simply add an apostrophe and an "s." The men's shoes are polished. The children's bedrooms are clean. We would not put the apostrophe after the "s" in these examples because the words men and children are plural already. They do not need an "s" after them to make them plural. You wouldn't say, "Look at all of the mens." You would simply say, "Look at all of the men." So if you want to show possession, add an apostrophe followed by an s. "Look at all if the men's shoes."

BAD/BADLY

BADLY: Never use "badly" to describe how you feel. If someone asked you how you were feeling, you wouldn't say "goodly," so do not say "badly." Error: The woman feels badly because she cannot make it to her son's baseball game. Correction: The woman feels bad because she cannot make it to her son's baseball game.

Rule No. 10: Dates, cities and states

Commas with dates and addresses Monday, July 31, 1982, is my wedding anniversary. She started school at Texas State on Tuesday, August 16, 2018. Portland, Oregon, is much larger than Portland, Maine. His Utah vacation including lots of mountain biking and hiking. (No comma for a state without the city.) More examples on cities, states When you use a city and state, you put a comma after both. EXAMPLES: She went to high school in Dallas, Texas, until her senior year. The bus heading to Memphis, Tennessee, leaves the terminal at 9 a.m. Thursday. Her flight home from Los Angeles, California, was delayed by more than an hour.

Dashes

Dashes are used to show an abrupt change in thought or an emphatic pause. They can also set off a series of words in a list separated by commas. They come in pairs (like parentheses), unless the second dash would come at the end of the sentence. EXAMPLES: In one of my classes we are studying female writers —Emily Dickinson, Sylvia Plath and Virginia Woolf — who had a great impact on the world of literature. She was back on the ice rink -- skillfully executing difficult jumps - even though she had wrapped her injured ankle in ice all morning. Sandra had all the best qualities you look for in an editor - strong writing, good judgement, curiosity, persistence. She planted her squash every March - fully realizing that winter isn't necessarily over. Sunset was the best time of day to eat at the restaurant at the Corpus Christi marina - a great place to watch boats come and go - because it was so peaceful. Coach Kelley — who requested new equipment, new uniforms and better parking for fans — is against the increase in ticket prices. Broadway musicals have gotten sky high - some costing $200 to $300 per ticket - and few people can afford that.

DYING/DYEING

Dying results in death. Dyeing results in T-shirts

Compound modifiers

Free-roaming elk can be spotted along the streets of Estes Park, Colorado, during the fall mating season.

AFFECT/EFFECT

In most cases, treat affect as a verb meaning to influence or cause something and effect as a noun or the result. The effect of the medication was severe. It affected his vision and his mood.

Rule No. 4 Examples

In spite of the late frost, her garden was thriving. WRONG: Although we had a late frost her garden was thriving. CORRECT: Her garden was thriving even though we had a late frost.

When Do We Use Quotation Marks?

In the field of journalism and mass communication, you will frequently use quotation marks to indicate quoted or direct speech. For example, if I want to quote what someone else said, then I will need to use quotation marks to indicate where the other person's words begin and end: Franklin D. Roosevelt once said, "The only thing we have to fear is fear itself." In academic writing, we also use punctuation marks around titles of shorter works such as essays, articles, poems and songs.

More Rule No. 2 examples

People go to Colorado in the fall to enjoy the cool, clean mountain air. The round, golden leaves of the aspen tree quake in the slightest bit of wind in the fall. The lush, beautiful mountains attract hikers from around the world. The rocky southern end of the mountain range includes hundreds of miles of trails.(NOTE: No comma in that last sentence because we wouldn't reverse the order of "rocky" and "southern." The southern end of the range happens to be rocky.)

Punctuation with Quotation Marks

Periods and commas always go inside the close of a quotation marks, even triple quotation marks. Notice the period at the end of the sentence. It goes inside the quotation mark. However, the comma at the beginning of the sentence does not: Franklin D. Roosevelt once said, "The only thing we have to fear is fear itself." You can also begin the sentence with the quotes. Notice that the comma is placed inside the quotations in this example: "The only thing we have to fear is fear itself," Franklin D. Roosevelt once said. Colons and semicolons always go outside the quotation marks. My grandmother once said, "Stupid is as stupid does"; Granny would have liked Forrest Gump. Question marks can go inside or outside the punctuation marks depending on where the question ends. If the entire sentence is a question that contains a quote within it, then the question mark should be placed outside of the quotation marks, as in the following example: Do you believe that "ignorance is bliss"? However, if you are quoting a question that someone else asked, then the question mark should be placed inside the quotations, as in the following examples: Jesse asked, "When is dinner being served?" Educational psychologist, Michelle Aguilar, asked, "When will we begin giving adequate funding to developmental education?"

Semicolons and conjunctive adverbs

Place a comma after a conjunctive adverb or transition phrase that appears at the beginning of the second clause joined by a semicolon. Common conjunctive adverbs: however, moreover, nevertheless, additionally, furthermore Common transition phrases: in addition to, as a result Example: Penelope failed to complete her essay; as a result, she did not pass the course. More semicolon examples: Maggie barked at the back door; she could hear a squirrel on the other side. Maggie looks for a treat every time she comes in the back door of the house; she knows she's a good girl.

Capitalize Proper Nouns but not Common Nouns

Proper Nouns: Uncle Jack Father (as a name) Wrigley Field Southwestern University Mass Comm. 1100B Environmental Protection Agency Common Nouns: my uncle his father baseball stadium a university mass communication a federal agency

Possessives vs. contractions

Remember lesson 4.2 when we covered apostrophes? Recall that apostrophes are used to show possession as in the following example: the student's books. Apostrophes can also be used to create contractions, or shortened words. For example, cannot can be shortened to can't by using an apostrophe. Sometimes the use of apostrophes can cause confusion, and we have to determine if an apostrophe is being used to show possession or to shorten a word.

Hyphens

Rule: Use hyphens with compound adjectives when the adjectives come BEFORE the noun. Compound adjectives are two or more words that together make an adjective. When they come directly before a noun, they're known as compound modifiers and usually have a hyphen, like "noise-canceling headphones." Here is another examples: They had a long-term relationship. If the adjectives come after the noun, they do not need a hyphen: Their relationship was long term. Compound modifiers: Jake's favorite birthday present was his remote-controlled truck. Betsey tended to see the situation through rose-colored glasses. Penny was the most kind-hearted person I ever met. The blue-collar workers petitioned for better wages and higher safety standards for job sites. After four hours of non-stop driving on mountain roads, we needed a break. Ages: The three-year-old girl just wanted to play with her new puppy. The girl was just three, but she loved her new puppy. The 17-year-old boy got his driver's license on his birthday. He was just 17 when he got his driver's license.

They're /Their/There

They're is a contraction meaning "they are." Their shows possession. There is a location. They're going to take their dog over there to the dog park.

Rule No. 9

Use a comma to introduce a direct quotation. Kingston writes, "Those of us in the first American generations have had to figure out how the invisible world works." The professor said, I'll give you extra credit if you can recite all the amendments in the Bill of Rights." One of the parts of the Hippocratic Oath for medical students and doctors is, "First, do no harm."

Semicolons

Use semicolons to join two independent clauses. Lisa was proud of her frugality; her 2005 Honda with more than 200,000 miles on it was parked in her driveway. The mall opened early on Black Friday; shoppers were already lined up outside to scoop up the biggest deals that were advertised. Semicolons can be used for listing items when one or more of the list items already contains commas. Chefs got to work on the banquet meal by chopping strawberries, spinach and walnuts for the salad; slicing eggplant, squash and peppers for the roasted vegetable side dish; and whipping together the pecans, brown sugar and eggs to start the dessert. NOTE: We generally don't use the Oxford commabetween the last two items of a series, but when we use semicolons in a series like this, we DO use a semicolon between the last two items. The public is calling for changes to countygovernment; county commissioners, however, aren'treceptive to the call for greater transparency on how they make their decisions on funding various departments. The cities with the best models for practicing open and transparent government included Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Charleston, South Carolina; and San Diego, California. More semicolon examples: Bella, the calico cat that lives at the Alamo, roams among the trees and lush plants at the historic site;she's friendly with the touristswho stop and watch her.

Colons

Usually colons come after a complete sentence (independent clause). They also work with this construction: Her favorite sports included the following: baseball, football and tennis. Try this tip: Replace the colon with who is/are or which is/are. If the sentence still makes sense, keep the colon. I went to the Rocky Mountain National Park for three reasons: I wanted to take the original unpaved road to the top of the mountain, hike along the trails in the cool air and take photos of the majestic views. I chose three favorite photos from the trip: The view from the top of Trail Ridge Road, the kids hiking on the trail above the tree line and the wild goats grazing on the side of the mountain. WRONG: My favorite teachers are: Dr. Cohen, Dr. Wilson and Dr. Raphael. CORRECT: My favorite teachers are Dr. Cohen, Dr. Wilson and Dr. Raphael. CORRECT: I have three favorite teachers: Dr. Cohen, Dr. Wilson and Dr. Raphael. According to President Sanchez, there is only one solution: healthcare reform. Sanchez said the solution is healthcare reform: the end of pre-existing conditions, equal access to affordable care and universal coverage for children. The congressman had one important goal for this term: preserve affordable insurance coverage for the poor.

Punctuation with Quotation Marks: The Basics

When introducing a direct quote, place a comma after the reporting verb. Common reporting verbs include said, argued and claimed. When introducing quotes this way, notice that the first word of the quote is capitalized: Franklin D. Roosevelt once said, "The only thing we have to fear is fear itself." When introducing a quote with the word that you do not need a comma and the first word is not capitalized: Franklin D. Roosevelt once said that "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself."

Who or That/Which

Who refers to people. That and which refer to things. The woman who was in the other room. The book that was in the other room.