GEOG330 Exam 2
New view on resiliency
"Ecological or evolutionary" After disruption, the system adjusts to changing stable conditions System transformation to adapt to future shocks
Traditional view on resiliency
"Equilibrium or engineering" After disruption, the system returns to a stable state
Industrial Revolution
(1750's-1945) Proximity to energy sources (coal) and ports Ex: Western Europe
Fordist
(1945-1970) Transport of materials in and goods out cheapest Ex: Detroit, Baltimore, and Pittsburgh
Post-Fordist
(1970-Present) Labor costs cheapest Ex: East Asia, South Asia; Southeast Asia
Urban Resiliency Examples
A neighborhood hit by a storm surge rebounds to build a better flood protection system. A rural area experiencing severe drought uses a combination of aid and scientific improvements to engineer water minimal crops for the next growing season A city undergoes a terrorist attack, and emerges with a better data system to prepare for future events A country suffers an unexpected pandemic and comes out the other side with a vaccine and large citizen immunity
Adaptation
Accepting climate change is happening, and changing policies and infrastructure to prepare when it hits. Ex: seawalls, water reserves, moving homes inland, putting coastal homes on stilts, creating emergency evacuation plans, replacing impervious surfaces with wetlands, increasing urban tree cover National/state scale invests in adaptation
IR enabled colonialism
Advances in shipbuilding and navigation, which leads to geographically more distant conquests IR depleted domestic energy resources, which leads to additional fuel sources being sought abroad
Benefits of Urban Green Spaces
Air pollution filter and CO2 capture Physiological benefits: reduction in non-communicable diseases (diabetes and obesity) Noise and temperature control Stormwater capture and groundwater filter Cultural ecosystem services: psychological and social benefits Property value increase and crime rate decrease Additional factors to consider: availability? Safety? Maintenance? Leisure time to use?
Green Urban Infrastructure
Capture and retention of water (green roofs, wetlands, pervious surfaces, rain gardens, rain barrels)
Energy Use in China
China produces more total greenhouse gasses than any other country Large population Upwards urbanization Majority of energy reliance on coal Strong economic activity China is the world's largest energy consumer compared to all other countries China leads the world in renewable energy investments Top producer for solar panels and hydroelectric power, but having issues with energy infrastructure and transport China DOES NOT produce more greenhouse gasses per capita than any other country The US and Saudi Arabia leads The majority of China's energy comes from coal Prior to 2014, China followed "common but differentiated responsibilities" as a developing country: made no promise to cap emissions In 2017, China reemphasized intent to uphold emission reductions target by 2025, with or without the US China exceeds US in GHG emissions (2007), energy consumption (2010), oil imports (2014)
Function
Cities as centers of financial and political power (Increase of primate cities: the population at least double of the next largest city in the country)
Economies of scale
Cities have single and efficient systems for energy, transport, education, sanitation instead of creating multiple smaller systems. High-density cities actually produce fewer GHG per capita due to these efficiencies.
Motivation (perception of threats) Facet
Cognitive, affective, behavioral; Ex: Having a sustainability plan
Information Facet
Conducting research/analysis for innovation; Ex: Having universities, tech companies, computing hubs, data
Decreased Supply for World Water Shortages
Depletion of aquifers for agriculture Climate Change: variable rainfall, melting glaciers, storm surges, heavy flooding (causes fresh H2O to mix with salt/sewage water) Excessive pollution and waste
Location
Developing countries in Asia and Africa are home to the next phases of urban growth (No country reached high-income status without urbanization and key for "The Good Life")
Structural challenges Barrier to Renewable Energy Investment
Electricity systems capable of transferring renewable energy (can it fulfill the demand?) [infrastructure and storage] Ex: Although China leads in renewable energy investment (capacity), China has issues transferring energy to real use through power grids (production) Lack of technical know-how (especially in developing countries)
Cost Barrier to Renewable Energy Investment
Federal investment needed (2nd priority to education, healthcare, and national security) Falling gas and oil prices [Nonrenewable resources getting cheaper] Project financing and interest rates ("riskier") [Riskier investment] Subsidized and strong lobbyists
Ethnic Enclaves
First-generation immigrants live, work, and play in the same area. More access to jobs, language, family, religious centers, cuisine, medicine, all of which are boundaries that sustain culture. Ex: DC is the nation's largest Ethiopian community 1960s-1970s: Students pursuing higher education (a large number of universities, Howard University as HBCU) Many students stayed, became permanent residents 1970s-1980s: Marxist regime as a push factor With each successive generation of an immigrant ethnic group in a new country, the geographic location and physical neighborhood in which one lives becomes less a factor in cultural sustainability. Dispersing community to Silver Spring, Arlington, Alexandria
New emphasis on resiliency
Flexibility built into systems More financial resources to a city's climate preparedness fund. Resilient-Sustainable Infrastructure (RSI): hospital electric grid on solar, gas, and diesel. Areas that are meant to be flooded (wetlands, marshlands, etc.) Some urban areas are meant to be flooded instead of developed to every square inch.
Institutions
Formal and informal organizations: space for cultural activity, physical markers on the landscape. Ex: DC Ethiopian Orthodox Churches, UMD CSC, UMD Engineering academic buildings, Vietnamese Catholic churches
Environmental Gentrification
Gentrification due to environmental improvement of neighborhoods. Increase number and expansion of green spaces, parks, gardens Ex: NoBE, NoMa, Highline
Proactive and inclusive planning
Help with avoiding and being resilient to gentrification Acknowledge inequalities in scientists' vs. planners' greening strategies. Including different groups in planning "Social impact assessments" before development starts Space accommodates participation based on differences in culture, age, level of ability, socioeconomic status, etc. Space governance inclusive by scales and sectors (CPR approach) More research on political and economic contexts of greening to avoid market-oriented strategies Ex: Urban areas can launch social impact assessments before construction of parks
Industrial upcharge
Higher rates for industrial usage (Big agriculture, urban developers, manufacturers, etc.)
Form
Increasingly disperse and expansive (US "consumption landscape model: low-density, automobile-centric)
Common-Pool Resources (CPR) Institutions
Local communities could make their own on how to use resource, this would be an alternative to privatization or relying on top-down actors for regulation Ostrom's 8 design principles to make local CPR management stable (Works best when social capital exists) Defining clear group boundaries Matching rules governing the use of common goods to local needs Those affected by rules can modify rules Rule-making rights of community respected by outside authorities Develop a community-based system for monitoring member behavior Graduated sanctions for rule violators Accessible, low-cost dispute resolution Govern resource in nested tiers Ex: Local water boards made of local residents determine water governance rules
Scale
More cities and larger cities (increase in the number of "megacities," which are cities with 10+ million people)
Tragedy of the Commons
Multiple individuals, acting out of self-interest, exploit the commons and ultimately render it unusable to all, despite this not being the intention Ex: Individual overfishing of a local river. After a while, the local fish population dwindles and people can't catch fish anymore
Intangible spaces
Non-physical spaces infused with ethnic traits Ex: Hagr Fikr DC community radio show in Amharic, UMD YikYak, Vietnamese talk/radio shows
Public opinion and involvement Barrier to Renewable Energy Investment
Not a choice individual consumers make (city, state, federal scales). Cognitive and affective acceptance, but cost a huge behavioral barrier. Policy and legislation = slow process (Ex: Between discovery and widespread adoption: 43 years; community-based organizations in the meantime)
Climate Refugees
People displaced due to climate change (drought, flooding, wildfire, sea level rise) UN does NOT recognize climate change for refugee status. Needed for the right to work, shelter, aid Valid factors: ethnic, religious, political persecution 150-300 million global climate refugees by 2050 Similar to displacing the entire American population Nations with the most climate refugees are not the nations most responsible for spurring climate change. How are climate refugees made? What is happening with climate change in the 21st century? Global sea level is rising More heavy rainfall Increasing number and intensity of storms Humans are influencing these changes
What Makes Cities Resilient?
Planning increases resiliency, but recognizing that not everything can be planned makes systems most resilient Cities should have fluid systems Cities should have change and transformation built into the system to allow transformation to happen following a disruption Cities should have engagement from BOTH bottom-up and top-down scales Local: More engaged and meaningful Top-down: Technological know-how and financial resources
Upgraded Agriculture Systems
Precision irrigation management technologies Desalinization Drought resistant GMO crops
Eras of Manufacturing and Production Trends
Production sites (and negative environment externalities) are becoming more geographically distinct from consumption sites Cognitive, affective, behavioral chain: social, economic, and environmental ills associated with production hidden from consumers
Hydroelectric (Flowing Water)
Pros: Does not directly produce air pollutants Cons: Disrupts river systems; costly; human relocation; construction
Biomass/biofuels (Burned crops or crop-based fuels)
Pros: Low emissions when burned; carbon capture while crops Cons: Industrial agriculture (water, oil, and land use)
Wind
Pros: Low maintenance Cons: Aesthetically non-appealing; interference with wildlife
Geothermal (Earth's internal heat)
Pros: Power stations-small; continuous source (day and night) Cons: Not easily transported; expensive up-front costs
Renewable Energy in General
Pros: Sustainable supply; directly cleaner for GHG emissions Cons: Costly
Solar
Pros: Widely available Cons: More costly than fossil fuel infrastructure; zoning; maintenance
Passport tariffs
Reduced charges for lower-income (UK, Portland, OR)
Socio-commerce
Sociocultural and commercial structures: gathering places, goods, physical markers on landscape. Ex: DC Ethiopian clothing store displays Ethiopian flag in the window, Eden Center, UMD Bookstore
Colonialism enabled IR
Resources exploited from colonies are sold for profit, those funds are then used for research and development, which leads to the mass production of material goods
Grey Urban Infrastructure
Reusing (water from the shower to operate HVAC), low-flow toilets, upgraded stormwater systems
Centers for innovation
Some of the innovation is directed towards sustainability (universities, research labs, startups).
Mitigation
Stopping drivers of climate change to slow or stop climate change itself. Ex: Carbon emission caps, clean energy tax breaks, reducing the number of vehicles in the city, replacing impervious surfaces with wetlands, increasing urban tree cover Priority on global agendas and call for restructuring on national/state scale
Incentives via Subsidies
Subsidies for good behavior and tariffs for bad behavior Subsidies can inadvertently cause greater use (Jevon's Paradox) Degradation per unit output down, but total output up (Company able to fund/open two more textile plants due to "good" water behavior subsidies) Ex: Good and responsible water practices earn a company lower water rates
Capacity Facet
Technical, financial, managerial, and political support
Arenas
Temporary locations for the convergence of ethnic community. Ex: Inqutatash celebration in DC's Malcolm X Park, Alexandria's Arts Center, TKD demonstration in park/parking lot, Activities on McKeldin mall
Resiliency
The capacity to maintain core functions in the face of hazardous threats and shocks (Ex: climate change [drought, storms, flooding], rapid population expansion or decline, epidemics, economic depression, war, terrorism) The poor are most vulnerable and least resilient to climate change disturbances Pre-disturbance: Live in areas prone to drought, pollution, and flooding; working jobs that rely on land affected by climate change Post-disturbance: Limited financial, political resources to rebuild, migrate, organize, protest
Block tariffs
The first block is cheaper than subsequent (price increases with the amount of usage)
Placelessness
The loss of uniqueness to the point that one place looks like the next. Can occur through: Architectural forms diffused around the world (Ex: skyscrapers) Businesses diffused around the world (Ex: McDonald's and Starbucks) Borrowing idealized landscapes (Ex: Venetian hotels)
Gentrification
The rapid increase in property values, rents, improvements to housing stock, replacement of lower-income residents with middle to upper-class households. Ex: Renovating dorms at universities, new homes/remodeling in residence communities, San Francisco, Baltimore, modernized architecture and beautification, etc.
Environmental Justice
The right to environmental protection, and to live, work, and play in communities that are safe, healthy, and free of life-threatening conditions. Urban green space is beneficial but unequally distributed
Legacy of Colonization and IR
This relationship gave Western Europe a huge economic advantage while leaving colonies in economic, environmental, and political ruin. Today's MDC and LDC are a result of IR and colonization.
Rate
Unprecedented growth of cities, though slowing in the 21st century
21st Century Energy Use Trends
World energy consumption is up and will continue to increase. Developing countries (non-OECD) show the most growth in energy consumption because of increasing economic activities and large populations. They will continue to show that throughout the 21st century. Developed countries (OECD) countries investing in renewable energy China consumes more energy than India and the United States. Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Africa, China, and India are the top 5 regions that demand the most primary energy. Developing countries (also called non-OECD countries) currently make up the majority of the world's energy demand and will continue to do so throughout the 21st century. Most of the energy consumed comes from non-renewable resources (oil, coal, and natural gas). 70% of global energy used is from nonrenewable sources Learning to live w/o fossil fuels: Bolstering renewable energy (T) Adapting to end of economic growth: Less consumption (A) Stabilizing population at a sustainable level: Improve technology (T) or reduce population growth (P) Overcome legacy of environmental destruction: cultural shift to pro-environmentalism
Increasing Demand for World Water Shortages
World population: thirst, but more so agriculture Industrialization Urbanization: growing cities
Sustainability legislation
Zoning, development: an area for low or mixed housing to avoid (environmental) gentrification Education and training programs to keep jobs local and avoid environmental gentrification Greening policies: GHGE reductions, bike lanes, renewable energy, stormwater retention, green and grey infrastructure, urban farming, etc.