HIST 4334 ROETHLER MIDTERM

Under what circumstances did Alexander III come to power in 1881? To what extent did Tsar Alexander III change Russia's course from that point forward? To what extent did he undermine or reverse his father's reforms? What was his position on the prospects for any further democratization or open political discussion, whether at the national or local level?

Alexander III comes to power after his father's assassination. His reign was characterized by ethnic and religious oppression and "counter reforms". He created "temporary regulations" that allowed for governors to bypass regular courts and laws in case of emergencies, allowing for the prohibition of meetings (including zemstvos), shutting down schools, factories, newspapers, fire officials; also permitted fines, imprison for 3 months or less, turn suspects to military courts or banish them from their province. Also created the title Land Captains, who were appointed noblemen with administrative and judicial powers over peasants. Reversing some of his father's judicial reforms. Reduced the number of eligible voters by increasing property qualifications. Decimated radical groups like the People's Will (who assassinated his father) and cracked down immensely on other groups advocating any ideas that could be considered political opposition.

Under what circumstances did Nicholas II come to power in 1894? According to contemporary and later accounts, what kind of ruler was Nicholas? What was his attitude about Russia's historical legacy and particularly the legacy of the Romanov dynasty? How did he characterize his relationship with the Russian people? Did the Russian people (however defined or differentiated) agree with Nicholas' understanding of his relationship with them?

Alexander III died from drinking at 49 and Nicholas took over at 26. Nicholas II was not ready to become Tsar and unlike his father had never desired to obtain the position. His lack of confidence could be seen by the public as well, and he did not see himself to be suited for authority. He did in fact believe he was given divine right by God to be put in his position and was a firm believer in his autocratic and absolute power. Further perused the "temporary regulations" implemented by his father and Russification as well. Admired old Romanov tsars like Tsar Alexei (father of Peter the Great, but did implement western ideals like peter), even named his only son Alexei. Nicholas II was in fact excellently educated, and intelligent although easily discouraged by complex issues or confrontation. Distrusted any other official except for family like his wife Alexandra. Established himself and government in Moscow. One of his main policy goals was to become closer to the Russian people, but public opinion did not concur with this. The stampede of 1895 aided in solidifying public opinion against the autocracy. Tried to get closer to the people through religion but had the reverse effect as many Russians were not as religious as in the past. The royal families relationship with Rasputin further aided in the dismantlement of the autocracy.

Who was Rasputin? Does he deserve the historical attention (to the point of obsession) that he has received in the century since his bizarre death? As far as the Romanovs were concerned, what did he symbolize?

Grigori Rasputin was born in Siberia and was known as a philanderer, thief, and was beaten by fellow villagers. He married but never stayed true to any one woman, and decides to go on pilgrimage in which he meets and impresses some high noble church officials. His dedication to the church leads him to meet the Romanov family. Becomes especially close to Nicholas II's wife Alexandra who believes he is the only hope to help with their son Alexei's hemophilia. A mystic/healer he is able to greatly influence policy decisions through Alexandra. Rumors of an affair blossom and hurt the royal families reputation. 1916 murdered.

Describe the relationship between church and state in the last decades of Romanov rule. How were the two connected? What did state authorities expect church officials to do? What did the church expect in return? Moss argues that efforts of both Alexander III and Nicholas II to restore Orthodox religiosity "proved ineffective and counterproductive" (155). Why?

Ultimately under Romanov rule everything comes under the state's authority. The church was dependent on the state for tax revenues and the state in turn expects the church to teach people to not go against the government. Only half of the Russian population is actually religious, church can somewhat force people into adherence, and the church expects the state to uphold policies/beliefs or demands the church preaches. Church expects government to restrict and marginalize those who are not Orthodox, teaches that sinning against the government is like sinning against god himself. Church also used as the eyes and ears of the government, reports on radical ideas or crimes confessed to them. Last two tsars attempted to restore religiosity but it did not work because there were too many people devoted to other faiths. Some may "convert" but revert back to their original faith as soon as possible. Closely intertwined relationship, church sometimes resents the state because it's overly intrusive.

Describe the conditions in the forced labor camps (GULAGs) that proliferated in the Soviet Union during the 1930s. Who was typically interred in these camps? What activities did they undertake? What conditions did they experience?

• Long work days over 16hr, frigid conditions, no protection from environment • Political violators placed with common criminals, murders, rapists, etc. • Mining was an common job, sometimes put to work on projects that would never be used • Bousegoise specialists, anyone suspected of threatening communist party, anyone higher up in the military that was against Stalin, being related to the wrong people, social stigmatization if one is able to leaved, traumatic orders after leaving the camp

To what extent did the First Five Year Plan catalyze Soviet industrial production? In what respects did the plan succeed? In what respects did the plan fail? What were conditions like in the new industrial centers? How did the First Five Year Plan (and the fervid tempo it sought to encourage) change the typical routine for the average Soviet worker? How did it affect Soviet working life in the cities more broadly?

• Five-year plan was successful in capital goods • Private enterprise was gotten rid of entirely • Within 10yrs the country must be industrialized • Soviets lied about output numbers, impossible to know how successful it was, as if they did not produce their quotas they would be punished • 1921 Hitler invades, within a year or two soviets were still out producing the Germans • Created an infrastructure, and a tough resourceful thought process that figured out ways to succeed in the face of death • Consequences: People overworked, poor conditions, no infrastructure for the workers in the cities, environmental degradation is staggering, no concern about long term sustainability, workers can't organize or complain about conditions, no consumer goods being produced, environment is like they're at war but they're not • Gov't makes tardiness a crime, absenteeism a crime, Russian passport and job book to keep track of all jobs, chaotic, high injury and mortality rates • The typical work routine and pace no one was used to from the country. Many people were unfamiliar with the work Areas like capital goods increased 158%, consumer goods increased by 87%, and total industrial output increased by 118%. In addition, despite the difficulties that agriculture underwent throughout the plan, the Soviets recruited more than 70,000 volunteers from the cities to help collectivize and work on farms in the rural areas. the collectivization created a large-scale famine in the Soviet Union between 1932 and 1933 in which 3.3 to 7.5 million died. This famine led many Russians to relocate to find food, jobs, and shelter outside of their small villages which caused many towns to become overpopulated.

Explain Stalin's reasons for turning against NEP and its most prominent supporter (Bukharin) starting in 1928-29. According to Moss, Stalin had six main reasons. Briefly elaborate on each: (a) the grain "crisis"; (2) military needs; (3) the legacy of Civil War and War Communism (and to a lesser extent the legacies of Ivan the Terrible and Peter the Great); (4) the desire to increase party control over the economy and society; (5) Marxist ideological considerations and class resentments; (6) Stalin's wish to weaken the Right.

• Grain crisis, State is getting grain from peasants and peasants must have 10% grain tax • Trying to get peasants to buy manufacturing products • Peasants withdraw from the market when agricultural market goes down and industrial goes up, govt needs the peasantry more than they need them • In 1927-28 there's no shortage of grain but peasants have no need to sell it if they aren't being given enough money for it • Scissors crises predicted by Trotsky in 1923 and 1928 • Ultimately Russia wants to industrialize, no surplus capital so it stunts growth • Military needs, Russia in the 1920s is very isolated, US does not recognize it, Britain cuts off ties in 1927 bc of apparent meddling in elections, France hostile, Germans on odd terms bc of WWI, Japan always a threat • War could come at any time, world in a tense spot after WWI, Russia is poorly equipped for war even just based on materials • Legacy of civil war and war communism, young people in the party say they made a promise to build socialism and it has not been realized, NEP under scrutiny • 1920s propaganda campaign to instill Bolshevik ideals • Boyar nobility, Ivan creates oprichnina to kill all Boyars (referring to book) reflects what Stalin does to old Lenin followers, peter the great was modernizer and so was Stalin • Desire to increase party control over economy and society, who monopolizes the state? Communists, by late 1920s its Stalin's party made sure to have a high number of close friends in the communist party to gain in elections • Marxist ideological considerations and class resentments, classless society workers are not exploited, promising the people of Russia this utopia, kulaks in the country side and the nep-man who made profit on • Stalin's wish to weaken the right, Bolsheviks that support NEP

Explain the backdrop to the Sergei Kirov assassination on December 1934. Who specifically was Kirov and what his relationship to Stalin? Did Kirov represent a threat to Stalin and if so, why? How plausible is it that Stalin might have been behind Kirov's assassination? What actions did Stalin undertake in the aftermath?

- Kirov is loyal to Stalin and under him - He is a very charismatic individual that the party likes better than Stalin. - Two birds with one stone- gets rid of competition and allows Stalin to implicate thousands of his enemies. Zinoviev and Kamenev pleaded guilty and were sentenced to death. - Gave Stalin a chance to clean house. - 5 or 6 years into Stalin's economic plan and people are starting to squeal and squawk about it. Riutin is telling it like it is and saying that the state is suffering for no reason. Stalin wants him sentenced to death but the central committee votes against it and sentenced him to 10 years. Out of the entire central committee half of them were wiped out. Higher echelon military members are wiped out. - Stalin is very good at manipulating people.

What were Russia's foreign policy priorities after Russia's defeat in the Crimean War (1853-56)? Speak with specific reference to the Caucasus and Central Asia. To what extent was Russia successful in these endeavors? How did the Russian monarchy and its supporters justify these territorial extensions? At whose expense did these extensions transpire?

After the embarrassing defeat of the Crimean War, Russia turned to modernizing its economy and expanding in Asia (away from other European powers). Russia was trying to acquire Constantinople from the Ottoman Empire domination believing Russia was the protector of the Orthodox religion (heirs of Constantinople) and Slavic people living in the Balkans. Monarchy justifies territorial expansion as to civilize "backward" peoples, called them inorodtsy (alien people, non-Russian, non-Christian, subjects to different law within Russian Empire). Foreign Minister Alexander Gorchakov states that with more expansion the stability of the state as a whole is increased. Under Alexander II Russia expanded as far east as to have a border with Korea and found Vladivostok. Gains control of the Sakhalin island in agreement with Japan. Expanded to the Caucasus and Central Asia defeating Muslim forces. Conquered the Kazakh steppe, trans-caspian region, reaching to the north of Persia. Reached Afghanistan but did not invade in order to avoid war with Britain. At expense of people without organization or technology to fight back, and ethnic/religious minorities. Assimilation would be non-existent in these areas.

Describe the early actions and policies of the Bolshevik government in the aftermath of October 1917. Describe the early sources of opposition to Bolshevik rule on both the left and right. How did the Bolsheviks respond to this opposition and how were they able to consolidate power? In particular, why did Lenin dissolve the Constituent Assembly (elected in November 1917) and what was the significance of this decision? What event precipitated the "Red Terror?" Briefly, what was the Red Terror?

Bolshevik government wanted to nationalize all major companies or economic assets, abolish privilege and upper classes, wanted factories under workers control (ends up in chaos and they have to bring back managers for the workers), end the war, give land to peasants. Democratic decisions for military was a disaster individual soviets did not work had to bring back old officers. Capital flight and brain drain out of the country. Menshevik's don't agree with Lenin's policies but don't want to start a counter revolution, while SR's do begin to formalize an army for a counter revolution. Win the first fair and free election of 1917, join the constituent assembly allow reforms to pass until Lenin dissolves the assembly and disbands the SRs. Any opposition to the socialist party is removed or destroyed. Lenin waits to get Russia out of the war until a treaty with Germany is reached, 1/3 of European Russia is given up, SRs assassinate German Ambassador. Attempted assassination by Chaplin (debatable on who actually shot him bc she was mostly blind) on Lenin, barely survives, struggles there after. Lenin establishes CHEKA, secret policed which kill any political opposition in Lenin's way. Red Terror was a period of political repression carried out by Lenin and his followers to suppress political opposition during the beginning of the Russian Civil War in 1918 .

Under what circumstances did the Bolsheviks come to power in November (October) of 1917? What were the consequences of Lenin's decision to seize power? How did the other socialist parties (namely the Mensheviks and the SR's) react and how did Lenin respond?

Bolsheviks gain majority bc Menshevik's walk out and believe Bolsheviks have broken the law, Bolsheviks storm winter palace and take it over and announce they've taken down the provisional govt, Lenin invests power in Sovnarkom, November 1917 becomes Russia's official government, only Left SRs join, Lenin removes or avoids anyone that displeases him, takes decisive action

How did the Communist party evolve between the time it seized power in October 1917 and Lenin's death in 1924? What were the key institutions in the Communist party and what did they do? Briefly, what challenges did the Communist party face in Lenin's last years? Who were the key leaders in the party by this time? What were the key rivalries?

Central committee that nominates Politburo, Orgburo carries out policy, and general secretariat basically HR given to Stalin, Sverdlovsk Trotsky made the most issues in the party, people were scared bc he was in charge of the army Stalin, Zinoviev head of Leningrad branch, Kamenev head of Moscow branch , Comintev, three all align against Trotsky and win arguments over NEP and world revolution Zinoviev, Trotsky and Kamenev turn against Stalin Stalin aligns with Nicholai, Tomsky - The party has to grow and has to get rid of the nay sayers. And you have to figure out a way of organizing. - organization - Central Commutic - Politburo- Policy making - Orgoburo- Carries out the policies - General Secretariat- HR- Decided who was going to be in the party and who was going to be out - Trotsky is pulverizing the communist party. He's in charge of the army so they are worried about him. Triumvirate- consists of Stalin, Zinovia, and Kamma- align against Trotsky and marginalize him. The main things they are fighting about are NEP and World revolution. - Zinovia and Kamma turn on Stalin after Trotsky is out of the picture. When they turn on him Trotsky is now on Zinovia and Kamma's side. - Bukharin joins Stalin's side. The alliance is so effective that it results in the expulsion of Trotsky from the party and the country. Zinovia and Kamma come back with their tails against their legs. - Trotsky then turns against Bukharin and therefor NEP

In Chapter 1, Moss describes Russia on the eve of the modern age as "backward" (9). While we might take exception to this somewhat dated term, the fact remains that many informed Russians across the political spectrum at the turn of the twentieth century would have agreed. Why?

Compared to Western standards at the time, Russia was considered a backwards country. High infant mortality rates (5 Russian babies for every 3 in Britain), 90% of Russian population lived in rural areas and 95% were illiterate; agricultural production was inefficient due to lack of technology and poor climate conditions (3 Russian peasants for 1 English peasant), lack of infrastructure like railways to connect the urban centers to the countryside and the country as a whole; lack of industry while most of Europe were experiencing the industrial revolution. The political system also gave Russia a disadvantage, the Tsar managed an autocracy, the law over serfs was under the aristocracy who owned the lands, there were village councils who managed the law according to tradition, since most people were illiterate. There was no constitution and a very small middle class (poor distribution of wealth).

What were the ultimate costs of the domestic turmoil that engulfed Russia from 1918-1921? Moss writes that "the warfare of 1918-1921 contributed to the increasing authoritarianism of the government and Communist party" (223). What does he mean?

Creates a perception in Moscow that it is "us against the world". It probably did feel that way. There were foreign armies on their territory, but they weren't putting forth their greatest effort to stop the Bolshevik revolution, if they were, they could have. A lot of historians see the civil war as a pivotal moment. Militarizes the communist party. Communist party is in trouble, bands factionalism When the party line is established there is no other option The dissenting factions fought against the communist party creating the "need" for the party to crack down and fight back, controlling and threatening the dissenters, militarizes the party The number of members expanded so quickly they needed new organizational and enforcement measures, Cheka secret police

How did Stalin consolidate power in the Communist party between 1924 and 1927? First, how did he deal with the challenge presented by Trotsky? Was the conflict between the two ideational or purely personal? Once he dispatched Trotsky, how did he in turn deal with Kamenev and Zinoviev? Again, what was at stake in these rivalries and who and/or what factors helped Stalin prevail?

Creates the alliance to get rid of Trotsky. Gets booted out of the country all together. Has Trotsky exiled, removes any other opponents from the party He's the general secretariat so all of the lower level people he has control of and he wins the votes every time. He's in the secretariat in both parts of the party system gives him an advantage to kick people out. In 1924, Lenin died, and Joseph Stalin emerged as leader of the USSR. Against Stalin's stated policies, Trotsky called for a continuing world revolution that would inevitably result in the dismantling of the Soviet state. He also criticized the new regime for suppressing democracy in the Communist Party and for failing to develop adequate economic planning. In response, Stalin and his supporters launched a propaganda counterattack against Trotsky. In 1925, he was removed from his post in the war commissariat. One year later, he was expelled from the Politburo and in 1927 from the Communist Party. In January 1928, Trotsky began his internal exile in Alma-Ata and the next January was expelled from the Soviet Union outright. In late 1924, Stalin moved against Kamenev and Zinoviev, removing their supporters from key positions. In 1925, Kamenev and Zinoviev moved into open opposition of Stalin and Bukharin. They attacked one another at the 14th Party Congress, where Stalin accused Kamenev and Zinoviev of reintroducing factionalism—and thus instability—into the party. In mid-1926, Kamenev and Zinoviev joined with Trotsky's supporters to form the United Opposition against Stalin; in October they agreed to stop factional activity under threat of expulsion, and later publicly recanted their views under Stalin's command. The factionalist arguments continued, with Stalin threatening to resign in October and then December 1926 and again in December 1927. In October 1927, Zinoviev and Trotsky were removed from the Central Committee; the latter was exiled to Kazakhstan and later deported from the country in 1929.

How did Tsar Alexander II (r. 1855-1881) address the issue of serfdom? What were the key features of the emancipation (1861)? Why were Russia's peasants evidently unhappy with these reforms?

Decree of Emancipation of the Serfs in 1861, in which the serfs were not owned by the aristocrats or the state, now they were required to pay for the land in reparations payments to the government who then issued a payment to the aristocrats (reparations were abolished in 1907). In a country where the vast majority are peasants, only 3/5s of the land was given to them, while the aristocracy owned the remaining 2/5s and still received payment. The village commune became the judicial authority for the peasants, who were subject to the commune to distribute lands as well as discipline and collected reparations payments. The commune also distributed passports to the peasants to travel within Russia, allowed this to happen in order to receive payment from urban areas and pay taxes. The constant redistribution of plots from the commune discouraged any improvements of land since families were not sure if they would get them again. The land given was not as good as the land the elite kept for themselves in some cases the plot was too small to feed the entire family.

What was the significance of Tsar Alexander II's assassination in 1881?

Demonstrates the rise of radicalism and political opposition that has come from his modernizing reforms. Revolutionary groups are growing stronger in man power and influence. Succeeding in assassinations and their ability to sway public opinion. This also brings Alexander III into power, who is a reactionary, counter-reformer, and strict autocrat. His idea of rule is much different than his fathers and he works to undo much of what Alexander II had put into place for the future of Russia. Western ideals become overtaken by Alexander III's nationalistic ones.

Who was Peter Stolypin? What challenges did he face? What reforms did he propose and why? What was his fate and were his reforms successful?

Had been a provincial governor, minister of the interior, and then made to be Prime Minister. Worked hard to save and transform tsarist Russia and was one of the most notable Russian politicians of his era. Considered an "authoritarian reformer" and a "pragmatic conservative" he aimed for political stability, economic prosperity, and national solidarity. First goal was to restore order, used Article 87 to quickly convict criminals/radicals and hanged more than 5k between 1906 to 1909. Countered violence and unrest with exiling and death sentences, rural unrest declined but urban unrest remained volatile. In 1906 (continued to 1911) he made more state and crown lands available for peasant purchase, made peasant bank mortgages easier to obtain, and facilitated resettlement to areas such as Siberia where more land was available, empowered peasants to withdraw from the commune and obtain title to the strips of land they had previously farmed or to consolidated plot of equal land. Designed to create a strong class of peasantry which respected private property and supported government. Wanted agricultural reform but was aware it would take years, he also rolled back Finnish autonomy, restored and expanded Russification measures in Poland, repressed Ukrainian nationalism, and increased colonization and Great Russian interests in Muslim areas of the empire. Wanted to place zemstvo in western provinces and increase ethnic Russian population (Western Zemstvo bill) but the State Council voted it down as it would decrease noble dominance. Overall his land reforms were not very successful as there was simply not enough land to give to the vast quantity of peasants in Russia. Other reforms had some success but also increased political opposition because of death sentences. Assassinated in 1911.

How did Lenin's arrival in Petrograd in April 1917 ultimately change the revolutionary equation? What did Lenin call for in his April Theses? What was his position on the war and imperialism more broadly? What was his position on peasants and the land question? What was his position on the various nationalities of the Russian Empire? Why did he think that 1917 represented a fundamentally trans-formative moment not just for Russia, but for the world?

Does not align himself with the ideals that had been previously made by the Provisional Government or the Petrograd Soviet, announced April Theses, "peace, land, bread". War needs to end immediately, peasants should take lands, no more private property, declares provisional government is a farce and only soviets should reign. Does not think there should be a single nationality. They see class as far more important than nationality. Nationality is just a stage in history that will pass. Promises the nationalization of all private property, no more private property. Tells the workers that they can take control of the factories. Lenin believed 1917 would be the beginning of the revolution and the poorest masses would play a major revolutionary role. condemning the Provisional Government for its incapacity to call an end to the "imperialist" war that Russia found itself in and calls for further revolution in Russia

Briefly describe and reflect on the modernization of the Russian economy during the last years of Alexander III and the early years of Nicholas II. Describe in particular the role of Sergei Witte from 1892 to 1903. In what respects did Russian society evolve or transform during this period? Did conditions for the "average" Russian improve or deteriorate during this period?

Economy: Encouraged investments in railways, mining and manufacturing. High import taxes and focused on exporting grains, leading to 1891 famine. - Building infrastructure, railroads. - Export of grain increasingly emphasized which leads to no excess surplus = famine - Industrialize on their own terms. - More confidence in their market for foreign investment. Britain, France, and German investment. - Sergei Witte is the Finance Minister who pushes Russia to industrialization. Puts Russia in the Gold standard to attract foreign capital, most investors are German, by 1900 ½ of Russia's industrial and commercial capital came from foreign investments. Society - For the first time Russian peasants are moving to the cities. Increasingly working in manual trades and not agriculture. - Middle class starts growing, merchants, doctors Living conditions: - For a lot of Russian peasants, the conditions do get better. Better dwellings with windows, doors, better clothes, better diet. Men benefit more than women. - Dangerous working conditions, long hours, no job security, child labor, urban overpopulation, diseases. Typical industrialization as seen in Great Britain.

Read the excerpts of Stalin's speech (February 4, 1931) found at the top of page 246. Briefly summarize the speech and reflect on its implications.

Form of verbal violence, trying to force his opinion on the people, expressing to Pathos, repeating the same verb to get his plan across and the need for Russia to advance Giving a history lesson that goes all the way back to the Mongols. He says they need to catch up in 10 years and in 10 years the German army is starting World War II, very prophetic.

Briefly describe the early life and career of Stalin. Where did he come from? What were some of his formative moments? What roles did he play in the early history of the Communist party? What was his position during Lenin's last year alive? What was his relationship with Lenin by that time?

He edited the party's newspaper, Pravda, and raised funds for Vladimir Lenin's Bolshevik faction via robberies, kidnappings, and protection rackets. Repeatedly arrested, he underwent several internal exiles. After the Bolsheviks seized power during the 1917 October Revolution and created a one-party state under Lenin's newly renamed Communist Party, Stalin joined its governing Politburo. From Georgia, grandparents were serfs, father was a cobbler, father was an alcoholic, mother sent him to seminary Bolshevik from day one, meets Lenin in exile in Siberia Has a wife and one son, wife passes away, marries again and wife kills herself Serves as general secretary before lenin's passing. Had a rocky relationship with Lenin because he insulted his wife, Lenin comes to understand Stalin has a flawed personality

Moss writes that Lenin thought of Marxism not as "cast iron dogma, but as a guide to action" (191). What did he mean?

He meant that Marx's ideas could be flexible, the time line was not always correct and Russia was much more backwards than what Marx had predicted. The ideology of Marxism wasn't set in stone but could be manipulated to each state.

What was the significance of German unification (1871) to Russia? What were Russia's relations with Germany in the two decades after unification. How and why did that relationship change by January 1894?

In 1871 Germany, Austria and Russia entered the Three Emperors' Alliance (called to aid if any other European power attacked any of the three countries), secretly renewed in 1881 with Alexander III, the new Alliance called for benevolent neutrality in case the 3 powers were involved in a war with a fourth power. Renewed in 1884, but with tensions over territorial gains with Austria, it expired in 1887. Bismarck secretly signed the Reinsurance Treaty between Russia and Germany which called for neutrality in case of war with 3rd power, but if Germany attacked France or Russia attacked Austria, neutrality would not apply; it also promised German support if Russia had to defend entrance in Black Sea from foreign warships. Germany and Austria had signed a Treaty with Italy in 1882, the Triple Alliance. German investment in Russia accelerated, while Russia exported grain to Germany, leading to the famine of 1891. In the next decade Germany has more investment in Russia than any other country Russia secretly signed Alliance with France in 1984. Incentivizing France to also invest in Russian economy.

Describe the state of primary education in Russia in the last years of Romanov rule. How did Russia compare to other major powers in this regard? Describe the state of university education during this period. Who were most likely to attend university? Who were not? What were the major courses of study (majors). Why did relations between university students and the national government deteriorate during this period?

In the last years of the Romanov rule the primary education system did get better and easier to access. More Russians are able to go to school, 60% of military was now able to read, but in comparison to other major powers Russia is still lacking in education and literacy. Teachers are still not very reliable or credible in many primary schools, universities are few in number but some had great reputations. Autocratic children and government officials still the most likely to attend university. Majors included science, history, medicine, math, and law. Government becomes extremely suspicious of students especially those in law, keep secret police around to watch them.

Which events precipitated the outbreak of the Revolution of 1905? What were its longer-term causes? How did it progress and what was its outcome? Key terms for this question include: Bloody Sunday, St. Petersburg Soviet, Trotsky, Black Hundreds.

In the same month that Nicholas II refused to appease a swelling public opposition by allowing for elected deputies to advise the government, Port Arthur fell to the Japanese. This defeat was not only embarrassing for Russia but undermined/discredited the autocracy's power. Furthermore, it enraged the Russian people and began sparking the seeds for the Revolution of 1905. A month after the fall of Port Arthur 100,000 workers were on strike, and on January 9th, 1905 protesters marched to the Winter Palace to present Nicholas II with a petition. Father Georgi Gapon led this protest, hoping to find a resolution outside of socialism, and both he and his people still believed in the Tsar. Their petition called for a Constituent Assembly, full civil liberties, universal state financed educated, equal legal treatment, separation of church and state, end to the Russo-Japanese War, abolition of peasant redemption payments, more land for the peasants, eight hour workday, and many other requests. The Tsar never received the protestors and Russia troops began to open fire, killing 100 men, women, and children. Thus, the name "Bloody Sunday" was created. Long term affects include absolute distrust of the tsar and autocracy, general strike which hurts Russia's economy, increased radicalism and opposition, creation of unions across Russia, concessions made by Nicholas II (increased religious tolerance, creation of the Duma, October Manifesto, beginning of the end for autocratic power etc). St. Petersburg Soviet forms to direct strike activities. October Manifesto: granted civil liberties and expanded the electorate and rights for the Duma, all classes could participate, any law would need Duma approval, also allowed to participate in the overseeing of the legality of government actions (signals the end of autocratic rule). Leon Trotsky: author of many of the St. Petersburg Soviets proclamations, met Lenin after his escape from Siberia, but later sided with Mensheviks and denounced Lenin's plans for dictatorship Black Hundreds: those who supported or acted in the pogroms against the Jewish people (Jews were scapegoats for the revolutionaries/radicals). Nicholas II did not punish these people, even approved of their actions.

What caused the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05? What was the outcome? What was the significance of the outcome for Russia?

Japan was alarmed by Russia's unwillingness to negotiate in good faith while the Russians were within Manchuria. Once Russia failed to lived up to a previous agreement to complete a troop withdrawal from Manchuria, Japan decided to launch a surprise attack on the Russian squadron at Port Arthur (1904). Although some Russian ships were damaged, none sank. Nicholas II shrugged off the damage and believed his army would easily defeat Japan. But, Japan profited from modernized military forces operating close to their home base and had enthusiastic backing from their civilian population. In contrast, Russian forces were undermined by overconfidence, poor governmental and military leadership, insufficient weapons, great distance from home base, and public opposition to the war. Russia's Baltic Fleet was sent halfway around the world to get to Port Arthur but never reached it's destination as the Japanese overtook them at the battle of Tsushima Straits in which the Baltic Fleet was sunk, scattered, or forced to surrender. This was a huge blow to Russian society and greatly increased discontent among the populous. This war also cost Russia millions of rubles and hundreds of thousands of dead and wounded. Russia was forced to seek peace with Japan and Theodore Roosevelt offered a conference between the two states. The Treaty of Portsmouth (1905) had Russia cede the southern half of Sakhalin, its lease of Port Arthur, the rest of the Liaotung Peninsula, and the Southern Manchurian Railway. Also had to recognize Japan as having paramount interest in Korea, but was able to retain control over the Chinese Eastern Railway and maintain influence in Manchuria.

How did the Bolshevik government deal with the various nationalities of the former Russian Empire? Did the Bolsheviks fulfill or betray their previous promises as far as the nationalities were concerned? Your response should survey briefly the Baltics, Ukraine, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and Poland.

Lenin was going to allow the many nationalities independence, if independence was in the interest of the proletariat in the constituent territory he would allow it. Although they allowed self determination they would prevent secession if necessary. Eventually Lenin had to recognize the establishment of non-Marxist independent governments in Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. The Communist victory was at the same time a defeat for the various nationalist movements of the non-Russian peoples. The hopes of the Tatars and Bashkirs, between the Kazan area and the southern Urals, were ruined in the course of the civil war. The Communists proclaimed the right of self-determination, but in practice they imposed the dictatorship of the Russian Communist Party on them Ukraine the Caucasus and Central Asia were a different story. Ethnic Ukrainians, Russians, Poles, and Jews all resided in the Ukraine. Ukraine was eventually divided among Russia and Poland. The Caucasus divided into three independent nations which all eventually succumbed to the red army in the 1920s. In 1919 red army pushed out the British and secured central Asia and somewhat pacified Muslim populations

Who were the key opponents of the autocracy during the last decades of the 1800s? What did it mean at this time to be a "liberal?" What did it mean to be a "radical?" Your answer should include at least some of the following key names and terms: Chicherin, Miliutin, Herzen, The Bell, Bakunin, "Young Russia," Turgenev, Fathers and Sons, Nihilism, Chernyshevsky, What is to be Done? Populism, Land and Liberty, People's Will.

Liberals: The educated privileged class who genuinely wanted change but not as far as changing the monarchy, just a General Assembly, not democratization, just some reform. Chicherin: Was a liberal who thought liberalism could solve all of Russia's social problems and unite the country. For him liberalism was freedom from serfdom, due process of law and open government. Miliutin: Government official, Minister of War. Liberal. End serfdom to increase agricultural productivity therefore capital for industrialization. Not trying to weaken the monarchy, rather use the power of the monarchy to bring progressive policies to the empire. Herzen: Radical. Owned the periodical The Bell which was smuggled into Russia. Herzen advocated for agrarian socialism. His periodical was read by both liberals and radicals, both groups also contributed, including Miliutin. Land and Liberty: Revolutionary organization formed in Poland in 1862 for Polish independence, supported by the Bell and Herzen. Also a group formed by populists in Russia in 1876, it splintered in two, forming the Black Repartitions (non-terrorist populist group) and People's Will: blamed the government for pushing for capitalism and exploitation of the peasants, believed the only solution was to overthrow the tsar and establish a socialist society. Determined terrorism was necessary for change. Turgenev: Moderate Writer of Fathers and Sons. Brought up the idea of radical beliefs such as Nihilism (the rejection of all religious and moral principles, in the belief that life is meaningless) challenging traditional values. Believing the old system should be destroyed before bringing a new system replaces it. Bakunin: Radical,anarchist. Imprisoned in Siberia, escaped. Wanted a violent revolution. Chernyshevsky: Believed peasants needed opportunities to climb out of poverty, rather than a constitution; also believed in liberating women. Fearing his radical ideas, he is imprisoned and exiled to Siberia for 19 years, where he wrote "What is it to be Done?" Populism: Believed Russia's future lay with its peasants. Some intellectuals went to work with the peasants, many of the peasants suspiciously turned many of the intellectuals to the police.

Briefly describe what is meant by the following terms: Marxist, Populist, Social Democrat (Menshevik, Bolshevik), Socialist Revolutionary, Kadet. (We will discuss these terms in far greater detail at a later date, but we need to know at least provisionally what they mean to make sense of this chapter.)

Marxist: adhered to the teachings of Marx which was treated as a sacred text, Marx regarded as a sort of prophet, wanted the end of autocracy, end of private property, the rise of socialism, historically necessary to have a period of capitalism before socialism begins, directed toward the proletariat or middle class Populist: rooted in the peasantry, wanted welfare for the common people, socialists but non-marxist, do not relate to upper classes, appeals to the ordinary people, elite v. peasantry Social Democrat: RSDLP, founded by Lenin and Georgi Plekhanov, another main character in this group was Martov, believed in socialist ideals, mainly Marxist ideas, split into Bolsheviks (Lenin and the majority), and Mensheviks (Martov and the minority), Bolsheviks are more radical and become the communist party of the soviet union and Mensheviks are less radical and more about reform, they slowly die out Socialist Revolutionary: came from populist party and maintained almost the same ideology, socialist but mainly focused on peasantry and especially agrarian reform Kadet: members of the constitutional democratic party, argued for a radical change in government to a constitutional monarchy, led by Miliukov, wanted a real constitution that no one is above, intellectuals and professionals mostly made up this party, more liberal but slightly radical in comparison to other groups on land issue, focus on land injustice and peasantry

To what extent did the Stalinist dislocations of the 1930s affect Russia's constituent nationalities? To what extent did they affect Russians specifically? How did the Soviet Constitution of 1936 address the issue of nationality? Is it fair to say that the Russian cultural legacy and language benefitted during this period?

Nationalities are affected, in the 1930s Emphasis on Russian language Movement of ethnic Russians to places previously dominated by natives, purging of non-Russians from party Largest constituent nationality Constitution gave nationality names that had meaning Yes the Russian cultural legacy and language benefited - textbooks take a 180 and celebrate Russian tzars and focus on the Russian language. - A purging of non- soviet communists from the party. - Russia is the largest constituent nationality, trying to mobilize them in support of the party - You get more soviet socialist republics after the Soviet Constitution of 1936 - Yes, it did benefit during this period because Stalin looked to focus on these things The constitution repealed restrictions on voting and added universal direct suffrage and the right to work to rights guaranteed by the previous constitution. In addition, the constitution recognized collective social and economic rights including the rights to work, rest and leisure, health protection, care in old age and sickness, housing, education and cultural benefits. As opposed to the Soviet of the Union, the Soviet of Nationalities was composed of the nationalities of the Soviet Union, which in turn followed administrative division rather than being a representation of ethnic groups

Briefly explain the key elements of the First Five Year Plan. What was the philosophical basis of the plan? What specific targets did the plan intend to achieve?

Needed resources, factories are built very quickly in terrible conditions, Devoted towards rebuilding Russia's industrial base Emphasis on heavy industry iron, steel, coal, oil, electricity, machine tools, tractors, turbines, trucks etc. "capital goods", no emphasis on consumer goods Sets ridiculous projections for this industry At the end of 4 years the state announced their 5-year plan, working people too hard had to call it off said they finished a year early First time that the state has put out a plan that explains their plan to get to locomotive, troop transport, tanks, high production. Fully industrialized in 5 years. Need labor, need factories, need ways of extracting the raw materials, what do you want these factories to make? The plan is designed to build big things like, big girders, troop transport trucks, tanks. Capital goods.Little emphasis on consumer goods, resources are limited so have to focus on the important things. 400x the amount of steal, 200x the amount of coal. 2 + 2 = 5 at the end of 4 years of ruling they introduced the 5 year plan. They had to call it off after 4 years because it was so ambitious it was about to bust. key elements: concentrated on developing heavy industry and collectivizing agriculture, at the cost of a drastic fall in consumer goods. second continued objective of the first year, third emphasized the production of armaments. The fourth (1946-53) again stressed heavy industry and military buildup, angering the Western powers.

Briefly, what are the competing schools of thought about the legacy NEP? Which one do you believe is the more convincing? Was NEP simply a brief retreat, as Lenin initially described it, or did NEP have long-term viability, as Lenin evidently came to believe?

Nicholai Bukharin (gradual procession of communist ideals, people will slowly see through participating in the economy that socialism is the way to go) his ideas lived on in other leaders Ultimately the economy may have been too destroyed to fix it, no socialism with scarcity Historians have varying opinions. Bukharin thinks that people will see by participating in the economy that socialism is the superior way for the people. Capitalism will be too successful for its own good.

What was the October Manifesto? What were the Fundamental Laws? Did Nicholas II fulfill the promises of the October Manifesto? Could Russia from 1905 forward be considered a Constitutional Monarchy? Why or why not? Key terms for this question include: Duma, State Council, Article 87.

October Manifesto: granted civil liberties and expanded the electorate and rights for the Duma, all classes could participate, any law would need Duma approval, also allowed to participate in the overseeing of the legality of government actions (signals the end of autocratic rule). Ultimately, the Duma received no real powers in overseeing legality of government measures, could question ministers about legality but could not force compliance. Fundamental Laws: created to provide the legal framework for the new era promised in the October Manifesto, also demonstrated how few concessions Nicholas II was willing to make. Although they stated no new laws could be passed without Duma approval it also stated that the emperor had "supreme autocratic power" so he could revoke any law he wished. Article 87: gave Nicholas II the right to decree emergency laws that could continue in force for up to sixty days after a new session of the Duma State Council: had to approve Duma passed legislation in order for it to become law. Comprised of upper legislative house, tsar, upper class, etc. Constitutional Monarchy: Russia could not be considered a constitutional monarchy as there were systematic measure put in place to still marginalize the common Russian people and let the upper class and aristocracy still finalize all laws and decisions for their fellow Russians. Furthermore, the Tsar still had supreme autocratic power over all governing bodies.

Under what circumstances did the Romanov dynasty fall? Briefly describe the governing structures that emerged in the aftermath. What was the Provisional Government? What was the Petrograd Soviet? What was the relationship between the two? How did either attempt to address Russia's growing crisis as far as the war was concerned or the increasing unrest and chaos at home?

On March 8th international women's day women poured into the streets of Petrograd protesting the worsened conditions and lack of food. Other workers soon joined in and the numbers hits about 200k, the city was essentially shut down, Nicholas II ordered the police and military to restore order but the police troops refused to fire on bystanders and joined the protest. The state government loses control of everything, Duma goes against tsar and and forms a Provisional Committee to try and find a solution, Petrograd Soviet meets to avoid upper-class bias, begins an organic democratic council. Nicholas is forced to northern estate, the Provisional Committee is now calling itself the Provisional Government, asking for Nicholas's abdication. Nicholas II was forced to offer his crown to his brother Mikhail which refused, leaving the decision to the Provisional Government which would then form the Constituent Assembly. March 17, 1917 the Romanov dynasty was officially ended. Two powers resided in the capital the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet. New gov't consisted primarily of moderates with only one socialist Kerensky in their cabinet. Prince Lvov became new prime minister, Paul Miliukov became foreign minister. Miliukov wanted reform and not revolution like most of the other members, Kerensky was also apart of the Petrograd Soviet and wanted a more militaristic and radical approach. The Petrograd Soviet naturally formed an organic democracy of primarily workers and soldiers, dominated by socialist intellectuals, Mensheviks, SR's. Soviet distrusted the Provisional govt but did not want to assume power, either bc of Marxist ideals or because they knew their organization was too weak to rule a war torn Russia. Got to send their soldiers to the front and maintain control over military with soviets and weapon control. Wanted to continue the war(mistake), free political prisoners, decree equality for all nationalities/religions, freedom of speech/press/etc., 8hr working day, but did not cover land issue.

For what reason did serious opposition emerge against Bolshevik rule among both workers and peasants? How did the Bolsheviks respond to these revolts?

Opposition from the masses became prevalent as food shortages, fuel shortages, and inflation rose. The draft into the red army during the civil war also created discontent among the people. Also the increasingly authoritarian government pushed the people farther away. Not as much democracy as promised, they'd rather work on conflict then work on the peoples behalf, workers specifically have grievances over Lenin taking back control of factories, democratic centralists, Lenin made all the decisions, peasants land is being taken for the civil war, and any opposition is being sent off to camps or dealt with more brutally.

Briefly describe the dispute between the "pessimist" and "optimist" school of the Russian historiography. Which one to you seems the most convincing and why?

Optimist school: if not for WWI Russia may have formed a constitutional monarchy, new freedoms were occurring until the war, could've found their place between representation and government Pessimist school: Russia would've fallen regardless of the war due to previous actions made by the tsar and the reactions of the people, no real leaders

What was pan-Slavism, and what role did it play in Russia's role in the Balkans and the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78? What did Russia seek to achieve in this war? What was the outcome, and what was the significance of the outcome?

Pan-Slavism, 19th-century movement that recognized a common ethnic background among the various Slav peoples of eastern and east central Europe and sought to unite those peoples for the achievement of common cultural and political goals. Russia sought to regain territory lost by the Crimean War, re-establish influence in the Black Sea, and free Balkan nations under rule of the Ottoman Empire. Calls for Pan-Slavism under Russian hegemony that would stretch from Pacific to Adriatic (Balkans). One nation united behind ideas of Pan Slavism (just a group of languages, not race). Nationalism of Balkan states create revolts in Bulgaria, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina against Turkey, Russia eventually declares war on Turkey with assurance of Austrian neutrality. (April 1877). Treaty of San Stefano, gives Russia land of Bessarabia, created autonomous Bulgaria, granted Serbian independence as well as Montenegro and Rumania, recognized Russia's territorial gains in the Caucasus and Turkish indemnity to Russia. Congress of Berlin a new Treaty of Berlin was brokered in which Bulgarian territory dominated by Russia was reduced, Austria-Hungary gained control of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Britain control of Cyprus and Russia kept Asia Minor territory. It meant Russia was still at the mercy of other European powers.

Briefly describe the controversy between Russian Populism and Russian Marxism. In turn, explain the controversy between the two major strains of Russian Marxism (Menshevism and Bolshevism). How did Russia's "liberals" or moderates like Chichiren or Miliukov differ from either. Key terms include: Socialist Revolutionaries (SR's), Chernov, Plekhanov, proletariat, RSDLP, Lenin, Trotsky, Martov, Bernstein (Revisionist Marxism or "Economism") "trade union mentality,"Iskra, Jewish Bund.

Populism: Focused on the peasants as the authentic Russia. Believed capitalism should be avoided at all cost since it would increase suffering of the people. Promoted state-sponsored industrialization that would benefit the masses (peasants and small producers included) and not just the elite. Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs) was a populist party under Chernov. Believed Russia should follow its own path of development focusing on peasants and their welfare. Even though they recruited in urban areas, the emphasis was on the peasants. Goals: To raise the revolutionary consciousness of the masses and undermine tsarist rule. Some advocated for terrorism. Marxism: Father of Russian Marxism was Plekhanov, a former populist, by 1883 he believed capitalism was inevitable in Russia. Plekhanov believed the industrialist era was followed by a capitalist era, therefore it was inevitable to bring capitalism to Russia. Willing to cooperate to overthrow the tsarist regime. Marxist focused more in proletariat (working class) rather than peasants (Original ideas of Marx: The working class or proletariat would overthrow the industrial capitalists class, establish a "dictatorship of the proletariat" eliminating class enemies, private control of production and would introduce a classless society. Eventually, governments would fade away, after the Communist age happens.) Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP): Marxist party in Russia Lenin: Marxist exiled to Siberia in 1895, who would later play a major role in the Revolution and the future of the country. Feared Bernstein's ideas would lead workers to trade unions and away from revolution. Bernstein: revisionist Marxist who thought some of Marx's assumptions were wrong. He argued number capitalists was increasing and workers were now better off, decreasing class conflict. Therefore there could be a gradual evolution towards socialism with the right to use unions and democratic means. (Economism) Iskra (The Spark): Marxist journal written by Lenin, Plekhanov and Martov Marxist socialist split with Lenin's faction Bolsheviks and Martov's faction Mensheviks; at the second congress of the RSDLP. The argument was about party membership and centralized control of party. Lenin wanted to limit membership, Martov wanted to open it up to more people. Russia's "liberals" or moderates like Chicherin or Miliukov still called for a limited monarchy, demanded 8 hr work days, more land for peasants, elections for a Constituent Assembly. Jewish Bund: Jewish radical socialist party in response to violence of pogroms.

Describe and elaborate on the "Stalin cult" as it emerged in the 1930s. What image did Stalin wish to cultivate with the Soviet people and how did his propaganda apparatus disseminate this image? How did Stalin position himself as the heir to the October Revolution and to the Marxist-Leninist legacy?

Portraying himself as a disciple of Lenin, Lenin considered a prophet and Stalin then was his prophetic predecessor Propaganda made him see like a godlike figure, short course on Lenin written by Stalin the Soviet press presented Stalin as an all-powerful, all-knowing leader, and Stalin's name and image became omnipresent. From 1936 the Soviet journalism started to refer to Joseph Stalin as the Father of Nations Interactions between Stalin and children became a key element of the personality cult. the title of "father" now first and foremost belonged to Stalin, as opposed to the Russian Orthodox priests Almost in same position as Tsar was in

Briefly describe the state of Russia's governance through the summer and early fall of 1917. What factors led to increasing support for the previously marginalized Lenin and the Bolsheviks?

Provisional government given reign of the state, tsar and family imprisoned, Lenin comes in April 1917 "all power to the soviets", message is rejected on the left for the most part, key events: scandal with Miliukov telegram leaked, many leaders began bailing out of positions, dual power arrangement not working, Kerensky (only socialist in provisional govt) takes charge but keeps pursuing the war (very unpopular), July a large crowd descends on Petrograd soviet demands that they take power, police and army are called to stop riot, August an army under Kornilov (general of war) marches into Petrograd, Kerensky calls in Bolshevik's to fight back, empowers Bolsheviks and destroys capital's relationship with military, Bolsheviks gain majority bc Menshevik's walk out and believe Bolsheviks have broken the law, Bolsheviks storm winter palace and take it over and announce they've taken down the provisional govt, Lenin invests power in Sovnarkom, November 1917 becomes Russia's official government

Briefly, describe the outbreak, course and outcome of the Russian Civil War. Who were the main forces contending for power? What were the key events? What role did foreign forces play? For what reasons did the "Reds" prevail?

Red army fighting for Bolshevik form of socialism under Lenin fought fiercely with the white army (landowners, republicans, conservatives, middle-class citizens, reactionaries, pro-monarchists, liberals, army generals, non-Bolshevik socialists who still had grievances and democratic reformists voluntarily united only in their opposition to Bolshevik rule) which included diverse interests favoring political monarchism, economic capitalism and alternative forms of socialism, each with democratic and antidemocratic variants. two main groups of Russian opponents of Lenin: (1) the non-Bolshevik left, who had been finally alienated from Lenin by his dissolution of the Constituent Assembly and (2) the rightist whites, whose main asset was the Volunteer Army in the Kuban steppes. In addition, rival militant socialists and non-ideological Green armies (mostly armed peasant groups) fought against both the Bolsheviks and the Whites. Eight foreign nations intervened against the Red Army, notably the former Allied military forces from the World War and the pro-German armies. The red army, wins with more resources and better command and control, more discipline, and more reason to fight (they were fighting for the revolution and the motherland). Foreign help did the white army more harm than good, discredited them, and the supplies they sent them often fell in the Red Army hands.White army had no vision, they couldn't agree on what they wanted. Reds know what they are fighting for which is the biggest thing they have going for them. November 7th-15th 1920- The Battle of Perekop between the Whites and Reds, leading to another Red victory and the winning of the Civil War.

Briefly describe each of the following eras in Russian history: (1) Rus' (860s-1240); (2) Mongol period and rise of Moscow (1240-1533); Muscovy and its expansion (1533-1689); Early Imperial Russia (1689-1855). Your answer should describe important political figures and dynasties; territorial expansion; religion; important social developments like the emergence of serfdom; and early modernizing efforts under Peter I and Catherine II.

Rus: State established by Vikings, predominantly Slavic groups who later came to be known as Rus, lived in this area. It is the first Russian state, a collection of principalities in which there was no autocracy or serfdom, but there was exploitation of the common people. Riurikid dynasty ruled at this point, Prince Vladimir mandated Christianity. Orthodox Christianity begins to spread during this period, Kiev was the center of the state (biggest city). Division within the state, principalities fighting one another and refusing to unite against the Tatars, led to its demise by 1240 with the Tatar invasion. Mongol: Mongols demanded 3 things--tribute, obedience and most importantly trade must remain open. During this period Russia was divided, giving the Mongols an advantage to rule, it was under Ivan III (the Great) that Russia expands. With the emergence of Ivan IV (the Terrible) the Mongol period ended 1533. Orthodox Christianity shaped the country, power became more centralized in the elite, and the government becomes stronger. Muscovy: During Ivan IV Russia saw the autocracy begins to cement its power, as he became the first Tsar of Russia and eventually a tyrant. After his death the Times of Troubles followed, and eventually the zemskii sobor (land council) elected Mikhail Romanov as the next Tsar, beginning a dynasty that would rule Russia for 300 years. During this period the 1649 Law Code is passed, the beginning of serfdom (peasants couldn't leave the master's land), major expansion South, West and East, reaching the Pacific Ocean. Heavy military. EIR: Begins with Peter I (the Great) who declared Russia and empire and himself the emperor. Westernizer of Russia, founder of the city St Petersburg. This period is known for the enlightenment in Europe, in Russia is the rule of the Enlightened Despot such as Catherine the Great great modernizers but still autocrats who strengthened autocracy. Emergence of nationalism and Slavophiles (critics of westernizing policies). Focused on autocracy, orthodoxy, and Russian nationality to reinforce tsarist system. peter the great: He led a cultural revolution that replaced some of the traditionalist and medieval social and political systems with ones that were modern, scientific, Westernised and based on the Enlightenment. Peter's reforms made a lasting impact on Russia, and many institutions of Russian government trace their origins to his reign. catherine the great: Catherinian Era, is considered the Golden Age of Russia. The Manifesto on Freedom of the Nobility, issued during the short reign of Peter III and confirmed by Catherine, freed Russian nobles from compulsory military or state service. Construction of many mansions of the nobility, in the classical style endorsed by the Empress, changed the face of the country. She enthusiastically supported the ideals of the Enlightenment and is often regarded as an enlightened despot. As a patron of the arts she presided over the age of the Russian Enlightenment, a period when the Smolny Institute, the first state-financed higher education institution for women in Europe, was established.

Describe at least five distinctive features of Russian geography and the Russian climate. According to historian Vasili Kliuchevski (1841-1911), how did geographical factors affect Russian territorial expansion? How did territorial expansion in turn affect Russia's relations with other peoples and Russia's internal political development?

Russia is the world's largest country. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and the eastern third of Europe, spanning 11 time zones and incorporating a great range of environments and land forms, from deserts, to semiarid steppes to deep forests and Arctic tundra. Russia contains Europe's longest river, the Volga, and its largest lake, Ladoga. Russia also is home to the world's deepest lake, Baikal, and the country recorded the world's lowest temperature outside the North and South poles. Due to extreme climate Russian growing season is short and rain season is late during the late summer, making it hard to have a strong agricultural production. Russia also possesses many mineral resources, but large quantities are in hard to reach areas, like Siberia, where the extraction process is expensive and difficult. According to historian Vasili Kliuchevski, Russian territorial expansion was through colonization, with its lack of natural boundaries, this created conditions of constant warfare for protection and also looking for access to better agricultural lands, animal furs, and warm water ports (most of its rivers empty into the Arctic Ocean). Because Russian expansion was through colonization, Russia absorbed many different cultures within its boundaries, with hundreds of ethnic groups including Ashkenazim Jews, Baltic and Volga Germans, and Muslim Tatars, among others. It also included many religious minorities with the majority of Russians being Eastern Orthodox Christians. The expansion was mostly done via military campaigns, and the need to bring so many different groups under control created the perfect conditions for serfdom and autocracy. tundra, taiga, mixed forest, steppe

How did the Russian state treat non-Orthodox faiths (including the Old Believers) in the last decades of Romanov rule? How did the Revolution of 1905 change government policies? What challenges did the Orthodox Church face during this period?

Russian officials treat non-Orthodox faiths incredibly poorly in the last decades of Romanov rule despite legislature for religious freedom. Many religious minorities flee Russia, after the Revolution of 1905 and the October Manifesto pogroms form attacking Jewish population and other minority faiths. The Black Hundreds attacks ruthlessly and government turns a blind eye, says persecution will end in 1905 but it doesn't stop until 1917 Revolution. After 1905 conditions were somewhat better, atheism and subversive ideas begin to gain popularity and traction. Government can't stop this as urbanization increased the church couldn't keep up with the growth of so many cities.

Very generally, describe the institution of serfdom. What was the relationship between serfs and the aristocracy? What defined status in each? How in turn was the aristocracy connected to the ruling dynasty? Your answer should include key terms such as barshchina and obrok.

Serfs were tied to the land of their masters as a form of quasi-slavery, they paid their masters in two ways: barshchina (obligatory work) or obrok (payment) in order to be allowed to farm for themselves in a determined strip of land. The masters were the land-owning aristocracy who received their lands and titles from the rulers in exchange for serving the monarchy by governing the vast and diverse empire. 85-90% of the population were peasants and there were severe restrictions of rights. Serfdom is the status of many peasants under the system of Feudalism, which was a condition of debt bondage. A Serf is a person who is bound to a masters estate (unless permitted to work elsewhere in exchange for compensation). The Russian peasants made up the majority of Russia's population, 85 to 90 percent of Russia's population engaged in agricultural development (even up to the twentieth century).

Which prominent members of the Communist party leadership supported Stalin during the First Five Year Plan? Which specific members of the party leadership opposed him? How did the First Five Year Plan and its consequences provoke a profound (and potentially permanent) realignment of the Communist party hierarchy?

Serge kirov charge in Leningrad branch (zinovia used to have it), Lazark, sergo orokivska, molotoff : Stalin's people who owe their positions to Stalin, he has groomed them for their positions, ruthless, effective, tough, all have working origins, "Stalin's Court" Opposes Stalin: all old Bolsheviks, they realize Stalin is out to monopolize party, underestimated him in 1920s and it was too late when they realized his plan, Bolsheviks are marginalized and cut off, when Stalin determines that he has no use for them they're killed - Beneficiaries: Sergei Kirov (Stalin protégé), Malitov, they are Stalin's people and they owe their positions to Stalin. Tough, ruthless, effective, virtually all have working origins. Stalin's court. - Opposition: All the old Bolsheviks that are left over. They realize that Stalin is out to monopolize the government. Bukharin is one of the chief authors in the new constitution that Stalin wants.

How did Stalin's turn against NEP affect Russia's peasantry? What specific goals did the First Five Year Plan intend to achieve in the countryside? Who specifically was targeted? What were the consequences? Briefly summarize the differing historical perspectives on both the degree of control that Stalin actually achieved, as well as differing accounts about the scale of the ensuing human calamity.

Stalin wanted collectivization, Russians countryside had small collective farms that were scattered and inefficient, only produced enough food for their families pretty much, Stalin took these peasants and placed them in large collective farms Required to give up all material possessions They're in larger better organized farms so they can be more productive and have access to better equipment How does he do this? Persuasion, coercion, force 50% depletion in livestock within 3-4yrs because they slaughtered all their animals before they were taken away Mass suicides of families before gov't came Mobilizes young party activists who descend on the countryside with ferocity Started the Russian Famine of 1932 in which millions of people died 3-4million estimates vary Can be theorized that the famine was on purpose to get rid of minorities and undesirable workers NEP was based more on capitalism and not socialism, which is the direction the country wanted to head toward. Achievements: Right before WWII they are out producing Germany in the production of Tanks and war materials. We can assume that they are successful in industrializing Failures: People are overworked, unsafe conditions, no competency, overpopulation in the cities, terrible living conditions, staggering environmental degradation. Absenteeism is a civil crime, tardiness is a civil crime, labor record book- tracks every job you've ever had, labor sticker in your passport makes it to where you can be sent back to where you are supposed to be, non-cooperation is a civil crime. Chaos was aloof.

Briefly, describe the New Economic Policy (NEP) implemented by the Communist Party in 1921. What did NEP intend to do? To what extent was NEP successful? In which respects did NEP fail? Who supported and why? Who opposed it and why?

Stop requisitioning grain, impose a 10% tax in kind, peasants were allowed to take their surplus and do what they want with it, allowed to manage their lands, labor unions allowed to organize and strike freely, state retained control of the "commanding heights" the largest industries, private entrepreneurs were allowed to form or manage smaller companies, hire labor, trade etc., tried to open Russia up to foreign investment It succeeded in food production once again and profited from the tax, 1924 the government was able to introduce a stable currency, peasant unrest declined, consumer goods increased Failed in reducing unemployment, 80-90% of state is still rural population, tried to keep industrial products higher than agricultural products but peasants rejected this, state needs peasants more than peasants need the state, still lack of workers Nikolai Bukharin defended the NEP, saw it as a long-term transition to genuine socialism, Lenin also a supporter but passes away Trotsky main opponent of NEP, believed they should pursue the worldwide revolution, wanted to extract more from peasantry, wanted increased industrialization, did not want more focus outside of Russia

Describe in basic terms the structure of the Soviet government starting with the Soviet Constitution of 1936. What were the important features of the Communist party during this period, and how did the Communist party interface with the Soviet state? Key terms for this question include: cadre and nomenklatura. Does the term "totalitarian dictatorship" appropriately describe the Soviet Union during this period? Why or why not?

Supreme soviet elect's council of ministers, communist party has local districts, Not democratic bc only one organization is legal to be incorporated in the govt (one party), the party determines the governmental personnel, and Stalin determines the personnel of the party General secretary aka Stalin is in control Appearance of legality but is not legal, how can there be responsible govt if it's determined by one mans will Constitution, law, etc make it seem more legal Totalitarian dictatorship, coined by Mussolini, can describe Nazi Germany or Soviet Union, not only is one person in total control but also those below them are totally committed and dedicated to the leader - Soviet- council - Supreme Soviet that elects the Presidium - One legal party ruling the government - The party decides who comes in the government and Stalin /supporters decides who comes into the party. - Stalin at one point has no official role in the government, but there is no question who is running the state. - Bukharin writes most of this constitution. One of the last old Bolsheviks left. Killed 2 years after writing a majority of the constitution. - Two sides of government are the Party and the Legislature. Two headed executives. Irrelevant because they don't run the government and are in the same party. - Totalitarian Dictatorship- Demand of citizens who have to be totally committed to the person in charge. Being required to affirm authority in very public ways and being called out if you don't. The term cadres policy refers to the selection and training of key CPSU (Communist Party of the Soviet Union) personnel. Its importance is indicated by the famous phrase used by Stalin in 1935, "Cadres decide everything." Generally speaking, cadres were selected in theory according to their degree of loyalty to the CPSU and their efficiency in performing the tasks assigned to them. The nomenklatura were a category of people within the Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc countries who held various key administrative positions in the bureaucracy, running all spheres of those countries' activity: government, industry, agriculture, education, etc., whose positions were granted only with approval by the communist party of each country or region.

Briefly, how did Russia become involved in World War I? Who were Russia's allies? Who were Russia's primary opponents? How did the Russian army perform in the war? How did its performance reflect on Russia's leadership? How did the war affect the home front?

The immediate cause was the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Bosnian Serbian nationalist. Austria was convinced Russia would fight on Serbia's side so Austria allied with Germany. Russia stood with Serbia and France allied with them as well. Serbia did not accept all of Austria's demands, Austria attacks Serbia, Russia mobilizes troops and Germany declares war on Russia, then France by using Belgium which makes Britain declare war on Germany. WWI brought a lessening of political opposition and labor unrest from both sides. Russia did very poorly in the war losing 7million soldiers by the end of 1916. Morale fell drastically as the war went on, minorities distrusted government even more, cities faced shortages of food, supplies, etc. Riots, protests, strikes, increased as the war went on and conditions worsened. Nicholas II was absent at the capital and instead went to the front lines despite much disapproval from officials and family. More heavily influenced by Alexandra than ever but she was following Rasputin's ideals. The war greatly undermined the power of the autocracy and led to the demise of the royal family.

To what extent was Russian society in the last years of the Romanov dynasty characterized by change? To what extent during this period was it characterized by continuity?

The last years of the Romanov dynasty are characterized by change because the autocracy and centralized rule that has governed Russia since it's beginnings are slowly beginning to dissolve. Evolution of new ideas of thought, industrialization, and the decline of autocratic authority. Know one really knows what to do with ruling class, clearly need to modernize but they cannot do so without undermining their own rule. Refusal to change in accordance with the times brings their downfall.

What was the state of relations between the Russian government and the various national/ethnic groups in the western peripheries of the Russian empire? What role did religious faith or identity play in this story? Speak with reference to Poles, Ukrainians, Finns, Baltic peoples (Latvians, Lithuanians, Estonians), Baltic Germans, Ashkenazim Jews, Armenians, Crimean Tartars, and any other nationalities or ethnicities that may have been relevant. What was russification and what motivated it? How did Russia's various ethnicities respond? Was the policy successful? Key terms for this question include: Russification, Pale of Settlement, pogrom, Jewish Bund, modernist movement (jadidism).

The minority peoples that were taken over by the Russian government were commonly denied rights and discriminated against. They commonly faced violence, denied their individual nationalities. Alexander II began Russification but it was greatly intensified by Alexander III in which tax offices, schools, post offices, schools and all public offices must use the Russian language despite what their native language is. Technically ethnic Russians were historically outnumbered in comparison to other varying ethnic groups. Efforts to convert people to eastern orthodox was not particularly successful, mobilized Estonian and Latvian against Germans and further solidifies the differences between these ethnic groups and Russians. In the late 1800s ethnic identities become more solidified and there are no efforts at all to reform Muslim population. Poles were mostly Catholic and revolted against the Russian control. Polish nationalism inspired rebellions crushed by the Russian army. Russian government responded with policy of Russification. Ukraine suffered a similar fate For peasants in Poland, Lithuania, Belorussia and West Ukraine, the government were more generous with land provisions than with Russian peasants. Finns had more autonomy. Baltic Germans retained benefits, although the towns were required to adopt Russian institutions and language. Ashkenazim Jews had been expelled from Europe and established in Poland, were discriminated against. Pale of Settlement: Only area where Jews could live. Pogroms: violence against Jews from other populations and authorities were indifferent. Jewish Bund was a socialist organization. Jadidism- an effort to try to modernize Islam. Try to synchronize Muslim proponents with the rest of the world.

How was the Russian state constituted during the later centuries of Romanov rule? Briefly describe the significance and linkage of the following terms: autocracy, Orthodoxy, Russian nationality.

The state was constituted by the Tsar, an autocrat monarch who ruled without any legal or institutional limits. There was no constitution, the tsar rule was limitless, people were not considered citizens, rather subjects. The Orthodox Church was directly under the authority of the Tsar since the time of Peter the Great. The people identified themselves more with the Orthodox Church (there used to be a church in every village) and people saw themselves next as servants of the country and finally as Russian nationals. In a nation with mostly illiterate population, and so many different cultures within borders, there was no collective memory or national history to address the question of Russian nationality. The Tsar was afraid of modernization and what it would bring: big urban centers, new ideas.

To what extent was Russian society evolving in the last years of the Romanov dynasty? How did industrialization and urbanization impact Russia? To what extent did living standards improve? What challenges did Russians from across the socio-economic spectrum confront? Did conditions for women improve during this period improve? Why or why not?

Urban population increased from 9/10% of the pop to 18% from 1856 to 1916. Cities populations tripled or quadrupled, peasant villages still had low populations and few new buildings. After emancipation of the serfs the ability to move to better economic zones increased and infant mortality decreased. Industrialization greatly increased, although it's very concentrated and doesn't effect large parts of the country. Life expectancy rises, infant mortality lowers, middle class very slowly starts to form. Women begin moving to cities, 1917 gain the right to vote. Bettering conditions in general were better for Russian peoples but overall very disproportionate across the state.

What impact did the purging of the 1930s have on the Communist party? What impact did it have on the Soviet army? What impact did it have on the population more broadly? Who were the victims? How were they typically accused and interrogated? How did the Soviet people (to the extent that we are able to determined) respond to, oppose, or participate in these actions? What was the total death toll, and why might the total "excess deaths" be impossible to determine accurately?

While previous purges under Stalin involved the persecutions of kulaks (wealthy peasants), Nepmen (people who engaged in private enterprise during the New Economic Policy of the 1920s), clergymen, and former oppositionists, the Great Purge is characterized by imprisonments and executions not only of these usual suspects but of Communists leaders and party members, members of the Red Army, and the Intelligentsia in great numbers. The killing and imprisonment started with members of the Bolshevik party, political officials and military members. Then the purge expanded to include peasants, ethnic minorities, artists, scientists, intellects, writers, foreigners and ordinary citizens. Essentially, no one was safe from danger. Convinced they were plotting a coup, Stalin had 30,000 members of the Red Army executed. Experts estimate that 81 of the 103 generals and admirals were executed. Stalin also signed a decree that made families liable for the crimes committed by a husband or father. This meant that children as young as 12 could be executed Creates a path for upward mobility, people rose through ranks in 1930s, came from authentic working roots, most came through technical institutes, owe their positions to Stalin and therefore they are loyal • The number of victims of Stalinism is hard to estimate, what constitutes deliberate action is hard to determine • Had to assume there were real threats to the Soviet Union and could not underestimate them • Around 1938 or 1939 Stalin has Ezhov kills anyone Stalin desires but is replaced by Beria, and calls a halt to the killings, almost out of control • Very hard to resist or protest this in the party • Trotsky killed in Mexico City - All of the old Bolsheviks are gone, anybody connected to the Bolsheviks are gone. - It creates a path of upward mobility. People who came from authentic working roots rose through the party because of the position openings. Owe their position to Stalin so they are loyal - Millions of people were killed, and impossible to determine because there weren't accurate records kept. - People were interrogated through torture and threatening your family. Put you on a conveyor belt to keep you awake for days on end. Waterboarding, etc. - The population believes there are real threats to the Soviet Union and why wouldn't they believe it. Could even be somebody they knew. - Probably not all Stalin's fault. People are turning on each other for their own reasons. - Ezhov was killing people left and right for years and he was replaced by a Stalin ally named Beria and Stalin puts a halt to it because they've killed a good portion of the country. - Doublethink, small inner circles or just keep to yourself is about the only way oppose this.

Briefly describe the key features of each of Alexander's other reforms: (1) zemstvo; (2) judicial; (3) military. What motivated these reforms and what were they intended to accomplish? Did the reforms succeed? Why or why not?

Zemstvo (local government): Alexander II transferred the legal authority to the local governments of the region instead of the landlord. It allowed 3 classes to be represented: the merchants, the gentry and the peasants in an elected assembly. It was not a remunerated position; therefore, the educated gentry had more representatives in the zemstvo. It was in charge of hiring medical care providers, school teachers, collected taxes, in charge of road maintenance and other social services. They were blamed for everything the peasants saw as going wrong. Judicial: For these reforms, Alexander moved closer to Western standard: Two court system: For major civil or criminal cases there were the regular courts and for minor cases the Justice of the Peace elected by the zemstvo or city duma would take over. Rights to appeal under both court systems. Judges were appointed for life, to stop outside interference. Trial by jury unless the crimes were against the state. Court proceedings could be public. The use of oral testimony was allowed during court. Establishment of professional bar, lawyers now had to be trained. The local communes could pick the judges of their own courts who delivered justice according to tradition rather than written law. Military: Universal Military Service Statute in 1874 reduced the time of service from 15 to 6 years. Promoted basic education of reading and writing for soldiers. Aristocracy now qualified for the draft. Ended some of the abusive and hazing practices in the army and saved money to be used in the railroad expansion. Motivations: Zemstvo, local governments for the free serfs; Judicial, to attract foreign capital; Military: Crimean War and outdated military and infrastructure, especially expansion of railways. Level of success: Zemstvo: the law was still in the hands of the aristocracy. Judicial: created a demand in universities to study law (later the students would be the revolutionaries). Military: Reforms did not go far enough, military was still outdated and by trying to bring equality to the military it undermined the aristocracy.

Briefly describe the structure of the USSR as it became the official name of the former Russian Empire by 1922. Briefly, what were the key features of the Soviet constitution of 1924? What was the relationship between the RSFSR and the other constituent republics? What was the relationship between the Soviet government and the Communist party?

enumeration of rights, describes structure of the government, creates system of governance, soviets which have elected committees which vote to go to regional meetings, no mention of the communist party, only legally functional body of govt is the communist party Russian govt for the first time recognizes identity by territory, Stalin is the architect of all of this, areas broken up into differing socialist republics Enumeration of rights- Freedom of speech, faith, duty to bear arms and work. Prohibition of ... Describes a structure of government, seems democratic No mention of the communist party in the constitution Doesn't mention the communist party until 1977 No decisions were made without the communist party Many different languages were spoken throughout Russia Creating their own demise, fractures along the administrative boundaries they created. Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic was an independent state from 1917 to 1922, and afterwards the largest, most populous and most economically developed of the 15 Soviet socialist republics of the Soviet Union