GEOL 1005 CH. 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15

why are fossil fuels called fossil fuels?

"fossil" refers to any remains or evidence of ancient life. energy is stored in the chemical bonds of the organic compounds of living organisms, the ultimate source of that energy is the sun, which drives photosynthesis in plants

silt

(0.002 - 0.05 mm)

sand

(0.05- 2 mm) the largest of the three sizes

clay

(< 0.002 mm) the smallest of the three sizes

zone of ablation

*net loss of ice 1. sublimation: evaporation of ice into water vapor (sublimation means skipping a phase of matter - instead of transforming from a solid to a liquid to a gas, the substance skips the middle phase and transforms from a solid directly to a gas) 2. melting: the transformation of ice into water 3. calving: breaking of chunks of ice at the end of the glacier that is flowing out over the water, forming icebergs

zone of accumulation

*the addition of new material exceeds loss by melting or evaporation when snowfall adds ice to a glacier

ramifications of the loss of Arctic Sea

- Arctic ecosystems are being affected by less seasonal ice - polar bears are having a difficult time accessing traditional food sources - orcas are having more success in hunting due to more open water - the loss of ice means less reflectivity and more absorption of energy resulting in even warmer temperatures and more ice melting the loss of Arctic sea ice has led to the opening of new shipping lanes, and many countries jockeying for positions to claim regions of the Arctic for oil and mineral extraction Arctic warming is also thawing permafrost (permanently frozen ground), causing the release of underground methane, which further intensifies warming

environmental/health issue associated with underground mining

- dangerous for workers - sources of water pollution - collapses - exposed rock may release pollutants into surface runoff water or groundwater

major greenhouse gases

- water vapor (H2O) - carbon dioxide (CO2) - methane (CH4) - nitrogen oxides (NOx) - chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

1 barrel =

= 42 gallons

how the O18/O16 ratio is used to reconstruct historic temperatures?

because O16 is lighter than O18 (because O18 has 2 additional neutrons), O16 will evaporate from an equatorial sea more readily than O18. conversely, O18 will precipitate out more readily than O16 when returning as rain or snow back to the Earth as air moves from the Equator to the poles (from warm to cold), O16 precipitates out as rain. that O16 is deposited as rain or snow over the poles, and depending on the climate, can get incorporated into glacial ice. because O18 does not make it up to the poles as readily, glacial ice is more enriched in O16 than O18. conversely, seawater will be more enriched in O18 than in O16 they compare this ratio to a standard ratio of oxygen isotopes found in ocean water at a depth of 200 to 500 meters

trans-alaska pipeline system

began operating in 1977, transports crude oil 800 miles from the frozen north slope to the warm-water port at valdez, on alaska's southern coast

cirque

bowl-shaped depression that develops on the side of the mountain at the head of a glacier

chemical weathering

breakdown of minerals either 1. by chemical reaction with water 2. with other chemicals dissolved in the water 3. with gases in the air e.g., calcite (calcium carbonate or CaCO3, forms the carbonate sedimentary rock limestone and the metamorphic equivalent marble) dissolves in water, and more so in acidic water. rainwater is naturally slightly acidic and this spells peril for limestone and marble sculptures, as well as tombstones and other building structures as over time, these will gradually dissolve

benefits of relying on ethanol

burns more completely than ordinary unleaded gasoline and reduces harmful tailpipe emissions. ethanol prevents gas line freeze-up. it suspends moisture in your fuel system, so you don't need to add expensive anti-freeze in cold weather

benefits of hydroelectric power

clean energy source, the water used is not consumed, multiple plants can be created, power is renewable

environmental impacts of coal mining

coal mining is dangerous! both for the miners, who risk various respiratory illnesses (e.g. "miner's lung"), radiation exposure (radon), and natural gas explosions; but also for the environment: underground fires in coal seams can run for decades this reaction is responsible for most of the acid mine drainage. the acid runoff can kill vegetation and pollute ground and surface waters. surface coal mines are refilled with soil when they are reclaimed, but the issue of water availability to support plant re-growth becomes an issue with drier areas out west

how does the CO2 emission output of coal compare to that of oil and gas?

coal produces far more CO2 than either oil or natural gas

ash

coal's waste product contains trace amounts of toxic materials, such as arsenic, lead, selenium and uranium. the ash can consist of 5-20% of the original coal volume. a single coal-fired electric power plant can produce over a million tons of solid waste a year. presently, it goes into landfills or containment ponds

cap rock

commercially, the most valuable oil deposits are those in which a large quantity of oil/gas has been trapped by and concentrated in a layer of impermeable rocks that cap it from above influence on oil production: oil /gas accumulates in porous, permeable reservoir rocks from which they can readily flow out once a well is drilled

C horizon

consists of material from the underlying bedrock that has undergone some weathering. it consists of mostly broken-up bedrock

how do prospects look for oil and gas?

despite recent advances, the costs of exploration continue to rise (just to drill a single well can cost well over $2 million, the cost of an offshore oil rig can be over half a billion dollars). oil and gas consumption also release CO2 and methane gas into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming. this accounts, in part, for the shift toward alternative energy resources

scrubbers

devices containing alkaline substances that precipitate out much of the sulfur dioxide from industrial plants

rise of CO2 in limestone reefs

dissolved carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid and then reacts with various calcium containing minerals to form calcium carbonate and bicarbonate is rather slow

geothermal energy

energy from steam or hot water produced from hot or molten underground rocks energy derived from the internal heat of Earth; its use usually requires a near-surface heat source, such as young igneous rock, and nearby circulating subsurface water

national petroleum reserve - alaska NPRA

established in 1923 (harding administration). the NPRA is west of Prudhoe Bay and exploratory drilling has confirmed the presence of oil and gas

arctic national wildlife refuge ANWR

established in 1980 (carter administration). the ANWR lies east of Prudhoe Bay, making up the northeast corner of alaska, and is thought to hold billions of gallons of oil

over 250 billion tons

estimated reserve supply of coal in the US

shale gas

extracted through a technique known as hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, developed in 2000 by mitchell energy in the barnettt shale of north texas. fracking is an extraction technique that involves drilling first vertically (straight down), and then turning diagonally or horizontally between beds to extract natural gas natural gas occurring within or extracted from shale mined through hydraulic fracturing environmental impacts: pollution of groundwater and surface water if not handled carefully

smelting

extracts the metal by using heat it historically produces sulfuric acid as a waste product gas, contributing to acid rain. the tallest smelter chimney in the western hemisphere is the Inco Superstack, near Lake St. Charles, in Sudbury, Ontario (Canada). this region is hard to miss on google maps. everything around it looks dead due to over a century of nickel mining in this region. Canada has since introduced clean-air legislation to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions with the aim of improving environmental conditions around such smelter plants and reducing acid rain levels

oil shales

fine-grained sedimentary rock rich in solid organic material called kerogen

the geyers in california

for large-scale use, we find an appropriate heat source at _____

lateral moraine

form on the sides or outer edges of the glacier as the glacier scrapes rocks off the sides of mountains as it moves past. where two valley glaciers merge, the debris in the two lateral moraines merge to become a medial moraine

coal

forms from the remains of land plants that died in swampy environments, often hundreds of millions of years ago, under anaerobic conditions (lacking oxygen; the presence of oxygen would completely destroy the organic matter in the leaves, resulting in no coal forming whatsoever) the process requires anaerobic conditions, in which oxygen is absent or nearly so, since reaction with oxygen destroys the organic matter classified based on carbon content, sulfur content, and combustion values (calories)

kimberlites

forms large pipe-like igneous bodies that originate within the underlying mantle ultramafic igneous rocks that occur as pipelike intrusive bodies that originated in the mantle diamonds are mined from an igneous rock called kimberlite, which forms large pipe-like intrusions that rise up from the mantle

nonrenewable resource

fossil fuels are a non-renewable resource; not being replenished or formed at any significant rate on a human timescale

desert

found at all latitudes: the largest are subtropical (at 30°N and 30°S of the Equator) but deserts can also be found at the poles. for example, Antarctica is a desert

glacial striations

glacial activity that leaves grooves/scratches in rocks that form parallel to the flow direction of the glacier

albedo

glaciers, being white in color, typically help reduce global warming levels by reflecting sunlight back into outer space examples of substances with a high albedo: are glacial ice and white clouds

ocean conveyor belt

global circulation of ocean waters contributes to the change. the Gulf Stream (not to be confused with the Jet Stream, a wind current) is part of this larger belt, whereby warm surface water is transported east and north to Greenland, where it cools from contact with cold Canadian air. as the water cools, it increases in density and sinks to the bottom (a process called (called downwelling), then flows south and east to the Pacific, where it warms up again and upwelling occurs the heat released to the atmosphere from the Gulf Stream helps keep Northern Europe at least 10°F warmer than it would be if this thermohaline circulation pattern was not present. abrupt historical changes in climate (which, to a geologist, implies a timescale of decades-to-centuries) are sometimes attributed to disruptions in currents such as the Gulf Stream

greenhouse effect

greenhouse gases in our atmosphere insulate the Earth like a blanket, trapping the longwave radiation emanating from the Earth's surface it is a natural phenomenon that has been occurring for billions of years on Earth (and other planets that have atmospheres). Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth would effectively be, on average, ~40°C cooler. I.e., cold!

A horizon

has three subdivisions: O, A, and E 1. the "O" in O horizon stands for "organic layer" and consists of organic matter, or humus 2. the O and A horizon together make up topsoil, the fertile portion of soil that farmers till for planting crops 3. below the A horizon is the E horizon. the O, A, and E horizon form the zone of leaching because rainwater percolates through this initial layer, dissolves soluble minerals, and carries them away. the "E" in E horizon stands for eluvium: you don't need to know this term / layer ("eluvium" is the formal term for leaching)

pedocal soil

less leached a soil in which calcium carbonate and other readily soluble minerals are retained; characteristic of drier climates reflect soils developed in drier regions (less rainfall) these soils are less leached, even soluble minerals such as calcium carbonate (the "-cal" in pedocal = "calcium") remain in the B horizon these soils are usually more alkaline (less acidic), due to the presence of calcium carbonate in North America, these soils are found in the southwestern US

B horizon

lies in the zone of accumulation is called the subsoil, where ions, clay minerals, and iron oxides accumulate. organic matter from the surface is largely absent from this layer

limitations of hydroelectric power

loss of ecological habitats, silting up of reservoirs, dam failure

peat (0)

low-grade of coal formed at the earth's surface, combustible. With burial and more heat, pressure, and time, peat gradually dehydrates and forms

lignite (1)

low-medium grade of coal soft, low carbon content, high moisture content, low heat content - i.e., does not release so much heat when burned relative to higher grades of coal

subbituminous (2)

low/medium grade coal type of coal whose properties range from those of lignite to those of bituminous coal

hydrothermal deposits

magmas contain water and other fluids that, because they are under pressure, can seep into the cracks of surrounding rocks. these fluids, often super-heated, can leach out minerals and ions from the rocks through which they pass. as the fluids cool, they deposit their minerals, forming a hydrothermal deposit copper, lead, zinc, gold, silver, platinum, and uranium are commonly found in such deposits contains large amounts of dissolved elements that mineralize when the water cools relating to warm water; hydrothermal ores are ores deposited by circulating warm fluids in the earth's crust

glaciers

masses of ice that move under their own weight, under the force of gravity can take several centuries to form (and melt), and are typically form at high latitudes (e.g., Alaska, Antarctica) and/or high altitudes (e.g., Mt. Kilimanjaro, in Tanzania, which lies near the Equator)

bituminous (3)

medium/high grade of goal a type of coal containing a tar-like substance called bitumen or asphalt. its coloration can be black or sometimes dark brown; often there are well-defined bands of bright and dull material within the seams

economically significant nonmetallic metals

sulfur - created as a by-product of mining sulfide minerals (see above), and used by industry to create sulfuric acid halite or salt, and gypsum

landscapes influenced by glacial activity

the Rocky Mountains: many of its peaks and valleys were glacially carved the Great Lakes: the lakes occupy basins carved and deepened by glaciers and filled with glacial meltwater Canad's Hudson Bay: is a depression formed by the weight of the ice sheets and flooded with seawater after the ice melted away the Drainage of the Mississippi River: in part was formed by meltwater from retreating ice sheets. the sediments carried along with that meltwater ("loess" see below) are in part responsible for the fertility of the Midwestern farmland, and supply the groundwater tapped today for irrigation

major oil shale resource location

the US possesses about 75% of the world's known oil shale resources, and most of it (70%) lies in the eocene green river formation (a rock layer than runs through colorado, wyoming, and utah)

strategic petroleum reserve

the USA's reserve supply of oil, which should last for about three months in the event of severe interruptions to imported oil the US has long been concerned about oil independence, especially following the arab oil embargo that resulted in oil prices quadrupling from 1973-1974 --> which led to SPR

soil

the accumulation of unconsolidated rock and mineral fragments and organic matter formed in place at the earth's surface; capable of supporting life 1. engineering geology definition: all unconsolidated material that overlies bedrock 2. soil scientist definition: material capable of supporting plant growth produced by weathering

land reclamation challenges

the artificial slopes of the restored landscape may not be altogether stable, and as natural erosional processes begin to sculpt the land surface, natural slope adjustments in the form of slumps and slides may occur. in dry areas, thought must be given to how the reclamation will modify drainage patterns. in wetter areas, the runoff may itself be a problem, gullying slopes and contributing to sediment pollution of surface waters until new vegetation is established

concentration factor

the concentration necessary for profitable mining (the concentration of the metal in the ore deposit) / (the average concentration of the metal in the crust)

weather

the condition of Earth's atmosphere at a particular time and place

wind energy

the energy captured by transforming the motion of air into electrical energy using a turbine about 1,000 wind generators (wind turbines) are required to generate as much power as an equivalent coal or nuclear-powered electric generating plant

charles keeling

the first to devise a technique for taking accurate, repeated measurements of atmospheric CO2, beginning in 1958 and continuing today. His data are known as the "Keeling Curve" and how CO2 levels have risen over time

leached soil

the layer of soil from which ions have been extracted or removed is called the zone of leaching: this is an upper soil layer the ions that have been leached out precipitate deeper in the soil column forming new minerals and clays in a region called the zone of accumulation: this is a deeper soil layer ("B").

plastic zone (plastic deformation)

the middle region of a glacier it is the area of plastic flow --> the ice layers in the middle of the glacier slip over themselves as the glacier becomes heavier begins at depths of 60 m (~200') and deeper. the ice grains change shape very slowly as the glacier moves, and/or new grains grow while old ones disappear. the ice does not crack below depths of 60 m: the 60 m boundary is considered the brittle-plastic transition (a similar transition in the continental crust occurs at 10-15 km in depth)

chemical composition of coal (in comparison to oil/gas)

the molecules in coal tend to be larger than those in oil and natural gas room temperature: coal is solid; oil is liquid; and natural gas is in a gaseous phase origin: coal is formed from land-based plants in bogs/swamps; oil/gas are derived from tiny marine organisms like algae and phytoplankton

positive feedback

the more glaciers retreat, the lower the albedo, the more quickly the Earth warms up ex. when the surface temperature rises, part of the ice and snow melts, leading to an increase in the solar radiation absorbed by the surface and to an enhanced surface warming

how does albedo influence climate change?

the more glaciers retreat, the lower the albedo, the more quickly the Earth warms up. this is called a positive feedback cycle: the warming trend reinforces itself

mechanical (physical) weathering

the physical breakup of rock or mineral grains by surface processes anything that breaks up a rock without altering its composition; e.g., ice, wind, water. this type of weathering breaks larger chunks of rock into smaller ones, increasing the exposed surface area

erosion

the physical removal of material from one place to another different from weathering because weathering is the breakdown of rock or mineral materials in place

tailings

the piles of crushed waste rock created as a by-product of mineral processing rapid weathering of the tailings may produce acid drainage and leach out harmful elements, such as mercury, arsenic, cadmium, and uranium, to contaminate surface water and groundwater

hydroelectric power

the power is generated from the energy of the flowing or falling water. usually, this is generated by damming up a river and releasing the water slowly so that the energy generated is constant as opposed to seasonal

enhanced recovery of oil and gas

the practice of extracting oil from a well that has already gone through the primary and secondary stages of oil recovery

desertification

the rapid development of deserts (or expansion of existing deserts) caused by the impact of human activities, often due to land-use practices. e.g., Dust Bowl of the 1930s in the Midwest was a result of decades of misguided farming practices that caused the topsoil to erode away. removing native vegetation and replacing it with crops left the land vulnerable to degradation during drier conditions (the native plants would be better adapted to dry conditions); similar results with raising livestock. desertification reduces the amount of arable land on which the world depends for food

rise of CO2's influence on acidity levels

the rise of CO2 in the ocean makes it more difficult for corals and other marine organisms to build their calcium-carbonate skeletons the combination of acidification and warming waters puts severe stress on coral reefs

thermohaline circulation

the roles of temperature and salinity in moving water around the globe. bear in mind that cold water is denser than warm water (due to convection, warm fluids rise, cold fluids sink) and density and salinity are positively correlated (salt water is denser than freshwater)

terminal moraine

the sediment that accumulates at the glacier's toe (leading front edge). the debris deposited by the furthest extent of glacial ice

interglacial period

the time between when glaciers retreat and advance. in our current geologic epoch, called the Holocene, we are currently considered to be an n interglacial period because the glaciers are still present (though rapidly retreating)

rigid zone (brittle deformation)

the upper part of a glacier it is the area of the most rapid movement --> forms crevasses (cracks in the surface ice) occurs at the surface and to depths of 60 m (~200'). the ice at the surface does not "flow" but instead moves by cracking: the cracks are called crevasses

el nino's disruption of upwelling

there is a thermal gradient with ocean water depth: surface ocean water is, on average, 15°C (60°F), as it is warmed by the sun, but with increasing depth, ocean water becomes colder. as winds blow offshore, the warm surface water is pushed away from the coast, and the deeper, cooler waters upwells (rises up) toward the ocean surface. this water is nutrient-rich, and in many regions of the world where upwelling occurs (e.g., the west coasts of North and South America), diverse, aquatic ecosystems grow and thrive

how do we use geothermal energy?

this can be used to heat home residences. in other cases, the heat is so hot the water turns to steam: this steam can be used to run electric generators. the largest US geothermal facility is called the geysers, in california, and has been operational since 1960. there are some 40 other sites worldwide

why are there fluctuations in the keeling curve over the course of a single year?

this shift between the fall and winter months to the spring and summer results in the sawtooth pattern of the Keeling Curve measurement of atmospheric CO2 such that every year there is a decline in CO2 during months of terrestrial plant photosynthesis and an increase in CO2 in months without large amounts of photosynthesis and with significant decomposition

A horizon, B horizon, C horizon

three primary soil horizons

where is lateritic soil found?

tropical climates with high temperatures and heavy rainfall

continental

type of glacier larger, rarer, aka ice caps or ice sheets can span entire continents and reach thicknesses > one kilometer. in the present day, the two largest continental glaciers are the Greenland and the Antarctic ice sheets (the latter is larger than the continental US). During the Pleistocene Ice Ages (2.5 Ma - 11,700 years ago), much of the northern hemisphere was covered by continental glaciers

alpine

type of glacier numerous today, also called mountain or valley glaciers

strip mining

type of surface mining commonly used to extract coal, but also limestone and other materials practical when ore is near the surface and runs in layered seams (like layers of a cake) when mining operations are completed, the land is reclaimed and restored to habitable levels (in the past, however, before stricter laws were enacted, the waste rock and soil were simply dumped back on top as spoil banks, which then led to chemical and sediment pollution from spoil bank runoff). google search "Fossil Trace Golf Club, Golden, Colorado" for a successful example of mine reclamation

open pit mining

type of surface mining extracts rock either intact (for building) or crushed (for making cement, roads, etc.) practical when the ore is located near the surface end product leaves a large hole, which may fill with water, which may then carry pollutants elsewhere (Google Map Berkeley Pit mine, Butte, Montana) sulfide minerals in the open pit mine react with oxygen and water to form sulfuric acid as a weathering product, creating acid runoff water (this can occur in underground mines, too)

evaporite deposits

under certain geologic conditions, a body of seawater may become trapped in a shallow basin, dry up and evaporate; what remains is salt and any associated minerals carried by the sea water. these deposits are called evaporite deposits. they can stretch for hundreds of km and be several km thick - the world's supply of many evaporite minerals is inexhaustible as a result. the minerals that we mine from such deposits include (note: you do not need to memorize the chemical formulas for these minerals): i. Halite, aka salt (NaCl) ii. Gypsum (Ca2SO*2H2O), a mineral used in plaster, drywall, fertilizer, and chalk iii. Lithium (Li), an element in high demand for phone batteries and batteries for electronic cars a sedimentary mineral deposit formed when shallow or inland seas dry up; also, the minerals commonly deposited in such an environment

dune

usually made of sand, but snow dunes are also possible. the orientation of the dunes reflects the prevailing wind direction (if there is one), with the shallower slope side facing upwind if there is a strong enough prevailing wind direction, a dune can migrate: its particles get blown up the side of one shallower surface and slide down the steep slip face. as layer upon layer of sediment slides down the slip face, slanted cross beds develop in the dune

v-shaped valley

valleys eroded due to fast-flowing water often found in upland areas

how do the oceans play a role in climate change and global warming?

water absorbs heat during vaporization, so warmer ocean water will provide not only more energy but also increase the amount of water evaporated

most abundant greenhouse gases

water vapor and carbon dioxide

50

we import ___% of our oil Canada (about 4.3 million barrels per day) we import oil from Canada, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Colombia, and over 80 other countries

limitations of relying on solar cells as a alternative energy source

weather dependent, solar energy storage is expensive, uses a lot of space, associated with pollution

orinoco basin, venezuela and athabasca basin, alberta, canada

what country possesses most of the world's oil sand reserves and where is it located?

secondary recovery of oil and gas

when flow falls off, water may be pumped into the reservoir, filling empty pores and buoying up more oil to the well

firn

when snow transforms into ice and becomes denser and more compacted as air is driven out (25% air)

what is the relationship between climate change, glacial activity, and changes in global sea level?

when temperatures rise, glaciers melt, and sea levels rise

nuclear fission chain reaction

when the neutron strikes the U-235 nucleus, the uranium nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei and produces subatomic particles, free neutrons, and heat. each released neutron then strikes another U-235 atom, releasing more neutrons

how do O18/O16 levels change with global warming and cooling trends?

when the temperature is higher, more O18 is evaporated, and when the temperature is lower, its evaporation is less. thus, the higher temperature increases the heavier isotope concentration, making it abundant in the precipitation of warm eras

plutonium-239 creation

when u-238 is induced to capture a free neutron

upwelling

when winds blow offshore, they push the warm surface waters away from the coastline the deeper waters are enriched in dissolved nutrients, in part because few organisms live in the cold, dark depths to consume those nutrients. when the nutrient-laden waters rise into the warm, sunlit zone near the surface, they support abundant plant life and, in turn, animal life that feeds on the plants

heap leaching

where cyanide solutions percolate through the tailing piles to dissolve out the gold. while normally a very carefully controlled process, inevitably, spills and contaminations occur

why are there deserts at 30° north and south latitude?

where the heated equatorial air begins to descend. the descending air is dense and begins to warm again, evaporating large amounts of water from the land surface. the resulting climate is very dry

middle (medial) moraine

which is often seen as a stripe running down the composite glacier

milankovitch cycles

which looks at the change in the shape of the Earth's orbit, tilt, and wobble of the Earth's axis over time (20,000-100,000-year cyclicity)

limitations of wind energy

areas with the greatest wind potential are not located on existing transmission lines, it is an intermittent energy source because the wind doesn't blow all the time

benefits of relying on solar cells as a alternative energy source

solar energy is clean. it creates no carbon emissions or other heat-trapping "greenhouse" gases

environmental conditions needed to create fossil fuels

1. a large supply of organic matter (this material will be rich in carbon and hydrogen) 2. rapid burial, to protect it from being broken down by oxygen in the atmosphere. by removing the material from the atmosphere, it is prevented from undergoing aerobic decomposition (aerobic = requiring air or oxygen), which would otherwise destroy it. instead, burial of the material allows it to undergo anaerobic decomposition (lacking oxygen), which preserves and concentrates it temperature: 60-120 degrees celsius (or 140-250 degrees fahrenheit

cons of nuclear energy

1. expensive initial cost to build. construction of a new nuclear plant can take anywhere from 5-10 years to build, costing billions of dollars 2. risk of accident 3. radioactive waste 4. limited fuel supply 5. impact on the environment

pros of nuclear energy

1. it's a low-carbon energy source 2. it has a small carbon footprint compared to alternatives like fossil fuels 3. it's key to combating climate change and reaching net zero 4. it's safe and reliable - providing us with power whatever the weather

drawbacks of using coal

1. not as versatile as oil / gas. you don't fill up a car or plane with coal! 2. it's polluting. coal was once used to power steamboats and steam train engines (e.g., the ocean liner titanic ran on coal) but diesel engines became more popular in part due to being a cleaner fuel. also, coal is not the most convenient fuel for home heating (most US residences rely on oil or gas), though many countries certainly use coal to warm up a room coal can be converted into a gas or even a liquid - the processes are called gasification / liquefaction, respectively, but the process is currently not economically practical, though it has been in use in some form for the past 150 years

benefits of using coal

1. produce gas. natural gas derived from coal is obtained naturally from the ground using advanced technology 2. supporting industrial aluminum products 3. assisting with cement production 4. become a transportation fuel 5. produce other minerals

risks associated with spent fuel and nuclear waste handling

1. radioactive material remains radioactive: it cannot be broken down into non-radioactive components 2. lack of permanent long-term storage: all of the world's radioactive waste is in temporary - as opposed to permanent - storage. decisions have not yet been made as to how to store radioactive waste long-term. in the US, much of the high-grade nuclear waste is stored at the reactor site 3. decommissioning: nuclear power plants built in the US in the 1970s have been in operation for 40+ years. reactors are aging and the cost to take one out of operation, break it down, and deliver the most radioactive elements of the plant to radioactive-waste disposal sites takes years of work and can tally nearly $1 billion per plant. 33 US reactors have been retired since 2016

risks associated with fission nuclear reactors

1. reactors need a water source for cooling purposes: this necessitates placing reactors near rivers or large bodies of water, which makes water pollution a potential concern. new york city, for example, has 2 active nuclear reactors just 30 miles upstream that have only recently been legislated to shut down due to their longevity 2. the further away the reactor is from a city, the higher the transmission costs: putting a plant too close to a city could place the population at risk; while putting the plant too far away means a higher cost of transmitting the generated electricity. note that at least 10% of the electrical power transmitted is lost as heat. 3. underlying geology: reactors should perhaps not be placed along fault lines, near flood zones, or regions subject to tsunamis; but several in the US and abroad lie near such regions (e.g., diablo canyon is california's sole remaining nuclear power plant and lies near several faults outside of san jose, ca) 3. core meltdown: this occurs when the flow of cooling water to the reactor core is interrupted. the core overheats and turns into a molten mass that melts its way out of the containment building and into the environment, releasing high levels of radiation

drawbacks of geothermal energy

1. the warmed geothermal waters may contain contaminants that can damage ground or surface waters 2. the heat source cools off with time, limiting the life of the facility to a few decades 3. the power plants are not efficient for transmitting the power elsewhere; it is best used for sites nearby. most large cities are not near geothermal resources 4. some regions have protected status, such as yellowstone national park, in wyoming: this region has the highest concentration of thermal features of any single geothermal area in the world, but the decision was made years ago not to build geothermal power plants there

number of global oil reserves

1.73 trillion barrels

number of US reserves

35.8 billion barrels of oil reserves

how long would they be expected to last if no reserves were found?

5 years

glacial till

sediment (rocks and dirt) transported by ice and deposited beneath, at the side, or at the toe of a glacier. the sediment is usually poorly sorted, i.e., the grains in the sediment are all different sizes. when till mixes with meltwater, it can be transported further and redeposited: the result is called outwash. till and outwash are two types of glacial drift

where is the biggest oil field in the US?

Prudhoe Bay field on the North Slope of Alaska

rise of CO2 in photosynthetic marine microoganisms

slowing its ability to uptake CO2, making it more acidic, and harming shellfish and other marine life we depend on

how many billions of barrels of oil does the US consume per year, and how much overall energy does it supply to our total needs?

US consumes 1 trillion barrels of oil

oil sands (tar sands)

are sedimentary rocks that contain a thick, semisolid, tar-like petroleum called bitumen (picture a sandstone slathered in tar). these sands represent immature petroleum deposits. the sand must be mined, crushed, or heated to extract the petroleum, and then the bitumen is refined into various fuels. oil sands that are near-surface deposits are commonly strip-mined

biofuels

____ are called unfossil fuels because they are created from recently dead organisms, as opposed to long-fossilized ones

79

____% of our nation's energy supply comes from fossil fuels as opposed to hydropower/nuclear power

u-shaped valley

a flowing glacier scoops out a u-shaped valley

glacial period

a period in the earth's history when polar and mountain ice sheets were unusually extensive across the earth's surface

source rock

a rock rich in organic matter which, if heated sufficiently, will generate oil or gas the majority of petroleum originates in fine-grained clastic sedimentary rocks

reservoir rock

a rock that is sufficiently porous and permeable to store and transmit petroleum

eocene green river formation petroleum deposit

abundant and exceptionally preserved fish fossils

fossil fuels

all are nonrenewable energy sources that form from the remains of once-living organisms; hydrocarbon fuels formed from organic matter

how does a glacier form?

all glaciers begin as snow, this snow gradually accumulates, becomes grains, then ice crystals and finally ice

mineral resource

any useful economic commodity, one that also changes with time or context (i.e., some cultures place little importance on materials that may be valuable to others)

photovoltaic cells

are a way to produce electricity using sunlight. the cells consist of two layers of semiconductor material oriented to produce an electric current when struck by the sun's rays. like solar heating, they do no emit pollutants, and solar cells have no moving parts major limitations: 1. cost 2. efficiency 3. scale 4. storage

placer deposits

are formed by flowing water, e.g., streams or tides. as the water velocity slows down, e.g., at a point bar in a stream, minerals such as diamond and gold may, over time, settle out and accumulate in the sand and gravel in these regions. the California gold rush of 1849 began when someone discovered a placer deposit of gold draining from the Sierra Nevada mountains the ores concentrated by stream or wave action on the basis of mineral densities and/or resistance to weathering

rain shadow

are formed by the Sierra Nevada mountains of California and the Cascade Range of the Pacific Northwest (Oregon, Washington). elsewhere, the Tibetan plateau creates a rain shadow as air rises up over the Himalaya mountains, as do the Andes Mountains in South America (e.g., Atacama Desert in Chile) forms when mountain ranges lie parallel to moist, coastal areas. prevailing winds moving inland cool as air is forced to rise over the mountains. moisture falls on slopes facing the winds. when the winds move over the mountain crests and down the far side, they are very dry

waste-derived fuels

are liquids research is ongoing to derive liquid fuels from animal waste, such as manure, which is rich in organic matter. fuels can be derived from vegetable oil or animal fats to run diesel-powered engines there is increasing interest in burning waste plant materials - either crop waste or urban refuse to provide heat for electric generating plants

they are nonrenewable

are minerals renewable resources?

lateritic soil

heavily leached, very oxidized (hence red in color), an extreme pedalfer an extreme variety of pedalfer soil that is highly leached; common in tropical climates common in rainforests: laterite soils develop in tropical climates with high temperatures and heavy rainfall rainforests are lush: so the soil should be organic-rich and good for farming, no? no. for two reasons: a.) soil is highly leached: few soluble nutrients left in it. all the nutrients are in the trees! when the forest is cleared for planting crops, it is first burned to try and return some of those nutrients back to the soil (called slash-and-burn agriculture, a common historical farming practice). but the soil is so nutrient-poor from ongoing leaching that farming is not sustainable after a few seasons, and the fields are converted to grazing for livestock b.) when laterite soil is exposed to sunlight (e.g., the forest is cleared for farming), the soil clumps up like a brick - it turns "hard" - resulting in poor irrigation (though good for building material; "laterem" from which the word "Laterite" derives, means "tile" or "brick" in Latin) our textbook speculates that the collapse of certain historic civilizations - e.g., the Khmer of Cambodia, the Mayans of Mesoamerica, etc. may have in part stemmed from due to the development of this type of soil in a changing climate

anthracite (4)

high grade of goal hard, high carbon content, low moisture content, high heat content

why is lateritic soil not advantageous for long-term farming?

highly leached; few soluble nutrients left in it; infertile due to prolonged weathering of the bedrock

800,000 years from Antarctica

how far back do glacial ice-core records date?

5-10 years

how long does it take to develop a new oil field?

11 degrees Celsius (2.0 degrees F)

how much has global surface temperature risen since the Industrial Revolution?

50%

how much have CO2 levels risen since the Industrial Revolution (mid-1800s)?

how are milankovitch cycles thought to contribute to ice ages?

hypothesized the long-term, collective effects of changes in Earth's position relative to the Sun are a strong driver of Earth's long-term climate, and are responsible for triggering the beginning and end of glaciation periods

along plate boundaries (with extensive magmatic activity)

igneous rocks and magmatic deposits can produce large ore repositories under these tectonic conditions

in what type of geological environments does oil get trapped?

impermeable rocks in geologic structures

regolith

includes all unconsolidated material at the surface - i.e., soil must contain organic matter. ex. moon rock

fission

involves the splitting of a atom's nucleus into smaller ones, which releases energy

two most heavily consumed metals in the US

iron (steel products) and aluminum (from bauxite used for canning and construction industries

banded iron deposits

iron ore deposits come primarily from some of the world's oldest-known sedimentary rocks a sedimentary rock consisting of alternating iron-rich and iron-poor layers, found predominantly in Precambrian rocks, that may serve as an ore of iron valuable economic resource because they are tied to the development of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere. banded iron formations were thought to have formed only as oxygen levels in the Earth's atmosphere began to rise to habitable levels. early oxygen was thought to have interacted with high levels of dissolved iron that were once thought to have been at high concentrations in the oceans, forming banded iron formations

no, unless the underground areas are "hydrothermal"

is it possible to simply rely on the Earth's geothermal gradient to draw heat?

climate

is weather averaged over time it fluctuates with time and is influenced by a number of factors, including human activity

uraniam-235 (92 protons and 142 neutrons)

isotope and element used in the production of nuclear energy

limitations of relying on ethanol

it can take more energy to grow and harvest the corn than is released from burning the ethanol further concern is that food is being grown for use other than to feed those who might otherwise need it has led to pressure to grow crops on land that might be normally unsuitable or unsustainable for short or long-term use

why are O18/O16 found in ice cores?

it is harder for the heavier molecules to overcome the barriers to evaporation. thus, glaciers are relatively enhanced in O16, while the oceans are relatively enriched in O18. this imbalance is more marked for colder climates than for warmer climates

negative feedback

it is possible that as global temperatures rise, large-scale storms will become more frequent, and the increased cloud coverage would potentially slow the rate of global warming ex. increase in temperature increases the amount of cloud cover. The increased cloud thickness or amount could reduce incoming solar radiation and limit warming

benefits of wind energy

it is renewable, no air pollution, no water pollution, no solid radioactive waste, no greenhouse gas emissions, least expensive form of energy production

arete

knife-edge ridge of rock that separates two adjacent cirques, forms when alpine glaciers flow side by side and the wall of rock between them is thinned to a sharp ridge

permafrost

soil that remains permanently frozen year-round, seen in northern latitudes above 60°, underlying about 20% of the land area in the world terrain is often marshy as any surface meltwater cannot infiltrate the frozen ground below. with global warming, more permafrost is melting, affecting the distribution of surface water and groundwater. in addition, thawed permafrost releases more (formerly trapped) methane gas into the atmosphere, furthering the rate of global warming

US's predominant mineral resources

metals: 1. iron ore, used for creating iron and steel products 2. aluminum, mined from bauxite (see above), is used in canning and construction industries. close to 5% of the electricity consumed in the US is used in the production of aluminum metal from aluminum ore 3. copper, an excellent conductor of electricity, is the main component in wiring 4. zinc: used as a coating on steel cans to keep them from rusting, also used in the manufacture of brass and other alloys 5. precious metals include gold (used in electronics), silver (originally used for developing photographs), and platinum (catalyst for chemical reactions, automobile emissions-control systems). precious metals can be found in their raw state nonmetallic minerals: 1. sulfur is created as a by-product of mining sulfide minerals (see above), and used by industry to create sulfuric acid 2. halite, or salt, and gypsum, discussed above 3. phosphate minerals: these contain the element phosphorous (P), and are used as fertilizer. the largest phosphate deposits in the US are in central Florida, a region known as "Bone Valley" 4. potash: a potassium-rich mineral deposit (KCl, or potassium chloride), also used in the production of fertilizer 5. clay: clays are a family of minerals with a variety of applications, including the ceramics, oil, and construction industries

minimum estimated burial time needed to produce oil and gas to form

millions of years

pedalfer soil

more leached a moderately leached soil rich in residual iron and aluminum oxide minerals reflect soils developed in more humid (wetter) regions these soils are more leached, leaving the B horizon more enriched in aluminum and iron minerals (the "alfer- " in pedalfer = "aluminum" and the "fer" = iron). these soils are usually acidic in North America, these soils are found in higher-rainfall areas: eastern US, NW US, most of Canada

alcohol-derived fuels

most gasoline contains about 10% ethanol, an alcohol produced from domestically-grown corn. the reason for the mix is that the more alcohol can be used, the further the gas supply can be stretched, lessening our reliance on imported fuels. this method became popular in the 1970s as gasoline prices began to increase. while vehicles can be designed to run entirely on 100% alcohol, more commonly the practice is 85% alcohol, 15% gasoline, a blend called E85. more than 3.5 million vehicles run on this type of fuel, but this is a small number compared to the 200 million vehicles out on the road (0.02%)

fossil fuels examples

oil-petroleum (36%), natural gas (33%), coal (10%), renewable energy (13%), nuclear power (8%)

main grades of coal

peat (0), lignite (1), subbituminous (2), bituminous (3), anthracite (4)

natural gas

petroleum in the gaseous phase, including the compound methane (CH4). wait, like the methane that comes from cow flatulence (amongst other animals)? yes. and is a contributor to global warming? yes. so, could cows be used for generating electricity? they can, and they are

oil

petroleum in the liquid phase, made up of a variety of liquid hydrocarbon compounds (molecules that consist primarily, or entirely, of the elements hydrogen and carbon). oil in its raw, unrefined form is called crude oil

spoil banks

piles of dirt replaced after strip mining. No topsoil, so it's hard to grow plants on piles of waste rock and soil left behind by surface mining, especially strip mining chemical and sediment pollution of runoff from spoil banks was common. now, much stricter laws govern strip-mining activities, and reclamation of new strip mines is required. reclamation usually involves regrading the area to level the spoil banks and to provide a more gently sloping land surface; restoring the soil; replanting grass, shrubs, or other vegetation; and, where necessary, fertilizing and/or watering the area to help establish vegetation

it's fissionable

plutonium-239 role in a nuclear reaction

horn

pointed mountain peak surrounded by at least three cirques (e.g., Matterhorn in Switzerland)

mineral reserve

portion of a resource that has been discovered and is available to be recovered economically with current technology. a conservative estimate of how much of an unused resource remains that quantity of a (resource) material that has been found and is recoverable economically with existing technology

pegmatites

rare, unusually coarse-grained igneous intrusions, that in rare cases produce single crystals over 10 m (30') long, reflecting a very slow growth rate of the crystal. feldspars, used in the ceramics industry a very coarsely crystalline igneous rock may contain rare elements such as cesium, tantalum, and lithium

primary recovery of oil and gas

recovery using now techniques beyond pumping

averting future mineral-resource shortages

reduce consumption rates, substitute a more abundant nonmetal for metal product, recycling

loam

refers to a soil that has a roughly equal mix of sand and silt, and 10-30% clay

sulfur significance in coal

removing sulfur from the coal is desirable, but adds an additional expense, involving the use of scrubbers in the exhaust stacks that spray down the gaseous emissions before they are released into the atmosphere, essentially filtering the gas of its pollutants. alternatives include mining for low-sulfur coal, or coal that has a sulfur content of < 1%. the problem is that low-sulfur coal is usually lower-grade coal, so more of it must be burned to yield the same amount of energy

ore

rock or metallic mineral that is economically worth mining (i.e., can be mined for a profit), due to its high concentration relative to average rocks