India: Gandhi to the Green Revolution - Gobbets

Norma Evenson, Chandigarh (1966)

Architectural historian from the US. Writing when major provisions of plan are evident but still scope for improvement 'the end of the beginning'. 60s when architects becoming critical of earlier utopian promises. General study of the town and its formation. Discusses its issues, esp functionality 'It is against the crisis of the times that one must see such architecture' Calls it the 'failure of Chandigarh' Not the city envisioned by Corbusier? LC statened necessity of satisfying Indian needs. Didn't pay attention to his principles? But Evenson believes in the intrinsic virtues of the plan and that it could still go well.

Amritananda Das, 'The Bengal Naxalite Predicament: Theory vs Practice of `Marxism', China Report (Nov 1970)

Arguing a disjjunction between theory and practice in Indian communism, following Maoist doctrine but using guerilla techniques of West. CPI(ML) becoming satellite for Chinese Communist Party, but limtied success.

H.S. Suhrawardy to M.A. Jinnah 28.10.47, from A.G. Noorani (ed).

S a Bengali Pakistani, PM of Pakistan '56-'57. PM of Bengal '46-'47 in British Raj. Speaking as Muslim in India. Talking of misery he's seen in Muslim refugee camps in East Punjab. Need to change mentality of the people to fix it. Not begging but asking a favour - 'it is up to you now to make or unmake'. Ridiculous to be debating finer points of Constitution when violence rife? But this equally what makes it important. Two weeks later sends letter to Nehru asking him to start discussions with Pakistan as latter not. If India takes lead and Pakistan does not reciprocate then everyone sees who problem is.

MN Srinivas, 'Caste in Modern India' Journal of Asian Studies August 1957, vol 16, No.4

Srinivas a Brahmin. Socio-historical view of caste. makes some unsubstantiated claims. Dynamic view rather than unchanging oppression, democracy as reenforcing caste. Highlights complexity within each region. Much of his argument in similar style to the Muslim League - e.g. if have democracy then only the majority will benefit. Social or political majority. What does democracy look like? Showing that in last century caste has found new activity, British transfer of power encouraged it to take political function. Caste transforms but also perpetuates social division.

V. S. Naipaul, India: A Million Mutinies Now (1990)

Naipul born in Trinidad, but lived in Wiltshire at time of publication. Nonfiction travelogue written during time in India, here meeting two people invovled in Naxalite movement.

Deendayal Upadhayaya, extracts Integral Hinduism, in C. Jaffrelot (ed), Hindu Nationalism: A Reader (New Delhi and Princeton, 2007)

From brahmin family, left degree to dedicate self to RSS. Wrote Integral Humanism as doctrine for the party when taken over by Jana Sangh. JS president 67-8 (assassinated). Integral humanism borrowed some Gandhian principles (inc progress for all, domestic, and village self rule, suspicion of the state as an offensive colonial imposition) used selectively to give more importance to cultural-national values. Individual's undisputed subservience to nation prioritised. Co-habitation does not create nation (criticism of Pakistan). Society an entity, Hindus together form good group, Muslims don't have this unit. Chiti = ideals/soul of nation, but vague. Dharma = sort of country-specific principles (Hindu concept) (but who defines?), the key to society. Dharma can override democracy but says this what true democracy is.

Subarnarekha (Ritwik Ghatak, 1962)

Ghatak member of Communist party until expelled in 1955. Could never accept Partition. Story of two siblings who adopt young boy at refugee camp in Pakistan, grow up and boy and sister fall in love, poor family. He dies and Sita left to make money, turns to prostitution and brother accidentally hires her, Sita kills self when he walks in.

Gandhi's advice to India's Muslims 22.12.47, from A.G. Noorani (ed).

'The virtue of being in a minority', now actually better for Muslims. Advises them to refrain from applying to join Congress until offered to them on equal grounds. Muslim League cannot remain a poltical organisation, same as other religious groups.

Gandhi-Nehru dialogue (1945-6)

'We can realise truth and non-violence only in the simplicity of village life'. (Gandhi) Nehru doesn't understand why village = truth and non-violence. Nehru surprised at how Gandhi stands by Hind Swaraj as thinks he's strayed from it in thinking since. Gandhi says they're more alike than Nehru suggesting. Both want best for India. bringing man to potential, unit of life should be village, equal right and opportunity for all, necessity of spiritual advance. English (at least copy of attached) for each letter. G says can best explain in English. Nehru doesn't think there's split between their eras in interview.

Jawaharlal Nehru

1889-1964 First PM of India Gandhi's mentee. Had Western education. 'modernity' key to his views

B.R. Ambedkar

1891-1956 Born Untouchable Announced 1930s he wanted to leave Hinduism then tested faiths. Doctoral degrees at Columbia and LSE. He and thousands of followers convert to Buddhism - way to be recognised as religous minority and solve host of other issues connected to Untouchable struggle. His version of Buddhism untraditional though (rejects four noble truths). Argues Untouchables historically Buddhists who refused to accept Hinduism, trying to find tradition. Coined 'graded inequality' which saw as more dangerous than other inequality bc groups refuse to combine to work against top. Referred to Untouchables as Dalits - from Marathi word for broken men and meant to connect them to Buddhism. Instilling sense of dignity. Also liked Untouchables bc forced wrong doer to see what doing.

Satyajit Ray, Our Films, Their Films (1976)

1948, 1965 and 1967 texts. Criticising Bengali cinema (?). More open to ideas from West in latter, colonialism not as fresh. And increasingly in support of music - criticism fo the raga becomes embrace of of music in style of film. Seems to distinguish between Europe (takes influence from) and America (overly glitzy). Highlights contrasting perspectives across time within individuals. Studied American directors, then paired with home situation. Insipiration incs C18 German composers. Indian film not flourishing bc American influence, need to find own style. 'Visual dissonance' - disjunction between national identity and modernisation. Indian cinema has sm music bc country lacks other forms of entertainment. Not all foreign is bad, matter of how incorporated. Lack of cultural specificity as trying to appeal to everyone in large country. Focus on human and Indian aspect (like in PP) what successful.

MK Gandhi, Hind Swaraj (1909)

A deconstruction/critique of received idea of what India looks like. Deliberately presented naively. Foregrounding poor majority. Sophisticated reasoning with home-ly examples. India not taken by British but given to them, they were action lies, diff to Congress view. Civilisation is spiritual - duty, morality. Nation 'remains immovable, and that is her glory'. Modern civilisation 'cursed'. Education a tool that can make people discontent. Anti-professionals (despite being trained as lawyer), anti-machinery mostly. Anarchist? In some ways describes it as easy to achieve - within them, but also advocating radical overhaul of system. G concentrates on means to ends. 'The tendency of Indian civilisation is to elevate the moral being, that of the Western civilisation is to propagate immorality.'

Pathar Panchali [Song of the Little Road] (Satyajit Ray, 1955)

About rural family struggling to make ends meet. Ancient auntie who doesn't get on with mother and eventually dies. Father goes away to earn money, doesn't return for many months. Daughter (Durga) gets ill and dies during a storm just before father returns and sees devastation. Son (Apu) survives. Ends with remaining three going to city. Brahmin family - poverty does not discriminate by caste. Bengali gov supports financially bc thinks about roads and state development. Nehru loves, submits to international film festival. Realism - Faith in scientist what led Indian directors to strive for this. Banerjee, author of Pather Panchali, 'modern world' not left in sterile opposition to traditional, but used to show opposition itself need not be final.

B.R. Ambedkar, Pakistan or the Partition of India (1941, 1946)

Against Partition. Avoid Hindu Raj. 'Hinduism is a menace to liberty, equality and fraternity'. Muslim separate state makes Hindu one more likely. Compares to other nations (e.g. Canada). Discusses practical problems. Most believe Ultimately argues for it to go to votes in predominantly Muslim provinces, says its a choice between Freedom of India or Unity of India, can't force them to be part of. Another poll 10 years later, could rejoin here. Pakistan has to be sorted before independence.

P.C. Mahalanobis, Talks on Planning, Next Steps in Planning (1961)

Anniversary address delivered as president of the National Insititute of Sciences of India, Jan 1959. Gains of 2nd Five Year Plan inc realisation unemployment and poverty can only be fixed by rapid industrialisation. But failed - many more applicants than jobs, unemployment rising. Solution of bigger 3rd Five Year Plan. Aim of socialism, but leaves purpsoefully vague. Advocates science, and national service in exchange for higher education.

The Hindustan Times, 'Muslims Urged to Study English for Progress', 27.12.70., from A.G. Noorani (ed).

Article about Mr Basheer Ahmed Sayeed's call for Muslims to learn English. Promoting South Indian culture at same time. Doesn't want abolition of English as in northern states to spread here. Thinks if Gov had put 1/100th of effort its put into SCs and STs into Muslim minority then things would have been quite different.

Balraj Madhok, extracts Indianisation, in C. Jaffrelot (ed), Hindu Nationalism: A Reader (New Delhi and Princeton, 2007)

BM wrote an Indianisation (Hinduisation) charter for the Jana Sangh in late 60s/70s. President of JS 1966-7. This extract from conference in Patan in Dec 1969 where he set out arguments for Indianisation. Based on 1952 JS resolution for 'Indianisation'. Muslim problem, blames Congress. Suggests new history, and national festivals, all meant to be distinct from religion but when explains they are clearly Hindu. Hindu duty to indianise other sections of society. Geographical unity cannot sustain a nation.

Charu Mazumdar, 'A Few Words about Guerrilla Warfare', February 1970, reprinted in S.K. Ghosh, (ed), The Historic Turning Point: A Liberation Anthology, vol. 2 (California, 1993)

Based on notes taken at meeting of revolutionary peasant cadres where Majumdar gave advice. Outlines how to form guerilla unit and attack. AKA 'muder manual' - his most original contribution ot Maoist thought

Towards Equality: Report of the Committee on the Status of Women of India (1974) Note of Dissent, Lolita Sarkar and Vina Mazumdar

Biggest issue with report is its position on reservations, which the pair want. Used to be against but doing report has made think differently. Rejection of this request exposes that issue is ideological.

Fikr Taunsvi, The Wagah Canal, 1950 in Mushirul Hasan (ed), India Partitioned: The Other face of Freedom Vol I, (trns. A.S. Judge (2012))

Canal marking the India/Pakistan border. Plain and simple life giver to home of troops and guns. Semi-autobiographical. Religous texts had to be reinterpretted to bring out things don't actually stand for. History won't remember the peace - 'such non-political aspects had no place in history books'. Compares self to tree on the border, which he's told by gov official not to be interfering with.

Chandigarh

Capital of Punjab American architect intially considered, then went with Swiss Corbusier. Capitol Complex as focal point of city. Discusses its issues, esp functionality. Symbolic - building new gov buildings in prominence to try to overshadow British who did same. Assembly meant to bring people together but segregates groups. Housing segregated by class. Museum of Knwoledge designed by Corbusier and meant to promote science but vague and never fulfilled this. Nehru said to have requested a city 'unfettered by the traditions of the past', but no experimentation on social level (segregation continued)

The Framing of India's Constitution, Select Documents (eds. Shiva Rao et al, New Delhi, 1966), vol 4, 'Linguistic Provinces Commission'

Commission directed to report on formation of new provinces. Submitted Dec 1948. Inquiring into desirability, financial, economic and administrative consequences, and approx. boundaries. Unanimously against. 'general recognition that India should have a strong Centre and a national language'. Majority favours the mother-tongue as regional language, Hindi as second, English third. Need change in mass psychology. Linguistic homogeneity will create more problems, inc encouraging more separation. Indian unity more important.

The Framing of India's Constitution, Select Documents (eds. Shiva Rao et al, 1966), Vol 1: 'Adoption of the National Flag'

Documents from working committee resolution (1931), to its unveiling and representatives pledging allegiance. 1931 - Colours representing qualities not communities. Should remain close to existing flag. Nehru, Mohammad Sadulla (Deputy Leader of the Muslim League Party), and Sarojini Naidu (feminist and first female president of Indian National Congress) amongst those pledging and giving speeches. Each tlak of significance of falg for them, all talk of national unity. Prasad-Nehru letter show flag to be handspun, avoid alienating Gandhi. Exchange of Gandhi's wheel for wheel of law showed how common man vanished from agenda, instead historic personality of Ashoka replaced it. Ashoka Chakra as representing eternal wheel of law. Switch only happened a few days before independence to remove and communal undertones. Nerhu explains it as a practical change. Jha (2008) - Understanding the politics of discourses of ways of looking the representational site of the tricolour. Reading as a contested field and analysing the cultural practices.

Government of India: Report of the Backward Classes Commission [Kalelkar Report], Vol 1 (1956)

Done on a presidential order. Untouchables are a scheduled caste. Utimately recommends siginificant reservations but not a unanimous report. Report rejected by Central Government on ground it had not applied any objective tests for identifying the backward class and that recognition of SCs as backwards may perpetuate existing distinctions. Wanted economic based reservations. Begins with letter to the President from Chairman. Who is against 'remedies based on caste' what about Muslims and Christians? Also against reservations. Contradicts self - losing crediblity. Group loyalty threatens democracy. Could have been written in more detached style but wanted to show feeelings and grievances of BCs. Need to tackle psychologies. Report primarily submitted to home minister - a Brahmin known for his conservative views. Quickly dismissed. Nehru's gov eventually decided in 1961 there was no need for all India list of OBCs and consequently no reservation policy at centre. Jaffrelot (2003) argues any action was pretext to mask desire to maintain staus quo.

E.V. Ramaswami 'Dear Youths!' 21.2.43 in Collected Works of Periyar E.V.R. vol 1 (Trichy: n.d.)

Dravidians are slaves to others, but can't blame government, instead 'we are cowards'. Blames Congress for ills. Boycott books promoting religion, create disharmony. No historical evidence Aryans ruled the tamils. Against Gandhi's recent fasts - silly for law to change for one man and sees him as pro-Brahmin bc advocates for revitalising Hinduism. Claims he's talking only of social not political. Warns against Communism.

Fikr Taunsvi

Explores strucutre and pluralities of scoial life under political events. Memoir of Partition = the Sixth River Historian of Urdu literature. Fikr Taunsvi = pen name Taunsvi = 'hailing from Taunsa Sharif'. A city in Pakistan, Fikr = a particular shrine here patronised by both Muslims and Hindus. Writes for poor, reflects upbringing. MU Memon argues writers on partition could not interrogate its reasons bc almost all of them under influence of the Progressive Movement, which saw man as an a-cultural, utilitarian being, and tf Partition as only destructive and meaningless. Fikr admits to being influenced by Progressive Movement (socialist), but is still often critical of its practice and proponents. His primary sense of loss the Punjab - identity regional not national.

B.R. Ambedkar, Conversion (1936)

From a 1936 article, following Mahar conference of same year when decision to renonunce hinduism was passed. But not published until 1989. Speech was in Marathi but article in English - growth of intended audience? Arguing for conversion for Untouchables, dismantling the arguments against it. Originally called 'Away from Hindus', but editor changed it. 'Away' shows rejection of Hinduism rather than towards a specific. Need to separate religion from theology, and see religion as for preservation of society and welfare of individual. Sees it as a function of society, like law or gov. Yet his ultimate solution for Untouchables is a religious one, building community in more traditional sense.

Gandhi's Political Vision: The Pyramid vs the Oceanic Circle (1946)

From an interview July 1946. Pyramid is hierarchical, Gandhi's oceanic circle = individual at centre, always ready to perish for village. Outer circle provides strength. Independence must begin at bottom - every village a republic, and individual the unit. No space for machines which would concetrate power. Truth and non-violence only possible with belief in God. Constituent assembly has potential for its realisation, but lacking common goal tf his voluntary ideal unlikely.

Gold and Gujar

Gold a professor of Religion and Antropology in US, Gujar headmaster of Middle School in Rajasthan (knows region). Interviews largely with illiterate. Filling gap for bottom-up studies. Both conducted the interviews (?) in Hindi and Rajasthani, Gold wrote English version.

M.S. Golwalkar, extracts from Bunch of Thoughts, in C. Jaffrelot (ed), Hindu Nationalism: A Reader (New Delhi and Princeton, 2007)

Golwalkar a Maharashtrian Brahmin, at university he was convinced to join the RSS, became its head in 1940. As head gave more ideological focus. Bunch of Thoughts his book released 1966. Took inspo from Hitler. Internal threat the biggest and Partition has increased this. Macrohistorical view- sees Pakistan's aim as to subjugate whole state. Criticises leadership for not being strong enough, and vicitmises the 'poor' and 'naive' Hindus. Christians compassionate on surface but manipulative in reality. Links to Muslims and communism. West economic solution to communism is no help without also building up national character and morale. 'Old Hinduism' way to save from Communism (and socialism). Wary of west and science.

The Hindustan Times, 'Muslim Grievances', 11.2.67, from A.G. Noorani (ed).

Hindustan Times = English language Indian newspaper, founded 1924 and played integral part in independence movement as a nationalist daily. Problem with daily and communal discrimination. Two main reasons for Muslim grievances are neglection of Urdu, and the inherent inequality of opportunity suffered because of Muslim 'backwardness'. But says no clear cut remedy - doesn't agree with 'feather-bedding reservations'.

Charles Correa, Housing and Urbanisation (2000)

Indian architect & urban planner + expert in housing in developing countries. Discusses anti-urban bias in India from colonialism (doesn't agree with, has some acceptance of colonial inheritence). Importance of open space, vernacular architecture, corridors of demand for public transport. Functionality key (contrast to Chandigarh). Says people will 'colonise' their homes. Importance of essence of city, 'mythic imagery'. e.g. Bombay despite its inpracticalities. Nariman Point and Hawkers did not happen - parallel to Indian vision of modernity?

Towards Equality: Report of the Committee on the Status of Women of India [GOI: Department of Social Welfare, Ministry of Education and Social Welfare, December, ND 1974)

Investigation revealed that need to transform 'de jure into de facto equality' (constitution not materialising). Approached blank. Found gender inequality bound up in other forms. Equality of women necessary for development of nation. Severe indictment of first two decades of independent India's policies. Highlights necessity of gender equality for development of nation. Recommends adding specific provisions for women, and to encourage women to mobilise politically. Doesn't want reservations, women not a minority community, too big a change, would encourage others to demand them. But does recommend women representatives in local govs and keeping pre-exisitng municipality reservations. Many argue that this the first macro-study of gender inequality in India, Bannerjee (1998) argues info was available before (e.g. Nehru's role with WRPE). Produces nuanced if not elaborte picture of gender?

It Happened in a Village [GOI Information Pamphlet, 1964]

Issued on behalf of the ministry of community development and co-operation Says it's a true story, names and places all real. People involved re-enacted incidents to be photographed. Romanticises vilalge/rural life - 'creepers blooming pink and lavender'. Story of village of Bannigiri and resident Kenchappa who improved the village (built road) out of own gumption and with government support (chp when this happens called 'the helping hand'). Sometimes critical of the villagers 'the ruts of thinking they were used to'. When working on the road it 'a common, good purpose' and are happier. Gov employee claims to 'serve you in any way I can'. Audience? unclear, not illiterate villagers. Self-congratulatory.

'Jamiat Goes Apolitical' Times of India 19.4.49, from A.G. Noorani (ed).

Jamiat = Council of Indian Muslim Theologians Before Independence Congress had political alliance with the Jamiat - cooperation given on understanding that Congress would maintain Muslim personal law. Maulana Azad previously advised them to shun politics. Giving up politics to coencentrate on welfare of poor Muslim masses.

M.A. Jinnah's advice to the Coorg State Muslim Delegation, 25.7.47, from A.G. Noorani (ed).

Jinnah the founder of Pakistan. Main advice: maintain identity and individuality, adapting selves to changed circumstances without losing identity, and ultimate triumph of Muslims in India as balancing factor in power politics and resultant advantages. Thanks those staying in India for their sacrifice. Says will watch their path with care. Separately, Jinnah has hostage theory. But also says in 1941 speech that if 2/3 Muslims are sacrificed then so be it.

Selig Harrison, India: The Most Dangerous Decades (1960)

Journalist and sometimes scholar. Navy service in WWII then Harvard. Argues caste lobbies made more powerful by representative politics and state linguistic divisions. Showing fissiparous tendencies in Indain society. Dangerous decades = after independence but before enough development to satisfy rising aspirations. Caste beocming nationally worrying with connection created by tech. Concludes collapse of India's present form of democracy likely. 'Hinduism is in a social and political sense as much a force for disintegration as for integration.'

Khaliquzzamam pledges loyalty to the National Flag, 27.7.47, from A.G. Noorani (ed).

K a Pakistani politician and Muslim figurehead, one of top leaders of All India Muslim league and a founding father of Pakistan. Later the first president of the Muslim League (Pakistan). Willingly pledges loyalty 'Every Muslim, Hindu, and Christian will feel proud in hoisting this flag throughout the length and breadth of India,'

Official Languages Commission Report [Kher Report] (1956)

Kher imprisoned during Quit India struggle. Ex PM of Bombay. Born to Marathi-speaking Brahmin family. Members: 20 elected from both houses, 10 from Council of States chosen using proportional representation. Recommends English not be used, Hindi should be but native speakers need not learn another, admin staff should learn Hindi within a given time and if don't then penalties. Hindi chosen bc biggest group speak it. Report presented to Parliament in 1957; who recommended: flexibility necessary and need no rigid date for change to a national language, English should be principal official language until 1965 then should be Hindi. Two notes of dissent.

Wolf Ladejinsky, 'Agrarian Reform in Asia', Foreign Affairs. Vol 42, No.3 (April 1964)

Ladejinksy a Georgist and American agricultural economist. Born in Soviet Ukraine and fled as refugee from Russian revolution in early 20s. Key adviser on land reform to several Asian governments. Lived in India in later deacdes of life. Caught up in Red Scare but no evidence. Became critical of Indian Gov's grand proposals for land reform. Foreign Affairs = American magazine on international relations and US foreign policy, published by the Council on Foreign Relations (nonpartisan). Agriculture not industrialisation the "pivot of economic life" in asia. Comapres a few asian nations. Ownership of land and security of tenure are key. Saying peasants don't know their power / are apathetic to politics tf political reform groups more important currently. Hopes they will become source for change. Ultimately sees agrarian reform as necessary for advance, and needs commitment and motivation of gov.

Ritwik Ghatak, Rows and Rows of Fences (Calcutta 1987)

Largely ignored by Bengali public during lifetime, unlike Ray whom he knew. Work often on tragedy of Partition, lived in East Bengal which became Pakistan, moved. Works out of 'a need to to express my pangs and agonies about my suffering people'. Showing the loss of subjecthood experienced by nation's people. Difficult to reconcile his work into easy Indian nationalism - showing Partition, militance, melodrama, etc. Overall takes full protest agaisnt rhetoric of triumphalist Indian nationalism. Ajantrak - film about relationship between man and machine, 'destroys all that is good'. Target audience 'simple folk like peasants' as used to assimilating new things (can contrast to Gold and Gujar). Sees tradition of musical film as monstrous, also needs to find own Indian identity and use more effectively for narrative. Gives Cacoyannis' Electra as good example - acceptance of West. Economic view of problems with industry. Wants to nationalise exhibtion trade, but not production and distribution. (interesting bc of his communism) Wants film to help man and avoid 'moral decay'.

Maulana Azad 'Address to Delhi Muslims' 23.10.47, from A.G. Noorani (ed),.

MA a independence activist, and senior leader of Indian National congress. Name not real name, adopted Azad as means free. Muslim. 'I am an orphan in my own motherland' Previously warned against two-nation theory. Partition 'a fundamental mistake'.

P.C. Mahalanobis, Talks on Planning (1961), Heralding a New Epoch (1959)

Mahalanobis = Chief of Indian planning, flare for speech, wanted leaps of change not incremental. This article contributed to book A Study of Nehru published by the Times of India for Nehru's 70th birthday. Knew Nehru personally, consulted on statistics for planning, fan of him. Nehru resolved to remove 'poverty and misery of the Indian people'. Views Nehru's vision as involving planning long before he was PM. Middle Way born from Nehru as PM. Author believes Nehru brought them 'into a new epoch'.

Noorani sources overview

Major themes: how to deal with past, how to create new politics, what does minority rights mean? Lucknow Pact 1916 between INC and Muslim League endorsed separate electorates, but protection of minorities had been linked to their participation in march for freedom. Jinnah calls for Partition bc he thinks Muslim and Hindu lives too intertwined. Partition will allow for focus on other issues such as economy, - true democracy and progress. Two brothers fighting over property metaphor. Reservations ultimately suggested instead of separate electorates. Difficult to define politics and religion in this context - what is secular? Is religion best a cultural force? How does theology come in? Congress Party formed 1880s, Muslim League formed early 1900s but adopted idea of Pakistan in 1930s and 40s, didn't have time to fully form and articulate ideas.

Vina Mazumdar, 'Comment on Suttee' Signs vol 2, no.2 (Winter 1978)

Mazumdar = Indian academic, left-wing activist and feminist. Pioneer in women's studies in India. Childhood in india but went to Oxford uni. Brought fame for Towards Equality. Practice of suttee = burning widows. Commenting on the ritual and explains it as contributing to the maintenance of social structure based on caste stratification and social inequality. Also mentions restrictions on women tend to be worse in higher castes. Published in Western journal. Story of two ancestors, one who illegally practised, other who stood against, both rebellious in diff ways, and both saw selves as protecting family. Women's traditional role can be challenged. Says explains basic trait of Hindu culture - acceptance of contradictions. Looks at the poweful female deities of Hinduism. Sita and Savitiri, and others representing female strength and wisdom, male equivalents inferior. Widow burning fits bc ban on it was dictated by necessity of maintaining social structure based on caste stratification and inequality. Women drawn strength from harsh treatment.

Mother India (Mehboob, 1957)

Mehboob worked way up from horseshoe repairer on set to director. Banner of his company the hammer and sickle (represents peasant roots rather than communism?). Protagonist marries seemingly wealthy man, turns out is not, leaves and Mother India left to raise children. Struggles with greedly landlord, offers her money for her body which she refuses. Children grow up - youngest son angry (Birju), mother ends up killing him for fear he'll hurt landlord's daughter he loves. Nationalism via film. Associates villains with symbols of West (Whiskey bottles, bikini-clad escorts, limousines). Images of irrigation canals in Mother India are realised dream of industrial modern nation, power of which embodied in the waters and power plant as possibility of technology.

Awaara [tramp] (Raj Kapoor, 1951)

Mother thrown out of home on false accusation of infediltity, son Raju taken under wing of criminal jagga who caused inital accusation (reminiscent of story of Sita). Raju kills Jagga and tries to kill judge (real father), then redeems himself and wins childhood sweetheart. Fairy-tale treatment of class division. Nexus of authority (power, patriarchy, and law explicitly excludes hero). Feudal notion of status - son of thief to become one. Not just case of 'good' genes and 'bad' surroundings - also ahs his mother who of good caste thought poor and destittue, but remains morally good. Raju's patricide tries to break out of contradiction set against an alternative, post-colonial, reinvention Utopia in which everyone can fully 'belong', symbolised by Rita who is hero's conscience and reward. Nature and nurture irrelevant? Society has final say. Socialist themes - showing evils of capitalism. V popular in Communist countries like Russia or China. Jagga and Judge struggle for Raj's soul - nature v nurture debate reminsicent of caste ideology. Dream sequence = inner termoil - angels all female, shows good of mother and love interest. Court room scene represents all of India - in dress can see religion, poor children there. Scene on boat - see sickle, sign of revolution. Second generation has less issue with caste. The woman the rich one. Gives women a place, but also self-sacrifice. Raj oddly transcendent character - can pass in diff classes, fundamentally an outcast. released 1951, wouldn't yet know post-colonialism would play out. Ideas of what it could be? but doesn't reference Partition.

B.R. Ambedkar, 'Gandhism: Doom of the Untouchable Class' (1945)

Much quoting Gandhi then systematic deconstruction of his arguments. Polemical critique of seeing Gandhi as God. Trying to disprove him without attacking his followers. Attacking along diff lines rather than with each other? Accuses him of being uninterested in economic equalty and protecting the propertied class. Culture and leisure what separate man from animal, everyone should have access to. Gandhi fears revolution, indulgence. Thinks caste prevents class war. Accuses of false propaganda and glamourising suffering. Gandhi's path for removing untouchability turns them into 'eternal scavengers'. 'Hinduism is a veritable chamber of horrors'. Difficult to argue with G - usually accused of hypocrisy but this not politically substantial. A focussed on caste and religion - not class despite Marxist style of argument. A needs Gandhi for career, not other way.

Constituent Assembly Debates on Separate Electorates, May 1949, from A.G. Noorani (ed).

Muslim League advocating for separate electorates. Others (inc from ML) suggest it could lead to divides within these groups as have to place all on one candidate. Saadulla suggests no separate electorates but reservations for limited time. Majority speaking against both reservation of seats and separate electorates. Many claim to be speaking for all Muslims.

Nathuram Vinayak Godse, May It Please Your Honour (New Delhi, 1989)

NV Godse sentenced to death for Gandhi assassination. Hindu nationalist. His brother, Shri Gopal Godse published the statement which was previously banned by gov. Sarvarkar the brains behind the operation. Says he respected and honoured Gandhi, but had to die as was anti-national and preferencing Muslims. Shared view sin many ways, but Godse saw politics as ruthlesszero-sum game where needed to maximise losses of opponents. Saw Gandhi's emphasis on political ethics and moral supremacy of oppressed as irrational. (Nandy 1980) Also diff conceptions of Hinduism - Gandhi as open-ended, Godse liked aggressive self-affirmation and need to redress past humiliations. Esp for telling Hindus to stay in Pakistan (this sacrifical). G ordering Delhi mosques not to house Hindu refugees. Not enemy of Congress but has differences with its leaders. Satisfied to have killed him, things have improved since. Path now open for 'secular state in the true sense of that word' - meaning Hindu. 'If devotion to one's country amounts to a sin, I admit I have comitted that sin'. Nehru suggested he did not know what doing, Nandy (1980) disagrees.

J. Nehru, AICC Avadu Draft Resolution: A Socialist Pattern (09.01.55)

Need social reform for unity. Congress willing to take action against 'undesirable tendencies' against its values. Satisfaction with progress with economy so far. Note saying 'socialist' changed to 'socialistic' as India didn't want to tie herself to a particular doctrine'.

Stree Shakti Sanghatana, 'We Were Making History: Life Stories of women in the Telengana People's Struggle

Oral history of Telengana People's Struggle. Chityala Ailamma a translation, Pramilla Tai the original. Analysis comes after transcripts. Testimonies focus less on landlord exploitation (basis of uprising), than problems w/in movement - family, child bearing, gender relationships. Author says this the 'parallel realm that absorbed women's efforts'. Chityala Ailamma: Poor woman who turned to commune when her land threatened. Rose through communist ranks and became sort of folk hero. Later dumped by them, now cared for by granddaughter. Pramilla Tai: First woman in communist party, also part of women's organisations. Says she is treated like a man by party, but from actions and lack of progress it seems not. Takes v gendered role at home. Uninterested in global women's issues.

Gandhi, Constructive Programme: its meaning and place (1941, rev. 1945)

Originally addressed to Indian National Congress, discusses steps for implementing philosophy of Hind Swaraj. Need to remove inequality in untouchability ('this blot and curse upon Hinduism'). Congressmen (whatever religion) should represent everyone (argument against separate electorates?). Education should be designed around being a good villager. Civil disobedience has place when paired with constructive programme.

J. Nehru, Discovery of India, (1946) 'Partition', 'Realism and Geopolitics', 'Freedom and Empire'

Partition will create more problems as religous groups intertwined. Enforced relationships don't work (cites England/India example). Muslim only vote unfair as decides fate of others too. Practical approach. Freedom first, then q of secession. (opposite to Ambedkar) Critcises Jinnah for identifying a nation with a religion. USSR showing imperialist tendencies Having freedom and empire impossible.

Ann Grodzins Gold and Bhoju Ram Gujar, In the Time of Trees and Sorrows (Durham, 2002)

Peasants' memories of everyday life in India, comparing royal rule to independence. Oral history. Singh (the darbar/king) died 1947, coincides with independece, but the material change is in end of princely state for the villagers. Singh reacts foolishly to news of independence over radio. With Singh's death natural world degraded. Villagers compare new gov trees to those of past. Elephant = Indain elite and power. Cow = village and religious life. 'There is no progress, just envy' - an interviewee. Certain embarrassment shown when some people explained situation via divine causality, author suggests it may be they perceive the questioners' identities as rooted in secular modernity.

Padatik [Guerilla Fighter] (Dir: Mrinal Sen, 1973)

Political activist (Sumit) escapes the prison van and is sheltered in a posh apartment owned by a young woman. Both are rebels: first against political treachery and latter socially. Fugitive questions the leadership and whether a good life to come, received badly. Set in Calcutta when was centre of Naxalite revolt. Socio-poltical context revealed by newspapers in opening scenes.

Maulana Azad calls for the dissolution of the Muslim League 27.12.47, from A.G. Noorani (ed).

Politician and Muslim theologian. At his presidential address at the Indian Union Muslim Conference. Audience of 60,000. Sees community bodies as dangerous and having no place in poltical life. Would have no objection if confined selves to religion and culture alone.

E.V. Ramaswami: The Ramayana (A True Reading) (Trichy: 1959, 2nd ed 1972)

Published by Periyar Self-Respect Propaganda Institution. Chose brief pamphlets as affordable and could reach wide audience. Helped by simple but witty prose. Ramayana = Sanskrit epic, constructed over nearly a millennium. Read here hyper literally and as text of political domination - oppression of southern Indians (Dravidians represented by Ravana) by northern (Brahmins represented by Rama) Dravidians need to recognise own capabilities, pointing out this not a sacred text. Showing that the 'cowl does not make the monk'. Persuasive - Ravana's unwillingness to kill animals - sign of compassionate nature. Playing on vegetarianism. Not just denying text but reinterpreting. Spends more time denegrating north than promoting south.

Sardar Patel rebuts Muslim League leaders' charge of sabotaging Pakistan 6.1.48, from A.G. Noorani (ed).

SP, aka 'unifier of India' = first deputy PM of India. Hindu nationalist sympathies? Helped quash opposition to Nehru from the left, but also his main opposition on the right. Death allowed for Nehru to pursue anti-communal policies. 'ever-changing, indecisive, and noncommittal attitude of Pakistan'. If Pakistan collapses, then by 'her own mistakes and sins'. Gets called greatest enemy of Muslims, but does not see self that way. Calls for RSS to be won over by love.

Shyama Prasah Mukherjee, 'On Kashmir' in C. Jaffrelot (ed), Hindu Nationalism: A Reader (New Delhi and Princeton, 2007)

SPM= Part of elite of Bengal, became member of Hindu Mahsaba in 1937, then set up set up the Bharatiya Jana Sangh in 1951. Appeared more moderate than other Hindu nationalist leaders. Jammu & Kashmir a focal point of Hindu nationalism bc a Muslim majority state - Jinnah and Muslim League thought should have been part of Pakistan, but Hindus saw it as inseparable part of India. Speech from 7 Aug 1952 UNO has not given them fair treatment on the issue, suggests ignoring them. Legislative not religious argument. Will lose unless PM willing to use force, beign too delicate towards Kashmir. Thought accession was established and wanted to talk about raids, but UNO questioned accession. Says he wants India to be place for all religions.

Fikr Taunsvi, The Book of Divine Knowledge, 1950 in Mushirul Hasan (ed), India Partitioned: The Other face of Freedom Vol I, (trns. A.S. Judge (2012))

Satirical bible conveying anguish and anger at Partition. Begins with pastiche of Genesis. Compares the English to God but also the reverse criticising very concept of creating a new. Suggests there was always a past irreconcilible with the violence of creation. God created Muslim and Hindu refugees. Refugees constantly blamed for their own hardship. 'and then the Hindus and the Muslims fell apart; proof that they had once been one'. Blames English at least partly.

Note on the Report of the Official Language Commission as a Minority Report' by Dr Suniti Kumar Chatterji (1956)

Says POV has changed bc of recent events. Thinks recommednations of report would bring 'total revolution', ignores fact not everyone accepts Hindi. 'Hindi-imperialism' Wants hindi as one of the official languages side by side with English (which is link to world), and retaining regional languages. Need to let happen on own timeline. 'we have raised a Frankenstein, and we are now recoiling in front of it'. Framed as concern for democracy, actually economic fears.

E.V. Ramaswami

Shundra 'Patriarch' of the Dravidian movement. ironically more interested in blood connection than linguistic but audience placed him a head of langauge movement. Father removed from school age ten bc insisted on associating with boys of lower castes. Withdrew from Congress party in 1925 bc saw it as vehicle for Brahmin domination. Campaigned against 1937 Madras imposition of Hindi in schools, imprisoned. Sees Hinduism as fundamentally about disunity.

Charan Singh: Joint Farming X-Rayed: The Problem and Its Solution (Bombay 1959)

Singh = ex-minister for Revenue, Irrigation and Power, Uttar Pradesh. PM of India (79-80), frequently referred to as the 'champion of India's peasants'. Born to rural peasant family. Hindu. SHowing the theory of development to amtch his philosophies. Against Nehruvian plans to push middling farmers into joint co-operatives. Prefers more labour intensive methods. Small farms way to democracy, which is dependent on liberty of the worker. In some ways like Gandhi? Smaller landholdings better for this. Giving individual eocnomic freedom gives them political freedom, allows democracy. Compares to Russian communism, hates bc lack of independence. Also hates capitalism. Criticises those advocating joint farming from their arm-chairs. Need to avoid concentration of economic power. But, 'society is the best where control over the individual is least', and refers to Jefferson on needing property for freedom.

J. Nehru, Selected Works (2nd series. eds. S. Gopal et al, Delhi, 1972-82) Vol 25: 'Hurdles to Building a New India' 7.5.54

Speech at a public meeting, Kanpur, original in Hindi. Need for unity bc of international situation. Caste responsible for separation. Using case of language to explore issue of maintaining diversity but finding unity. Hindi adopted as national language under constitution, was necessary. In each state its language should be used fully still.

J. Nehru, Selected Works (2nd series. eds. S. Gopal et al, Delhi, 1972-82) Vol 33: 'The Unity and Development of India (Bombay issue) 20.6.56.

Speech at a public meeting, new Delhi. Original in Hindi. On way to visit other countries. Mentions recent problems of state reorganisation. Seems to think its not such a big deal, freedom of movement still remains, still in India. Should learn English bc global importance. HIndi used for officail work bc of number of speakers, improtant people know it but shouldn't force it as will create resentment. Disturbed by violence and protest in society, questions whether people tired of Gandhi's values. Advocating 'one world' approach to global threats.

J. Nehru, Selected Works Vol 28: 'The Hindu Marriage Bill' 5.5.55

Speech during debate on the bill in Lok Sabha. Speaking in support of, 'the highest importance'. Laws need to change with times. Uses statisitcs, relgious arguments, experts. Proud of the women of India, says they truly represent nation's spirit. Any woman representing nation has only ever brought credit. Nehru seems to walk careful line - says a lot about female lib but aware could impede on personal law and religion. Ultimately split code into 4 to pass it, but also diluted them. This bill the first attempt to shake off social structure. Gandhi sees this bill as women beign absorbed into capitalism, should turn suffering to action.

J. Nehru, Temples of New India (Dams) (08.07.54)

Speech inaugurating canal system. Original in Hindi and English. Part of process of building 'new India'. Happy to bring men from abroad for help.

J. Nehru, Chandigarh: Symbol of Planned Development (19.03.55)

Speech inaugurating new building in Chandigarh. 'new and wonderful' - represents wonders of modern India and planning. Not just bricks but conveying a message. Talks of dangers of atomic war, India must strengthen self, but not with human missery of USSR's progress. Expresses disdain for Communism, wants to follow broad principles of socialism.

B.R. Ambedkar, Basic features of the Constitution from introduction to the Draft Constitution in the Constituent Assembly, 4.11.48, from The Essential Writings, Rodrigues (2004)

Speech introducing motion and dealing with criticism (has been in public for 8 months). Advocating for new form of federalism, with equal citizenship no matter your state. And more centralised than US federalism, compares to numerous international models. 'what is the village but a sink of localism, a den of ignorance, narrow-mindedness and communalism'. Belives in Constitution to point of something to go wrong would be fault of man, not it.

Sholay (Ramesh Sippy, 1974)

Thakur policeman transporting two criminals who then protect him, years later Thakur calls on them to catch an enemy for him (who cut off his arms and killed sons years ago). One of pair falls in love, other dies saving them both. Released on Indian independence day (Aug 15) Instant success, highest-grossing Indian film ever for nearly two decades. 'Masala film' Western motifs. State of Emergency begins 6 weeks before premiere - a surprisingly presceint parable of erosion of traditional order and brutalisation of poltics in once happy villages. Original ending had officer take matters into own hands, censor board made them reshoot. Parallels to Mother India.

Selig Harrison, India: The Most Difficult Decades (1956) Eden in South India, and Bhakti and the Regional Languages

Tracks history of Tamil and its antiquity (which is the basis for non-Brahman case for ancient Tamil civilisation). Then how Hinduism took root in Tamilnad. Most of new generation became English-speaking bc colonialism made it passkey to intellectual and administrative employment. But regional language remain key to past. But British presence also encouraged burst of vitality in regional langs. But this means greater potential for 'fissiparous tendencies'.

The Essential Writings of B.R. Ambedkar (ed. V. Rodrigues, Delhi, 2002) 'The Hindu Code Bill'

Trying to make it sound as though really little is changing, making more palatable. Finds regional, religious and historical examples of points of the Bill already being accepted and used, tf not 'radical or revolutionary change'. e.g. going back to text of smritis on inheritance, universalising to Dayabhag Hindu law. Ambedkar resigned in frustration over the bill in 1951, said part of reason was didn't believe Nehru committed to getting it through. Did help to establish motion of women's equality as ideal? Opponents won't say women not equal but will in underhand way.

Moved by love: the memoirs of Vinoba Bhave (1985)

VB - Gandhi chose him to lead first civil-disobedience movement for independence. Jailed in Quit India movement. Prominence suddenly 1951, went between villages asking landowners to give up 1/6 of land for landless. Often rifts after he left as didn't stay to see transfer. Spiritual successor to Gandhi. Air of hagiography. Nehru never saw him as this, despite fact his method would sort some of his problems. Text translated by Marjorie Sykes, who was asked personally by Bhave to work with him. Saw villagers as having 'special quality'. Called it 'much more revolutionary work than any Government could do', bc changing human outlook. Accepted money too. Sets up Ashrams, some ran by women. Sherman (2016) argues his ideas worked in productive tension with Nehru's as direct energy of masses and work with limited resources.

MK Gandhi, 'Varnadharma and the Duty of Labour', Navajivan 6th - 20th Feb 1930.

Varnadharma = caste Q&A format. Gandhi accepts Tolstoy's Duty of Labour, this what ties individual to Varnadharma (which about society). Against hierarchy of caste. Have to work for society rather than wealth, duty. Manual work 'the first and foremost act of worship of God. Relates to Jesus, Buddha, adn Tolstoy and their own manual labour.

Gandhi on machinery (1919-47)

Views changed over time, increasingly pro-machinery (?). Machinery = appliance that tends to displace human or animal labour. Wants machinery where improves condition of labour, against when replaces people. Against machinery as a colonial system. Initially advocates for the handloom, only discovers the spinning wheel on a trip to London (footnote info). Industrialisation = enslavement. Connects machinery and violence for first time in 1945. 'Machine-power can make a valuable contribution towards economic progress', problem is its concentration. (1947)

Gayatri Devi, A Princess Remembers: The Memoirs of the Maharani of Jaipur (Calcutta, 1995):

Woman (and wife of ex-leader of Princely state Jaipur) who joined Swatantra (independent) Party as opposition, was asked to contest the seat. First asked to join Congress Party but felt they were 'shackled to visionary dogma', and Jaipur negelcted since end of princely state. Thought the villagers 'possess a dignity and self-respect that are striking'. 'Campaign of love'. Won election by 175,000 vote majority (most ever), happy the people still trusted ex-leaders. Says was really her husband's victory.

J. Nehru, The Discovery of India, (1946) Ahmadnagar Fort and Growth

Written 1944, during Nehru's incarceration at Ahmednagar Fort by British Colonial authorities - WWII and countering claims of imperial states, disorder but opportunity. Became dominant narrative of new nation. Covers ancient history to later years of British Raj. Argues India a historic nation with right to sovereignty, anlayses philosophy of Indian life. Advocates need to get more radical, and science key. Balance of spirituality. A. Guttman criticises this appraoch, R.D. King praises. Sees unity within. Also looks to future (growth, modernity, science, introspection has led to stagnation, need progress from West which needs spiritual teachings from them).

MK Gandhi, Draft Constitution of Congress (1948)

Written day before assassination, AKA Gandhi's 'Last Will and Testament' - last message that in free society political parties must be inspired by ideal that politics a form of public service not means of dominating. People more interested in personal gains than serving. Congress in current form had outlived its use. Fears of Hind Swaraj had been confirmed. Wants village system of election.

The Times, 'Muslim Alienation'. 10.8.64, from A.G. Noorani (ed).

Wrote article on this 1961 as well, when Muslims being kept out of some services, meant more likely to join communal organisations and cause trouble. Still an issue. Most Muslims that stayed in India are rural and tf poorest. British firms esp problematic for not giving work to Muslims. Sneaking attitude that Muslims not Indian, need strong leadership to remove. Jayaprakesh Narayan wrote a few months earlier about media tendency to exaggerate horrors in Pakistan and ignore htem in India. And separately on attrocities of Jamsedhpur Riots being kept quiet. Gould (2012) - Evidence from Delhi and Hyderabad that simply being Muslim could lead to dismissal