HU 432 Exam Review

Explain the difference between positive and negative rights.

A positive right is a right to someone from someone, an example of which is the right to have a tool returned that you borrowed to someone. A negative right is essentially the right to be left alone. The right to life, which affords you the right not to be killed.

Rebut the claim that engineering is not a profession because most engineers are employees.

A profession is based on the possession of esoteric knowledge (specialized knowledge unavailable to the layman). Therefore, regardless of whether an engineer is a company employee or not, they still possess this knowledge that is required for their job to be done safely and effectively (ie only a trained/educated engineer can perform the tasks).

What is a prima facie right?

A right that is capable of being outweighed by a stronger moral consideration.

DeGeorge argues that given organizational division of labor, "an engineer cannot be expected and cannot have the responsibility to second-guess managerial decisions." Alpern disagrees. Why?

Alpern essentially states that you are morally responsible to work for a moral and ethical company. So it is your responsibility to choose a company that will acknowledge ethical issues and resolve them accordingly. Additionally, it is therefore your responsibility to ensure you are fighting for moral values and leave the company if your attempts are continually ignored. This is very similar to the concept of negative responsibility, we are morally responsible for our inaction.

What three features of engineering practice do Martin &Schinzinger (M&S) identify which "combine to make it appropriate to view engineering projects as experiments"?

Any project is carried out in partial ignorance The final outcomes are generally uncertain Effective engineering relies on knowledge about the product both before and after it leaves the factory.

Under what conditions does DeGeorge believe that whistleblowing could be obligatory?

Documented evidence that would convince a reasonable, impartial observer that their view is correct, and the company policy is wrong. Strong evidence that making the information public will actually prevent the serious harm.

What are the two main rights of shareholders?

Elect board of directors Receive profits as dividends

Why does Layton refer to the engineer as "the original organization man"?

Engineers by nature require a large availability of resources, which can only be provided by organizations. As companies transition from small to large and acquire more resources, often they will hire engineers to help them make larger gains.

Explain Alpern's "strong conception of the responsibility of practicing engineers"

Essentially, Alpern argues that because an engineer is a professional, while they are still held to normal moral obligations, just as they expect a higher standard of autonomy and respect due to their professional status, they should be prepared to make greater personal sacrifice in the name of morality than the average individual. (ie with great power comes great responsibility, if we are going to place professionals in a place of superiority it only makes sense that they be held to higher moral standards/they are in a position to fight for/defend moral and ethical issues).

Provide an example to demonstrate the relevance of the concept of functional specificity to your professional discipline.

Functional specificity states that a professional's authority is confined to their specific knowledge base (ie a professional is only a professional in their specific discipline). A veterinarian, while trained in the medical field, should not diagnose or perform procedures on a human, as their specialty and training is focused on animals.

Why did John Kemeny, chair of the Kemeny Commission that investigated the nuclear accident at Three Mile Island, believe that it would be wrong for the commission to comprise just engineers?

He felt that the Commission was acting as a national jury of sorts. If the Commission consisted of solely engineers the results may not be trusted or understood by the general public. He wanted the average American to trust what the Commission said.

Are the consequences of negligence obliquely intended? Explain.

I do not believe so. The point of negligence is having ignorance to your actions and their effects. Oblique intention implies you were aware of the side-effects of your actions.

What reasons do M&S have for their claim that the "mere purchase of a product does not constitute informed consent, any more than does the act of showing up on the occasion of a medical examination?

Informed consent infers that the client has been given any and all information about the risks and benefits in a way that they can understand. In most cases this is not necessary or even possible, therefore by simply purchasing a product a client is unable to give informed consent.

List the four characteristics of states of affairs that Bentham takes to be relevant to utilitarian calculations.

Intensity Duration Propinquity Extent

List what Friedman takes to be the three sources of executive responsibility.

Law Shareholder interest Moral custom

What difference between law and morality precludes ethics codes from being decisive as a means of resolving ethical issues?

Law is other-directed, while morality is self-directed. This means when it comes to ethical issues, a code (which is other-directed) would be ineffective.

Explain the mechanism of blame. How does it work to change an agent's?

Legal blame works by the agent understanding that their action is wrong and hopes to prevent that action by providing an external punishment. Moral blame works by the agent understanding that not only their action was wrong, but they are an immoral person for having done that action. It hopes to prevent further action by creating guilt.

What does Kant mean when he says that only actions done from a sense of duty have moral worth?

Moral actions done from a sense of duty means the agent has a choice on whether to act on reason or desire. Doing something from a sense of duty means choosing reason over desire which is a praiseworthy thing. A holy will automatically does things out of reason, no other action occurs to them, they aren't making a choice. Therefore, having chosen one action over another based on reason (ie acting from a sense of duty) gives moral worth.

What is "necessary fallibility" and how does it support M&S's argument for regarding engineering as a social experiment?

Necessary fallibility is a term related to the chaos theory that explains the unpredictability of event results. An engineer cannot account for all possible outcomes, therefore, everything they do is an experiment.

Why does utilitarianism imply negative responsibility?

Negative responsibility says that we are as responsible for what we fail to prevent as for what we actually do. This is implied by utilitarianism because all that matters to the utilitarian is maximizing utility. Therefore if we fail to prevent something that will decrease utility, we are responsible for that, because our goal is to maximize utility (ie doing everything in our power, including preventing the actions of others that do not maximize utility).

Briefly explain what paternalism is, and why it is prima facie wrong.

Paternalism is the concept that the professional is superior to the client (ie the professional has knowledge and experience that the client does not). The professional then is in a position to make decisions for the client on their behalf. A prima facie wrong is limiting a persons freedom for their own good. Paternalism is a prima facie wrong because the professional is in the position to make decisions for the client that society has accepted the client can't make for themselves.

Explain the relationship between the professionalization of engineering and its incorporation of scientific methods.

Professionalism has a means of preserving and increasing knowledge. Eventually, rather than depending on this existing knowledge/common sense/etc, professionals incorporated scientific methods and theories. Engineers were the link between the science and technology, putting more stress on science and education. Stressing the need to understand how things work.

Explain why professions are essentially theory-based in terms of Parsons' concept of rationality.

Professionals must not only have the knowledge but the skill to act and adapt. They are always willing to adopt new information and discard old ways.

Explain the difference between ethics and prudence.

Prudence addresses the question "What ought I to do?" as a means to a given end. In this way, you think of your own self-interest. Ethics arises when we consider how prudence affects others.

To remain outside the institution of morality, the amoralist could "resist, but not resent" others who try to stop him. Explain

Resenting something implies you have a reason someone else should not do it. Resisting implies the amoralist does not want to do this action. Resenting implies the amoralist does not want anyone/others to do this action. The amoralist must act only in his own self-interest to remain outside morality.

How does the concept of surrogate consent support M&S's application of the concept of informed consent to engineering practice?

Surrogate consent allows a person or group to make informed decision for another person or group of people that are unable to provide informed consent for themselves (ie they are incapacitated, mentally handicapped, etc). This surrogate consent protects the autonomy of those unable to consent themselves (ensures professionals do not over-reach).

Explain McFarland's concept of technological.

Technological paternalism says that the public should simply defer to the experts (ie let the engineers/professionals do their job without the public interfering).

How is negligence a difficulty for the Straight Rule of Responsibility?

The Straight Rule of Responsibility states "We are responsible for all and only our intentional action". According to Aristotle, intentional action is a voluntary action performed under the agent's description. Voluntary actions require three conditions, knowledge, choice and stable character. Negligence is an intentional action done out of ignorance. Intentional implies voluntary, voluntary implies knowledge, negligence implies ignorance, therefore it's a contradiction.

Explain the difference between Mackie's conceptions of the broad and narrow senses of "morality".

The broad sense sees morality itself as a source of motivation. While the narrow sense sees morality as a test of motives that we have independent of morality.

What two ways does McFarland identify by which professional societies could take measures to protect the public safety and welfare?

They could lend their expertise to those who are questioning the use of certain technologies They could act as independent evaluators of controversial technical issues

Explain the claim that a main function of rights is to act as a trump over (to override) collective goods.

This means that rights allow individuals to justify actions that go against the common good. A person can do something for themselves that may not necessarily benefit the collective good or may even negatively affect the greater good because they have a right to do so. An example is that someone has the right to preserve their own life, even if it would benefit the collective good for them to die and donate their organs.

What is DeGeorge's "myth of the engineer as moral hero" and what is his objection to it?

This myth makes whistleblower engineers out to be saints/martyrs, sacrificing their careers for their moral convictions. DeGeorge says though that this is unrealistic to place this pressure on engineers, to expect them to be always willing to sacrifice their jobs for the sake of morality.

Explain Talcott Parsons's concepts of universalism and disinterestedness as elements of professional conduct.

Universalism is the concept that a professional must accept any client that pursues their services. Disinterestedness is the concept that a professional must always give every client the best service based on their best possible abilities.

What are DeGeorge's reasons for his belief that whistleblowing is prima facie wrong?

Because engineers have an obligation to their employers to do their job, be loyal and remain confidential. They should not be expected to second-guess managerial decisions (ie an engineer is not morally obligated/responsible for ensuring a company maintains ethical standards).

Explain the relevance of the concept of burden of proof in the Challenger case.

Burden of proof is a concept that helps all parties involved in an issue understand who is responsible for supplying proof. In the example of a court case, the burden of proof lies with the prosecution because it is assumed the defendant is innocent until proven guilty (the prosecution is responsible for attempting to prove guilt). In the Challenger case the burden of proof is relevant because the engineers the day before the launch were working as if the burden of proof had shifted when in reality it had not. The engineers had always worked on the assumption that the burden of proof lay in recommending launch (ie they needed to prove that launch was safe) and on the day prior to launch they felt that the burden of proof had shifted to not recommending launch (ie they needed to prove that the launch would fail). By doing this, they were attempting to collect quantifiable data that proved the launch would fail (which was impossible). In reality, they simply needed to give rational as to why they felt the launch was unsafe (this remained in the realm of the burden of proof lying in recommending launch). They didn't need to prove that the launch would be unsafe, they just needed to say that they did not recommend the launch and give a rationale.

Provide one of Boatright's three criticisms of the stakeholder theory of management.

Confuses goals with constraints

List the three conditions of legal agency.

Consent to relation Power of agent to work on behalf of principle Control of agent by principle

List three ways by which, according to Layton, professional engineering societies have been subject to the influence of business.

Control of membership Control of nominations Control of publications

List three ways by which communities sanction professions.

Control over training centers Confidentiality Control over who can enter the profession.

What is supererogation, and why does Alpern believe that the higher standard to which engineers are held by his Corollary of Proportionate Care is not superogatory?

The concept of supererogation is doing more work than duty requires (ie above my paygrade). Alpern believes that supererogation is not in play when holding engineers to a higher moral standard because they are in a higher position. They have more ability to cause harm and effect society than the average person, so it is within reason that their work requires a higher level of moral responsibility.

Summarize the conditions under which DeGeorge allows that whistleblowing would be permitted.

The harm done as a result of staying quiet will be serious, the concerns have been made clearly known to superiors and finally if their immediate supervisors don't do anything, they attempt everything they can to go above them (while staying inside the company).

What generalization can we make about the moral praiseworthiness of the holy will?

The holy will isn't praiseworthy because it does not overcome conflict/desire. The holy will does not need to try, it automatically does the most rational thing. The good will is praiseworthy because it has a choice and it chooses to do the most rational thing.

Explain the point of Kant's "lying promise" example.

The lying promise scenario poses the question, should I make a false promise to get myself out of a bad situation. Kant points out that this would be self-defeating. Due to the categorical imperative, if one were to do this, that would mean you support anyone else making false promises. This would then render all promises meaningless and would not longer be a motive to get you out of a bad situation.

Explain the difference between Mackie's second and third stages of universalization.

The second stage asks one to rule out differences of personal characteristics, while the third stage asks one to rule out differences of preference. In the broken down car example, the person driving by at the second stage, while they see themselves as a good driver and that would never happen to them, they can set that aside to imagine what being a bad driver would be like and if they would want someone to help them. At the third stage, the person driving past would have to set aside personal beliefs about whether or not bad drivers deserve help.

What are the two challenges that relativism poses for morality, and the two ways by which morality resists relativization?

The two challenges that relativism poses for morality are no basis for blame and no possibility for moral progress. The two ways by which morality resists relativization are internalization and universalization.

What is the utility monster, and what is the point of the example?

The utility monster is a hypothetical scenario where a monster exists that garners utility from pain (5 utility from every 3 pain). In order to maximize utility then the solution would be to cause the most pain. This however fails to account for fair distribution of utility. This scenario forces utilitarians to answer the question, what is it to maximize utility? Is it simply the greatest total? Or do you need to consider the highest average per person overall?

Explain how Rawls's notion of the veil of ignorance functions to ensure fair decisions without eliminating selfish motives.

The veil of ignorance allows you to still act with self interest. If you assume that your enemy will be able to choose your place in society (which would probably put you in the worst place), as the person who decides how society is organized, you can make this worst position the least bad that it can be. This is fair because you don't have any confirmation that you will be placed in the worst position, but you are still actively working to make it as least bad as it can be.

Explain how rule utilitarianism is intended to answer objections to utilitarianism regarding justice.

Utilitarianism is a radical idea in that it focuses on choosing the action that maximizes utility in this moment. This is objected by an example such as a prisoner that was found guilty and the public wants to murder them. Allowing the public to murder them right now would maximize utility, however that would be a bad practice to keep over time and may cause issues in the long run. Rule utilitarianism attempts to answer this by focusing on following rules that will maximize utility over time (ie always stopping at stop signs or not letting the public murder that prisoner). The hope is that if everyone always follows these rules, justice will be served and utility maximization will balance out over time.

List McFarland's three objections to technological paternalism.

Violates the right to self-determination of those who are affected by the use of technology It tends to overlook the uncertainties in technological determinations It is not as objective as it may seem (hidden assumptions)

What is "vulgar relativism" and what makes it vulgar?

Vulgar relativism defines right as being right for a given society (understood in a functionalist sense) and therefore it is wrong to judge the actions of other societies. It's vulgar because it is inconsistent (is wrong relative or absolute?).