IB SEHS Topic 5 Review

Explain the signal-detection process

According to signal detection theory, the probability of detecting any given signal depends on the intensity of the what you should b focused on (signal) compared to the intensity of background info (noise)

plateau

After steady improvements in performance, a learning plateau is a stage where there appears to be little or no improvement.

reciprocal presentation

Although what is taught is still determined by the teacher, it allows learners to take slightly more responsibility and become more involved in the decision making process. The sessions are structured in order that the objectives are clearly stated to the learners.

linear curve

As practice increases, so does performance in a proportional relationship

decision making

Combination of recognition, perception and reference to memory that is used to select an appropriate response to the demands of the situation

Perceptual-motor abilities

Control precision, multi-limb coordination, response orientation, reaction time, speed of arm movement, rate control, manual dexterity, arm-hand steadiness, wrist-finger speed, aiming, postural discrimination, response integration

Physical proficiency abilities

Extent flexibility, dynamic flexibility, static strength, dynamic strength, explosive strength, trunk strength, gross body coordination, gross body equilibrium, stamina

associative phase of learning

In this stage the performer practices, and compares or associates the movements produced with the mental image. This is the stage at which feedback occurs and the learner gradually becomes more aware of the increasingly subtle and complex cues. During this stage a vast improvement in performance usually occurs.

negatively accelerated curve

Indicates rapid initial improvements then lesser gains from practice

positive accelerated curve

Indicates slight performance gains initially then rapid improvements in performance

input

Info from the environment which the player is aware of and uses to decide on a response to a situation

movement time

Initiation of first movement to the completion of that movement

Describe a simple model of info processing

Input -> CNS for Decision Making -> Output • We take info from our surroundings, use it to make a decision and then produce a response (feedback then used to see if response was good/bad & if action should be repeated)

Perceptual-motor skills

Involve the thought, interpretation and movement

cognitive phase of learning

Is the earliest phase of learning, when the performer understands what needs to be done. There is quite a lot of trial and error in this stage, the beginner trying out certain movements which may be successful or fail

autonomous phase of learning

Is the final stage of the skill-learning process. Movements are becoming almost automatic, with very little conscious thought. Any distractions are largely ignored and the performer is able to concentrate on more peripheral strategies and tactics.

mental practice

Is the mental or cognitive rehearsal of a skill without actual physical movement. n the early stages of learning (cognitive phase) mental rehearsal is initially seen as the learner going through a skill/task and building up a mental picture of the expected performance in their mind (cognitive process)

signal detection process

Often referred to as the detection- comparison-recognition process (DCR) -a means to quantify the ability to discern between information-bearing patterns (stimulus) and random patterns that distract from the information (noise, intensity, efficiency of sensory organ, early detection & improving detection)

Selective Attention

Operates in the short-term sensory store (STSS). Blocks out irrelevant information, allows focus on relevant information. Can be improved through learning from past experiences.

distinguish between Fleishman's two categories of abilities (give examples of each!)

Perceptual Motor - cognitive abilities (rxn time) Physical Proficiency - bodily abilities (dynamic strength)

factors that contribute to different rates of learning

Physical maturation, physical fitness, motivation, age, coaches, teaching environment, amount of practice.

Perceptual skills

Process by which you sense things and interpret them. The organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the environment.

methods of memory improvement

Rehearsal, coding, brevity, clarity, chunking, organisation, association and practice

Compare different methods of memory improvement

Rehearsal: required to get information into LTM, and to increase the chances of being able to recall that information. coding: information associated with images can be recalled better with the associations brevity: it is easier to remember short and specific details rather than long and vague information clarity: if the information is clear and understood, it will be easier to remember chunking: To some degree we do this automatically. It is literally a case of chunking several pieces of information into one meaningful chunk, which takes up less space in STM organization: if the information is in a clear and logical format it makes it easier for recall association: semantic understanding increases recall practice: same with rehearsal

response time

Response time= reaction time + movement time. The time from the initiation of the stimulus to the completion of the movement

output

Response which the player makes.

part presentation

Skills which are very complex but low in organisation lend themselves to being practised and learned more effectively by the parts method. An additional consideration is again how interrelated or independent the sub-routines are. Activities such as freestyle are not too complex but low in organisation lend themselves to being taught by the part method.

Evaluate the concept of the psychological refractory period (PRP) Explain which theory it applies to!

The period of time during which the response to a second stimulus is significantly slowed because a first stimulus is still being processed; processing of s2 cannot take place until processing of s1 is complete. Theory: single channel theory - idea that you can't respond to two stimuli at once unless they are dissimilar tasks or you are using different parts of the brain Example 1: tennis · S1: player 1 plays a forehand drive towards player 2's forehand · R1: player 2 prepared to return with a forehand drive · S2: ball hits net, slow and changed direction · R2: player 2 must change shot selection from forehand to backhand Example 2: dummy in rugby · S1: player 1 shapes to pass the ball · R1: player 2 follows the direction of the intended pass · S2: the ball has not been passed · R2: player 2 must focus attention back on the ball carrier (player 1)

problem solving presentation

The problem solving approach encourages students to be creative and develop their individual cognitive and performance processes.

progressive presentation

The progressive part method is where earlier independent actions change their form to become something totally different. A learner taught complex skills by the progressive part method benefits from the positive aspects of both part and whole methods. A gymnast coach trying to develop a gymnast's routine would often follow the progressive part method

Outline the components associated with sensory input

The senses can be divided into proprioceptors, exteroceptors and interoceptors: proprioceptors: Receptors responsible for telling us where were are oriented in space (position). Also tells us which muscles are contracted and which joints extend exteroceptors: Provides information from outside the body from external environment Examples) vision, hearing, feel, smell, taste interoceptors: Provides sensory information from within the body. Ex) Chemo receptors, hunger, lung stretch receptors

Reaction time

The time that elapses from the presentation of a stimulus to the beginning of the response

whole practice

The whole method of learning is when the activity or skill is presented in total and practised as full/entire skilled movement or activity

command presentation

This is the authoritarian style. Within this approach there is little consideration given to the individual with all learners treated very much in the same way. This style is thought to inhibit cognitive learning as thinking and questioning are not encouraged by the teacher. It is useful when working with beginners, large groups and in dangerous and limited time situations where safety is paramount.

reaction time

Time between the on set of a stimulus and then initiation of that response

concept of transfer

Transfer in skill acquisition is the influence of learning and/or performance of one skill on the learning and/or performance of another. If this influences a skill yet to be learned or performed it is called proactive transfer, if it influences the performance of a previous learnt skill it is called retroactive.

learning

a relatively permanent change in performance brought about by experience, excluding changes due to maturation and degeneration.

fixed practice

a specific movement is practiced repeatedly, often referred to as a drill. This type of practice is ideal for skills that are always performed in the same way, that do not require adapting to the environment.

performance

a temporary occurrence, fluctuating over time.

differentiate between ability and skill

ability - born w/ skill - learned through practice

Intrinsic feedback

available to the performer without outside help. We can see the results of our actions without anyone needing to tell us what happened

discuss the differences between command style, reciprocal style, and divergent style

command: highly determined by coaches, little room for individual influence, teachers must be well respected for this style to work efficiently; individuals may experience boredom as may be slower or faster than peers in terms of learning speeds reciprocal: teacher/coach sets agenda and encourages learners to work in pairs to provide each other with feedback, teachers typically use task card w/ criteria (like a rubric), allows individual to know what they did right/wrong & learn from mistakes divergent: problem-solving approach; coach/teacher sets problem/task & lets learner work out solution on their own; leads to independence, innovation and higher self-esteem

differentiate between serial, discrete, and continuous skills

discrete: distinct beginning and end serial: several discrete movements combined one after another continuous: no clear beginning or end

Hick's Law

doubled the number of stimulus- response couplings the reaction time increased

components associated with sensory input

exteroceptors, proprioceptors, introceptors

List at least two different reasons a person might detect a signal better than another

familiarity, effectiveness of sense organs, intensity of background noise vs intensity of signal, etc.

differentiate between fine and gross motor skills

fine: small/intricate movements, small muscle groups (ie playing piano) gross: large movements w/ large muscle groups (ie: scoring a goal)

Selective attention

focusing on relevant information while ignoring irrelevant information

Compare and contrast the skills profiles for a gymnast performing a floor routine and a soccer player:

gymnast: - closed - serial - individual - gross movements soccer player: - open - gross - interactive

Discrete skills

have a clear start and finish

Movement time

he time it takes to carry out the motor aspects of the performance.

Welford's model of information processing (1968)

i) sense organs ii) perception iii) short-term memory iv) long-term memory v) decision making vi) effector control vii) feedback

differentiate between individual, coactive and interactive skills

individual - no opponent, 1 performer coactive - several performers, no direct confrontation/opponent interactive - several performers w/ direct confrontation/opponent

Selective attention

individual focusing on relevant information while ignoring irrelevant information

Extrinsic feedback

information that is provided for us by someone or something else. This can be a coach, teacher or device.

Fine motor skills

involve much smaller muscle groups and fine movements. They are more intricate, precise and often require high levels of hand-eye coordination. They include skills such as playing the piano, playing darts and catching a ball.

Serial skills

involve the linking together of skills to form a longer, more complex movement

massed practice

is seen as being almost continuous practice with very little or no rest at all between attempts or blocks of trials. e.g experienced, older, fitter, more motivated

distributed practice

is seen as practice with relatively long breaks or rest periods between each attempt or block of attempts. e.g beginner, less experienced, limited preparation, less motivated

Information processing

is the system by which we take information from our surrounding environment, use it to make a decision and then produce a response. Input-> decision making-> output

be able to draw and explain graphs for linear, positively accelerated, negatively accelerated, and plateau effect

linear = straight line; easy task w/ no issues positive = gradual upwards curve; hard at first, got better negative = gradual upwards to downwards curve; got worse over time plateau = upwards pause then increase; doing well, paused due to complications, improved

differentiate between massed and distributed practice

massed: little/no breaks; intervals of rest take less time than completing full trial distributed: interspersed w/ rest or different activity; intervals of rest take *more* time than completing full trial

The perceptual trace

memory for the feel of successful past movements

Gross motor skills

movements that involve large muscle groups such as arms and legs. They include skills such as walking, jumping, running and kicking.

knowledge of performance (KP)

on the other hand, consists of post-response information concerning the nature of the movement.

Compare motor programs for both open and closed loop perspectives (remember perceptual and memory trace!!!)

open: no recourse to feedback; fast and hard to respond to (punch in face/golf swing) closed: Program which occurs at a pace that allows for kinesthetic feedback to make adjustments - perceptual trace = memory for the feel of successful past movements to correct inappropriate actions - selection and initiation of the movement is under the control of memory trace

differentiate between open and closed skills:

open= unstable environment with opponent closed = stable environment w/o opponent

differentiate between positive transfer, negative transfer, and zero transfer

pos. - 1 task has facilitating effect on learning or performance of another neg. - inhibiting effect on learning or performance of another zero - no effect on learning or performance of another

knowledge of results (KR)

post-response information concerning the outcome of the action

variable practice

practicing a skill in a variety of different contexts and experiencing the full range of situations in which the technique or tactic might be used in competition. The learner applies the skill to a number of different environments in practice, allowing both the development of the skill and the ability to adapt the skill to a range of possible situations.

exteroceptors

provide information about the external environment

proprioceptors

provide information about the position and posture of our body in space. They sense stimuli from the muscles, tendons and the joints as well from the vestibular apparatus

Exteroceptors

provide information from outside of the body

Identify the relationship between ability, skill, and technique

skill= ability + technique

Closed skills

skills that are performed in a more stable and predictable environment and, as such, can be internally paced by the performer.

Open skills

skills that are significantly affected by the environmental conditions, to the extent that the conditions dictate the pace of the movement.

technique

the "way in which that sports skill is performed"

Skill

the consistent production of goal-oriented movements, which are learned and specific to the task (McMorris 2004); a specific action or the level of performance of an individual

Abilities

the qualities that enable individuals to perform the skill and, compared to skills, they are much more stable and enduring (individuals are born with them)

Movement time

the time it takes to carry out the motor aspects of the performance.

Response time

time from the introduction of a stimulus to the completion of the action required to deal with the problem

Why is variable practice important? (also be able to define and give example)

variable practice= when the demands placed on the performance of a skill are altered (ie: throwing a ball at different heights, angles, distances, etc.); importance: leads to more consistency, accuracy, and efficiency in comparison to repetition; ensures full understanding and comprehension of topic

outline mental practice

when the performers think about specific components of the movement w/o actually performing

Continuous skills

where the end of one cycle of movement is the beginning of the next

define Hick's Law

+++ possible responses/outcomes = slower rxn time

define motor programme

- Defined as a set of movements stored as a whole in the memory without peripheral feedback *A PLAN of the whole skill or pattern of movement ex: · Catching a ball in basketball · Hitting a ball in tennis - A number of motor programmes can be put together to form an executive motor programme (ex: triple jump = hop, step, jump)

Outline factors that determine response time

- Response time increases throughout childhood and adolescence, however as we get older it gets slower - Movement time is affected by fitness, particularly power and speed of limb movement - Training can greatly affect movement time but reaction time is harder to improve - main factor affect in speed of reaction = # of choices that the individual has to make (no choices = simple reaction time, the mean times range between 170 and 200 msecs; increase the # of choices, what is termed choice reaction time, the times increase)

Discuss the relationship between selective attention and memory

- Short-term memory has limited capacity (7 items) so we need to chose what we pay attention to. - Selective attention: individual focusing on relevant information while ignoring irrelevant information; broadbent (ex: Stimuli being chosen for processing after entering STM, we can also make decisions on what process before the information enters STM based on past experiences)

Outline the role of feedback with the learning processes

- With regards to learning, the main factor is that the performer improves - Beginners need to be told what to do in order to improve performance - As they improve and increase their knowledge of the activity, tal they require is KR - If they are making an error, they can resolve the problem themselves by comparing what is happening now with the store of knowledge they have told their LTM - So now we can say they require descriptive feedback

Outline the role of feedback in information processing models

- intrinsic Feedback = information received from ourselves (know how you personally performed) - extrinsic feedback = info provided by an outside source - Knowledge of the results(KR) = information of the outcome of the reaction (stopwatch/coach) - Knowledge of performance (KP) = post response info on the nature of the movement; 'feel' of the movement - positive = telling someone the positives of their performance - negative = telling someone the negatives of their performance - concurrent = feedback given during the performance - terminal = feedback given after the performance has ended

distinguish between a skilled and novice peformer

- skilled: learned through a lot of practice; meet with max certainty; minimum outlay of energy; consistent, efficient, and accurate - novice: less practice, meet with minimum certainty; large outlay of energy; inconsistent, inefficient, and inaccurate

Describe Welford's model of information processing

1) Take in information through our senses and temporarily store all of these inputs prior to sorting them out 2) The inputs that are seen as relevant to the decision are then stored in the short-term memory 3) A decision is made by comparing the information in the short-term memory with previous experiences stored in the long-term memory 4) With reference to the long term memory for the required action the decision is carried out 5) The action and the results are stored for future reference 6) The whole process then begins again

Distinguish between the characteristics of sensory memory (aka sensory information store (SIS), short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM))

1. sensory information store (SIS): where all incoming info is birefly held; all/most info lost in 0.5 seconds unless rehearsed; if rehearsed it passes to STM. 2. Short-term memory (STM): 90% of all info entering here is lost within 10 seconds; mental & physical rehearsal helps info get passed to LTM; time, capacity and space limitations (humans can only recall 7+/-2 bit of info) 3. Long-term memory (LTM): no capacity limitation; hard retrieveing old info

List the different types of skill (4)

> Cognitive skills > Perceptual skills > Motor skills > Perceptual-motor skills

learning curve

A learning curve is a way to evaluate the extent to which a skill is being learnt by plotting measures of practice versus measures of performance

performance vs. learning

A permanent change in performance over time is often used to infer learning.

whole-part-whole presentation

A variation on whole or part method is often used with performers in the Cognitive/Associative stages is whole-part-whole practice. The teacher/coach introduces the complete skill, highlighting the important elements. The performer then attempts to carry out the skill. As a result of any problems or faults observed the teacher then breaks the whole skill down into sub-routines in order to allow the learner to practice appropriate areas of difficulty.

Motor skills

A voluntary body movement with a predetermined end result

cognitive skills

Ability to solve problems by thinking