Jazz exam 1

trap set

= drum set

pitch inflection

A characteristic of the field holler and the blues is the constant use of pitch bending

Louis Armstrong

Armstrong earned the nickname "Satchel Mouth" (later shortened to "Satchmo") because of his large mouth. • After leaving the Waifs Home, Joe "King" Oliver, one of the most famous cornet players and bandleaders in New Orleans, became Armstrong's mentor. In exchange for lessons, young Armstrong performed household chores for the Olivers. He eventually began working (substituting) in places for Oliver and other New Orleans trumpet players when they were unable to make an engagement. Manny Perez, Freddie Keppard, and Bunk Johnson were some of the most well-known cornet/trumpet players in New Orleans at the time. Louis developed a reputation as a fine player, which enabled him to find steady employment in New Orleans. Around 1920, Louis Armstrong was employed by Fate Marable on Mississippi riverboats, where it was mandatory that musicians be able to read music. Louis polished his style and became one of the most sought after musicians in New Orleans. • In 1922 King Oliver invited Armstrong to relocate to Chicago and join his successful Creole Jazz Band performing at the Lincoln Gardens nightclub. Soon it was apparent that Armstrong would surpass his mentor. • King Oliver had a female pianist named Lil Hardin in his Creole Jazz Band. She caught Louis's eye and they were soon married. • Oliver's band made a series of recordings in 1923 with Armstrong playing the second cornet part. Oliver's sound is sweet compared with that of Armstrong. However, Oliver does not have much range or sheer power. (Because of limitations in recording technology at this time, these acoustic recordings do not fully represent the complete tone quality of the instrumentalists.) Oliver was also a master of using mutes to color his sound (tonal manipulation). • In 1924, at the urging of his wife, pianist Lil Hardin Armstrong, Louis moved to New York City to perform with the famous Fletcher Henderson Orchestra. • His impact on the New York musicians was strong and influential. These musicians had never heard anyone with Louis's talent and capabilities. His solo improvisations were the most innovative and expressive to date. His performances were so amazing that he raised the level of expectation of all trumpet players. • By 1925 he was back in Chicago with great fanfare and was being hailed as the greatest "hot" jazz player alive. • From 1926 to 1929 Armstrong made a series of recordings in Chicago dubbed "Louis Armstrong and His Hot Five" and "Louis Armstrong and His Hot Seven," featuring many former Creole Jazz Band musicians and other former New Orleans players. • These are some of the most important recordings in American music, and they changed the course of jazz history. They also helped to establish the primacy of Louis Armstrong as the first great jazz soloist. His playing on these recordings influenced all popular and jazz musicians. Whether they were singers or instrumentalists didn't matter. • The recordings themselves are not always of the highest quality; the arrangements are of minimal quality, and most of the other soloists cannot compare with Armstrong. What is important about these recordings is Armstrong's playing and singing. Armstrong influenced all musicians in the following ways: Rhythm: His sense of swing is exciting and compelling to both players and listeners. He plays groups of eighth notes in a long—short manner and accents or emphasizes the offbeat eighth notes. To better appreciate swing, try tapping your foot while saying the word "apple" on each tap. Then elongate the first syllable and emphasize the second, and you have swing eighth notes. The swing eighth note is different from the Western European concept of eighth notes where they are evenly subdivided with the accent on the first eighth note instead of the second. Louis's sense of rhythm seemed more acute than any of his contemporaries. His rhythmic inflection was perhaps the most influential aspect of his playing. Prior to Armstrong, the common rhythms played by jazz instrumentalists more closely resembled the rhythm of ragtime music. Ragtime, while highly syncopated, did not have the long—short lilt or the unusual accents of Armstrong. This new concept in rhythm influenced all subsequent popular instrumentalists and singers. Double time is when twice as many notes are played in the same amount of time. Most improvisers play two notes per beat as they convey the feeling of swing. Sometimes they play three notes per beat. However, once four notes per beat are being played, the swing feel changes and suddenly the beat feels as though it has increased to double the speed. Louis Armstrong used double time in many of his solos, and he could sometimes even create triple time. Double time is standard equipment for today's jazz musicians, but in Armstrong's day, he amazed everyone with his ability to improvise double-time phrases that were both accurate and musically valid. Sound: Louis possessed a large, penetrating, extroverted sound. It was often described as being "hot." His power and projection were far superior to anyone else at the time of the Hot Five and Seven recordings. It is said that even after Armstrong was placed more than twenty feet farther away from the recording apparatus than the other players, his sound was still the most powerful. His articulation (the way he played his notes) was also clear and precise. Part of his sound may be related to a switch from cornet to trumpet in the mid-1920s. Range: Armstrong extended the practical, usable range of the trumpet by a fifth. Today, many trumpet players have the ability to achieve Armstrong's range, but at that time it was extremely rare and unprecedented among jazz trumpeters (compare it to the first runner to break the four-minute mile—today all milers are expected to surpass this mark!). Armstrong played with such strength, range, and authority that many trumpet players of his day were in awe of his stamina and abilities. Vibrato: Louis had a different style of vibrato from that of his contemporaries. He used what is referred to as "terminal" vibrato. Europeans use a constant and consistent vibrato. Early blues singers used a different kind of vibrato, which is often reflected in their guitar playing. Armstrong was one of the first instrumentalists to imitate this kind of vibrato on his trumpet. All subsequent jazz instrumentalists and most popular singers followed suit. Improvisation: Armstrong was one of the first to move away from paraphrase improvisation and create improvised solos that were completely new and different from the original melody. Paraphrase improvisation is the first step in improvisation where the soloist uses the original melody and more or less paraphrases it. One can readily hear this technique used by many early jazz musicians. When Armstrong improvised, he created new material, sometimes using bits of the original song, but mostly spontaneously creating fresh material not related to the original song. His improvisations were often as memorable and strong as the original song. They were compositions (or recompositions) that stand by themselves. It is both interesting and amazing that Armstrong had few models from which to develop his new approach. Scat singing is defined as singing using nonsense syllables. Jazz singers who scat sing use and often improvise nonsense syllables such as doo, dah, be, bah, scoo, and so on, in creating instrumental-like melodies. Armstrong is given credit for the first recorded scat solo on his Hot Five "Heebie Jeebies" recording. Legend has it that he accidentally dropped a piece of paper with the words to the song while in the process of recording and rather than waste the recording, he improvised a scat solo. The recording was released with no changes, and more scat solos were included on subsequent recordings. Listen to how Armstrong interacts with the clarinetist on "West End Blues." It is as if he has transformed his voice into an instrument—or perhaps he is imitating his trumpet playing with his voice. Since Armstrong's initiation of scat solos, there have been many singers who have pursued this aspect of vocalization including Cab Calloway, Dizzy Gillespie, Sarah Vaughan, John Hendricks, Al Jarreau, and perhaps the greatest of them all, Ella Fitzgerald. • Armstrong demonstrated that jazz was a solo improviser's art. The preceding generation of New Orleans musicians utilized collective improvisation. Armstrong established the primacy of the soloist—one who could step forward and move beyond the collective style of the older generation. His playing and singing were unique, expressive, inventive, and easy to identify. Even his ballad playing was lyrical and reflective. His phrases made musical sense and conveyed feeling and emotion. • These contributions are why Armstrong's 1920s recordings changed the course of jazz history. For someone to have made any one of these contributions would have been sufficient for them to be assessed significant. In Armstrong's case, he is considered either the most significant or at least one of the most significant jazz artists of the twentieth century. Musicians and singers have taken from Armstrong what they thought would fit their own personality. Many have parlayed that into new modes of self-expression through jazz. Most American popular music can be traced back to him. • In the early 1930s, Louis Armstrong traveled extensively making appearances in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Holland, England, and all over the United States. • In 1935, Joe Glaser became Armstrong's manager and remained so until 1969. Glaser managed business affairs while Armstrong concentrated on his music. The Luis Russell Orchestra was hired to back up Armstrong, and the band eventually became known as Louis Armstrong and His Orchestra. Armstrong spent the next ten years fronting the Russell Orchestra and other big bands, achieving a huge amount of popularity. As result, he appeared in several movies as well. • In 1947, Armstrong performed with a small group called the All Stars, reverting back to playing in his style of the 1920s. The All Stars had some prominent 1920s players such as Earl Hines, Jack Teagarden, Barney Bigard, and Kid Ory. • In the 1950s and 1960s Armstrong became known as an American ambassador because of his extensive performance tours to Africa, Asia, Europe, and South America. • In the 1960s Armstrong reached another peak in his career by recording several top hits including "Hello Dolly" in 1963 and "What a Wonderful World" in 1968. By this time, Louis was known more for his singing than his trumpet playing. • When he died in 1971, most people were unaware that Armstrong had been a leading jazz innovator in the 1920s. However, had he never played another note after 1930, he still would have been considered one of the most significant musicians of the twentieth century

Minstrel show

The minstrel show first evolved in the 1840s and quickly became a popular form of entertainment. At first, the performers were white and the material consisted of songs, dances, and comedy sketches that caricatured plantation slave life. • Eventually the first black minstrel troupe was formed in 1855, and black minstrel troupes soon came to dominate the field. The wave of black minstrels created a new group of professional black entertainers. They became singers, comics, and dancers. Many nineteenth-century American popular songs were written for minstrel shows.

Swing

The term swing is often used to describe a particular aspect of jazz. Some experts consider the presence of swing to be necessary for the music to be defined as jazz. However, the definition of swing has always been vague and illusive. Even jazz musicians are hard-pressed to give an adequate response to inquiries about swing's true meaning. Louis Armstrong was once asked to define swing. His noncommittal reply was, "If you have to ask, you'll never know." • Swing has at least two meanings: The first is quite specific and is used as a shortened version referring to the big-band swing era in jazz history. The second meaning is the elusive one just discussed. It refers to that easy quality of rhythmic propulsion that flows from relaxation and coordination of tempos within a jazz performance. Used as a noun, adjective, or verb, it still eludes clear definition. It is not only a rhythmic phenomenon, but it also involves experience; we experience swing, and for clarity we will think of it in these terms. If you find yourself wanting to move your body in some kind of way as a response to the music, then what you are hearing has a swinging feeling. Some of the components of swing are easily observed, but others are very subtle. It can also be used to describe a mood. For example, "The joint was swinging" is sometimes used to describe an upbeat atmosphere. CHARACTERISTICS OF SWING • Consistent tempo • Melodies that are executed in the swing eighth-note pattern (pairs of eighth notes are arranged in long-short durations without altering the beat; the short note usually receives more emphasis—scat sing: doo-BA, doo-BA, etc.) • Rhythmic lilt • Animation or spirit • Energy that makes a listener want to physically respond • Use of syncopated rhythms • Rhythms not placed directly on the beat, but slightly ahead or behind • Cohesive group sound • Tension and release • Many different types of swing exhibited by different jazz artists and in different cultures

Ragtime

While blues, spirituals, and minstrel songs are important to the development of jazz, the ragtime style also plays a significant role. It is primarily a pianis-tic idiom that became established in the mid-1890s and remained popular un-til about 1918 when the first jazz recordings pushed it aside. Its creation was most likely due to piano players' efforts to improvise versions of brass band marches in the absence of an actual brass band. However, African-American piano players began to syncopate (rag) march melodies. The existence of syn-copation, most likely an African influence, is what makes ragtime composi-tions different from marches. Ragtime compositions were written down and often published. They were also available on player piano rolls, which could be put inside player pianos (pianos capable of mechanically producing music without a human performer) to create the music. Therefore, little if any im-provisation was present in ragtime. Ragtime has the following characteristics: • The left hand goes back and forth, alternating bass notes or octaves with midregister chords, creating the "oompah" rhythm of a brass band. • The right hand plays melodies syncopated against the regular left-hand rhythm. • The form of most rags closely resembles brass band march form (e.g., marches by John Philip Sousa). Marches generally have a sixteen-bar A section (in 2/4 time) that repeats, followed by another sixteen-bar B section that repeats, followed by another sixteen-bar C section that repeats, and so on. Each section is called a strain.

Guitar

has the same function as the piano; therefore they are exchangeable. If both are present, then they must be sensitive to each other to provide one basic function and not duplicate each other's contribution

Timbre

he quality of sound. One's ability to discern the sound of a clarinet, trumpet, or violin would be based on one's ability to distinguish the timbre of these instruments. Each person's voice has a unique timbre, making it easily recognizable. Many significant jazz musicians have been sound innovators; they have become known for a specific unique timbre created on their instrument of choice.

Nick LaRocca

helped form the Original Dixieland Jazz Band (ODJB) in New Orleans in 1914. Through the ODJB's recordings in 1917, LaRocca became a significant influence on jazz musicians active in the 1920s.

Tempo

speed or rate at which beats occur; the rate at which your foot is tapping

Instrumentation

the instruments used in a piece of music. Instruments can be grouped according to families: -Brass - trumpet, cornet, trombone, tuba, french horn -Woodwind - clarinet, flute, oboe, bassoon, and saxophone. There are several different kinds of saxophone ranging in size from small to large. The soprano, alto, tenor, and baritone saxophone are most commonly used in jazz. The tenor and alto are the most significant. String—violin, viola, cello, double bass (upright bass). The bass is the most important string instrument in jazz; however, there are important jazz violinists, and the cello and viola are sometimes found in jazz ensembles. Percussion—anything that is hit or struck to initiate the sound is considered a percussion instrument. Therefore, there are many possibilities; however, the most commonly found jazz percussion instruments include the drums, cymbals, congas, bongos, and the vibraphone

What Modern Jazz Has Borrowed from African Music

• Call and response patterns • Cross-rhythm • Greater dependence on syncopation • Extensive use of percussive instruments • Communal/collective participation • Ostinato figures (repetition—rhythmic and melodic)

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF AFRICAN MUSIC

• Cross-rhythm • Pitch inflection • Steady tempo • Tonal manipulation • Repetition • Call and response

Harlem stride piano

• The stride piano style has its roots in the ragtime style. Many stride pianists first learned to play ragtime compositions by composers such as Scott Joplin. Early stride piano styles evolved from ragtime where players were able to improvise rags and/or embellish preexisting ones. Influences of early New Orleans jazz gradually crept into the stride piano style. Elements of the ragtime style were also retained, such as the left hand going back and forth imitating the two-beat style of a brass band march and an "oom-pah" effect. The left hand sometimes incorporated tenths (instead of octaves) and/or walking tenths into the two-beat accompaniment. • The right hand also featured syncopated melodies. However, the new elements in the stride piano style featured the following: A right hand that used a familiar melody as its basis for an improvisation. Therefore, the right hand was likely to be different from one performance to the next. The presence of swing eighth notes as a general part of the rhythmic feel. Unlike the ragtime rhythmic feel, which used an even-eighth (military) rhythmic feel, stride pianists arranged pairs of eighth notes in long-short durations. • To discern the difference between the ragtime style and the stride style, listen for the following elements: The improvised nature of the right-hand material The swing eighth-note rhythmic feel The existence of tenths or walking tenths in the left hand • Sometimes stride piano is referred to as "Harlem" stride piano, since many of its practitioners were active in the Harlem district of New York City. These players often played from sundown to sunup at saloons, dance halls, cabarets, and even rent parties. The rent parties, given to help friends with financial burdens, often developed into informal and friendly piano contests as players would take turns showing their various talents as stride pianists. In this way, players exchanged ideas and information about piano technique, harmony, improvisation, rhythm, and other various elements of the stride style. -Pianists: James P. Johnson, Thomas Wright Fats Waller, Jelly Roll Morton, Art Tatum

William Christopher "W. C." Handy (1873-1958):

-known as the Father of the Blues, grew up in Florence, Alabama, where he was exposed to music by his family and the church. At a young age, through a method known as solfege still taught today in music conservatories, he was able to catalog the songs of birds and nearby riverboat whistles. From the late 1880s until 1909, Handy traveled extensively performing with bands and minstrel shows. -published the first blues composition, "Memphis Blues." His most famous composition, "St. Louis Blues," was published in 1914. Eventually his success led to the creation of his own publishing company, which was active in the 1920s and 1930s. -His biography, Father of the Blues, was published in 1941. Handy stated many times he was not the first blues musician, but he was the first person to write down blues he heard many traveling musicians perform while growing up in the South.

Three Main Features of African-American Folk Music

1. The music performed sounded slightly behind the beat or sometimes rhythmically free of the main beat. 2. Pitch Inflection—black singers would bend (lower) the seventh and third scale degrees. By slightly lowering these pitches, the naturally occurring half steps are eliminated. These notes were known as blue notes. 3. Tonal Manipulation—coarsening or changing the timbre of the voice while singing, which later carried over into instrumental music. This gave the music more expressiveness and greater variety

tonal manipulation

A coarse-sounding vocal timbre is common to African singing. African vocalists do not strive for purity of tone as singers in the European style. Africans are not so concerned with exactness of pitch. They will often slide between pitches. They will use a variety of techniques for thickening the tone. Modern blues singers use the same techniques when they growl or use a raspy sound when singing. This appears in jazz in the form of instrumental sounds that do not conform to European "standards"—evoking a more individual sound.

Blues

Blues evolved from the work song, prison song, and street cry. The performance practice has much in common with work songs and spirituals, but blues developed a more strict form. The subject matter of blues closely resembles that of the work song, but more often had something to do with personal relationships. • The blues and the sound of the blues most likely developed in the nineteenth century. It is possible that it began to evolve as a separate entity in the late nineteenth century. Early blues were sung a cappella (unaccompanied) with no formal harmonic sequence and could vary in length and structure, but by about 1910, it conformed to the more common twelve-measure structure. • The twelve measures are divided into three equal parts, each containing a line of text; usually the second line is exactly the same as the first. The third line of the blues is usually a reaction to or commentary on what is stated in the first two lines. We label the blues form using capital letters that follow the three lines of text: AAB. With the appearance of the first published blues compositions in 1912, the norm was established to let each section be four bars long. Therefore, an entire chorus of blues is twelve measures long. Often the text fills only about two measures of each four-measure section, leaving room for a short instrumental fill or response (usually done on guitar, harmonica, horn, etc.).

Jelly Roll Morton

Born Ferdinand Joseph LaMenthe in New Orleans, Jelly Roll Morton became a stride pianist and one of the first jazz composers and arrangers. - From 1917 to 1922 he performed on the West Coast. - In the 1920s Morton made his most significant ensemble recordings on the Victor label with the Red Hot Peppers, a band he formed for the sole purpose of recording. -He also made solo piano recordings for the Gennett label from 1923 to 1924. Morton fell out of favor in the 1930s eventually playing in small bars in Washington, D.C. -In 1938, he was recorded by Alan Lomax in a series of interviews made for historical documentation at the Library of Congress. Among other subjects in these interviews, Morton speaks from and demonstrates at the piano about the early days of jazz in New Orleans, making him an important jazz historical resource.

Earl Hines

Born and raised in Pittsburgh, Earl Hines found his first professional work in that city in 1921. In 1923, he relocated to Chicago where his style of stride piano playing demonstrated the influences of the trumpet playing of Louis Armstrong. He used creative piano devices to imitate Armstrong's innovations on trumpet such as the following: Right-hand single-note improvisations that imitated trumpet melodies Fast right-hand octave tremolos to imitate Armstrong's fast vibrato Forceful right-hand octave melodies to imitate Armstrong's powerful sound His Chicago radio broadcasts from 1929 to 1939 helped influenced the style of pianists Art Tatum, Nat "King" Cole, and Teddy Wilson. Hines's style was a precursor to the bop style of Bud Powell in the 1940s. In the 1930s and 1940s, Hines led an important big band that eventually contained many young bebop musicians who went on to have significant careers, such as Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, Billy Eckstine, and Sarah Vaughan.

James P. Johnson

Born in New Brunswick, New Jersey. In his early life, Johnson was interested in classical and ragtime piano styles. By his teenage years, he was working in dance halls, rent parties, and cabarets. -In the 1920s he made piano rolls and recordings of popular songs, some composed by himself, including "The Charleston," "Snowy Morning Blues," and "Carolina Shout," a mandatory stride piano standard even Duke Ellington made it a point to master. He taught Fats Waller and collaborated with him in a stage revue Keep Shufflin' (1928). He accompanied blues singers including Bessie Smith, Ethel Waters, and Ida Cox. He was a diversified musician who composed a large amount of diverse compositions including classical symphonic works, Broadway musicals, and popular songs. He was professionally active until 1951 when he suffered a stroke.

Thomas Wright "Fats" Waller

Born in New York City, Waller was a stride pianist who was a protegé of James P. Johnson. As a teenager he played at rent parties and recorded piano rolls. Waller could also play organ and celeste. He found work playing these instruments as background music for silent films in some of the most prominent theaters in Harlem. Eventually Fats became famous as a singer, entertainer, and composer of popular songs and Broadway shows. In the 1920s, Waller teamed up with lyricist Andy Razaf to write hit songs such as "Ain't Misbehavin'," "Honeysuckle Rose," and "(What Did I Do To Be So) Black and Blue." He made over 500 recordings, starred in movies, and performed on radio broadcasts. He died suddenly in Kansas City while aboard an express train on its way from Los Angeles to New York City

Art Tatum

Born in Toledo, Ohio. Tatum was the most extraordinary of all pianists and jazz musicians. Although legally blind, he possessed no musical or technical limitations. He received some formal training in his youth and performed on his own radio show from 1929 through 1930. Although influenced by Fats Waller, Tatum took the stride piano style to a level unattainable by anyone else. His left-hand control and right-hand double-time lines amazed all who witnessed his playing. He also had the ability to take any popular song and reharmonize it in his own ingenious way. His 1933 virtuosic recordings of popular songs such as "Tiger Rag" served notice to all (including classical pianists) that Art Tatum was simply beyond comparison. He traveled throughout the United States appearing in nightclubs and offering himself to local musicians in friendly cutting sessions where he reigned as superior. In the mid-1940s, Tatum led a trio with guitarist Tiny Grimes and bassist Slam Stewart, performing in New York City nightclubs. He served as an inspiration to the young bebop musicians in New York in the early 1940s. Unfortunately, Tatum's playing was not documented on recordings in any consistent manner until it was almost too late. He was recorded often during the last two years of his life. Earlier recordings, while still definitive, are not always of the best quality.

Field Holler

Church songs and work songs constituted the largest part of slave music, but there was more. The field holler or cry has been written about, but its function is not clear; possibly used as a call-and-answer signal. Musically it consisted of a series of notes of indeterminate pitch sung in free time. Another similar genre is the street cry—a method of advertising a street vendor's product. Vendors sung about their merchandise as they traveled the streets of small towns and cities in America. The concession salespeople we see moving about the stands at baseball games are a carryover of such a tradition

New Orleans Style and Chicago Style differences

Differences Between Early New Orleans Style and Chicago Style • Change in instrumentation: Saxophone gradually becomes part of standard instrumentation. Saxophone and clarinet are interchangeable String bass appears more often and eventually replaces the tuba. Trumpet replaces the cornet. Banjo gradually disappears from standard instrumentation. Piano is standard rhythm section instrumentation with optional guitar. • Groups begin to rely more on written music and arrangements. • Paraphrase improvisation transformed into more adventurous improvisation based on harmony. • Stop-time breaks: The band suddenly stops playing for four beats while one person improvises, providing a change in musical texture. • Collective improvisation occurs less frequently than solo improvisation. • Rhythmic feel is often more frantic than the relaxed, blues-oriented New Orleans style, possibly because of the four quick beats underlying what had been a traditional 2/2 march style. • The drumming style changes from one that is military/rudimental to one that swings and is more cymbal-oriented. • The modern drum set begins to evolve in the 1920s. In Chicago, there were three main groups of players: 1. Transplanted black New Orleans musicians (such as King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band) 2. Transplanted white New Orleans musicians (such as the New Orleans Rhythm Kings) 3. White Chicago natives

Bix Beiderbecke

He was showing signs of prodigious musical talent as early as age six. His parents arranged piano lessons; however, Bix's lack of discipline, a recurring theme throughout his adolescence, eventually ended his piano lessons. • After his older brother brought home recordings of the ODJB, Bix became interested in jazz and, in particular, the cornet. His parents, however, tried to discourage his interest in playing cornet. As a result, he was largely self-taught, learning by playing along with recordings. Consequently he learned an unorthodox system of fingerings on the instrument and developed a unique, highly individual sound. • Bix became infatuated with the sound of the New Orleans bands performing on boats coming up the Mississippi River. He would often skip school to go hear riverboat bands. • His earliest influences were Nick LaRocca of the ODJB, cornetist Emmet Hardy, and, of course, Louis Armstrong, who he may have heard on the riverboats. • Bix resisted any kind of formal training during his youth. His frequent absence at school led to poor grades. In 1921, his parents decided to send him to Lake Forest Academy, a private school near Chicago. However, Bix spent many nights in Chicago playing and listening to jazz. Unfortunately, he also developed alcohol-related problems that would plague him for the rest of his life. He was frequently tired and hung over for class the next day. He was soon expelled and sent back home to Davenport. After a short period of working for the family business, Bix moved to Chicago in 1923 and pursued a music career. • He first spent time in Chicago's South Side listening to black jazz musicians from New Orleans. Then in 1924, he achieved notoriety when he recorded with a band modeled after the New Orleans Rhythm Kings and the ODJB called the Wolverines. His solos with the Wolverines were so amazing that he became one of the first white jazz musicians to be widely admired by black jazz musicians. • From 1925 to 1927, he played with the Detroit-based Jean Goldkette Orchestra, teaming up with C-melody saxophonist Frankie Trumbauer, who would be an important partner on many recordings. • In 1927, both Beiderbecke and Trumbauer had relocated to New York City and were hired to perform in Paul Whiteman's Orchestra. Both men were important as "hot" jazz soloists within the context of Whiteman's jazz arrangements. The arrival of arranger Bill Challis in 1927 was one reason for Beiderbecke's and Trumbauer's success in the Whiteman band. Challis created arrangements that highlighted Beiderbecke and Trumbauer as preeminent jazz soloists. • Jazz musicians of the 1920s often were inspired by classical music and sought to incorporate such influences into jazz. Bix and his Whiteman compatriots would often attend New York Philharmonic concerts. Bix was generally unimpressed with classical composers such as Beethoven, Mozart, and Brahms but he was fascinated with modern developments in orchestral music. He was especially attracted to the French impressionistic composers Debussy and Ravel. Their use of whole-tone scales and extended harmonies such as ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth chords were important influences in his improvisations. Bix would often spend time with the conservatory-trained Bill Challis learning about these and other modern composers. • Bix remained interested in the piano throughout his life. He would often "noodle" at the piano on band breaks, creating impressive improvisations. One such improvisation, later titled "In A Mist," was recorded in 1927. It reveals impressionistic elements such as whole-tone melodies and parallel ninth chords. With Bill Challis's help as transcriber, several of Bix's "improvisations" were written down and eventually published such as "Candlelight," "Flashes," "In The Dark," and "In A Mist." • When Bix was not performing or recording with Paul Whiteman's band, he would often be playing with talented jazz musicians from The Gang. In the mid-1920s, a loosely knit group of musicians in New York were referred to as The Gang; it comprised the most important white jazz musicians in New York: Bix Beiderbecke, Frankie Trumbauer, Tommy and Jimmy Dorsey, Adrian Rollini, Miff Mole, Red Nichols, Eddie Lang, and others. They would get together to play, exchange ideas, and make their "mark" on jazz. • Bix was never able to overcome his problems with alcoholism. He had at least one episode of delirium tremens after which Whiteman, although still keeping him on the payroll, sent him home to Davenport to recuperate. However, Bix never returned to Whiteman's band and spent the last two years of his life making recordings under his own name and with songwriter Hoagy Carmichael. He died in his Queens, New York, apartment at the tragically young age of twenty-eight during an alcoholic seizure. • Beiderbecke has become a cult figure and is often perceived as a tragic-hero figure. His last years, 1929 to 1931, were ones of frustration, because he was unable to perform in appropriate musical contexts. This melancholy attitude is sometimes reflected in his playing. Characteristics • His improvisational style was highly original. • He was strongly influenced by impressionistic composers Ravel and Debussy. • He used relatively few blue notes (flat thirds and sevenths). • His range was limited—he did not possess Armstrong's strong and secure upper register. • His unorthodox, self-taught system of cornet fingering helped him to achieve a unique, highly personal sound. • He often worked with inferior musicians or in a context where he had few opportunities to express himself musically. • Everyone who heard him play commented on his beautiful, round sound. • He improvised in a more introverted manner compared with the extroverted Louis Armstrong. • He thought compositionally (sometimes like a pianist) when improvising; he played "alternate melodies." • He had a very smooth and lyrical approach. • He played on the beat in contrast to Armstrong's playing, which was more behind the beat. • He played his eighth notes rather evenly. • His contribution was the evolution of a complementary white jazz style. • He was sometimes criticized for not playing hot solos like Armstrong, but he was not trying to imitate Armstrong. Beiderbecke used his own musical sensibilities and experiences to synthesize a highly original and innovative approach that influenced many subsequent jazz musicians.

Stephen Foster and James Bland

James Bland - 19th Century songwriter -Performed with the Georgia Minstrels (an all-black minstrel troupe founded in 1865) -Most popular songs: Carry Me Back to Old Virginny, Oh Dem Golden Slippers, and In the Evening by the Moonlight -The Prince of Negro Songwriters Stephen Foster- born in Pennsylvania, was an important white popular songwriter who understood that the minstrel show was where an audience for his songs could be developed. His hit "Oh! Susanna" was performed by the Christy Minstrels in 1848. Even though he was white and from the North, Foster's songs were simple in nature and the lyrics effectively captured African-American slave life. Other well-known songs he wrote include "Old Folks at Home" (1851), "My Old Kentucky Home," "Good Night" (1853), "Camptown Races," and "Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair" (1854)

Johnny Dodds and Baby Dodds

Johnny Dodds - was a leading second generation New Orleans player who moved to Chicago. He had an edgy tone with fast vibrato, and he played wonderful countermelodies. He could also bend pitches with strong effect Baby Dodds -was an important New Orleans drummer. He played in Kid Ory's Band before joining Fate Marable's riverboat bands in 1918. He recorded in the 1920s with Joe "King" Oliver's Creole Jazz Band, Jelly Roll Morton's Red Hot Peppers, and Louis Armstrong's Hot Five and Seven groups.

Ma Rainy and Bessie Smith

Ma Rainy -, known as the Mother of the Blues, married Will "Pa" Rainy, and they teamed up to be "Ma and Pa Rainy, the Assassinators of the Blues," performing as part of the Rabbit Foot Minstrels. -In 1914, Ma Rainy became an important mentor for Bessie Smith who was a performer with the Rabbit Foot Minstrels. Not known for her beauty, Rainy used glittering outfits and gold jewelry as part of her costume. -She became a big name performer for the Theater Booking Owners' Association (TOBA). -Rainy made ninety-two recordings for the Paramount label. Musicians who accompanied her included Kid Ory, Johnny Dodds, Joe Smith, Louis Armstrong, Buster Bailey, Fletcher Henderson, and Coleman Hawkins. -Some of her most successful recordings were "Weepin' Woman Blues," "Hustlin' Blues," "Stormy Sea Blues," and "Jelly Bean Blues." In 1933, Ma Rainy retired to Columbus, Georgia, where she died six years later of a heart attack. • Bessie Smith (1894-1937), known as the Empress of the Blues, -She was encouraged by her brother Clarence to sing and dance. Clarence arranged for Bessie to join a traveling show in 1912. Eventually, she came into contact with Ma Rainy while performing with the Rabbit Foot Minstrels in 1914. Bessie went on to become a huge TOBA star. -In 1923, she made her first blues recordings, "Gulf Coast Blues" and "Down Hearted Blues" for Columbia Records, selling more than 750,000 copies that year. As a result, Bessie achieved a national reputation with both black and white audiences. Over the next ten years she made over 160 recordings for Columbia, including "Mama's Got the Blues," "Careless Love Blues," and W. C. Handy's "St. Louis Blues." In addition, she composed and recorded "Back Water Blues" and "Poor Man's Blues." Notable musicians who recorded with Bessie were Louis Armstrong, Fletcher Henderson, James P. Johnson, Coleman Hawkins, Don Redman, Buster Bailey, Jack Teagarden, and Benny Goodman. She also appeared in the 1929 movie St. Louis Blues. In the 1930s Bessie's career declined, as did all the careers of the black female vocalists who emerged in the 1920s. Her last recordings were made in 1933. She experienced an enthusiastic reception at the Apollo Theater in 1935 while with a touring show—a reason for optimism regarding a career turnaround. However, in 1937 she was killed in an automobile accident while traveling through Clarksdale, Mississippi. • Bessie Smith suffered from personal problems with alcohol and broken relationships. Her mastery of the blues vocal style enabled her to express her frustrations through her singing in a way unparalleled by her contemporaries. This fact, coupled with her unequaled voice, has made her the most significant black female vocalist of the 1920s.

Spirituals

Many churches were integrated in the eighteenth century. It was customary for the leader or minister to perform in a call-and-response manner, with the congregation giving the responses in spoken prayer and music. As separate black churches were established in the early nineteenth century, they, too, needed music. They adopted the Methodist hymns, but performed them in a style that represented the performance practices found in work songs. Many spirituals are based on biblical passages. • In the revivalist "second awakening" of the 1830s, emotional religious experience came to the forefront of white churches. The revival meetings might go on for days, and many blacks recognized the similarities to African rituals. This tradition remained steadfast in black churches (sanctified or fundamentalist) long after most white churches abandoned it.

Creoles

Originally, "Creole" was the designation given to whites who were descendants of mixed French and Spanish heritage. At first they occupied important positions of power and influence in society. As more Americans came into the area after 1803, Creoles felt their culture being threatened. As a result they made great efforts to isolate themselves. They clung to their European-based culture by continuing to speak a French patois and maintaining a more "continental" attitude. • Many Creole men kept mistresses of mixed heritage (black and white), resulting in offspring that were given European education, culture, and values. As a result, a subclass of black Creoles of mixed race emerged who adhered to the Creole customs and often were considered a part of the white class. • Creoles always took pleasure in their relationship with music. To be versed in European music showed a certain refinement. Creole children studied music by taking lessons in the European tradition and attending musical performances. Creole musicians were taught to read music, rejecting musicians who could not read and those who played the blues. They had little use for work songs, spirituals, hollers, and ring shouts. Being primarily Catholic, they did not attend churches where this type of music was performed. • Jim Crow laws of the late nineteenth century suddenly defined Creoles with any African blood relation as "Negro," denying them the right to occupy important positions of power and influence in society and forcing them to live and merge with the lower-class African-American society. Therefore, as these Creoles, with their tradition of owning good instruments and the ability to read music, mixed with other black musicians in the late nineteenth century, a transference of style and technique emerged. • In general, Creoles stayed away from the blues in favor of more formal European-based music, while black musicians were more likely to play the blues and other styles of music learned aurally with more ragged rhythms.

Work songs

The majority of black music was the work song. As in African music, it was functional. Europeans never had a strong tradition of work songs except for sea chanteys. Slaveholders approved of work songs; blacks insisted that singing made the work easier. The work song was the principal medium through which the black musical tradition survived until the early twentieth century. • Work songs were also a means of communication under the watchful eye of slave masters. The double entendre, or double meaning of phrases or words, is a practice still in use today. • Work songs were varied. The tempo was always steady and based upon the type of work being done. Many times there would be a leader, and the group would answer in call-and-response fashion. Oftentimes lyrics were related to the job or anything the singer/leader felt like singing about. • Work songs, prison songs, and spirituals are all very closely related. The main difference is that in spirituals, the text is taken from biblical or sacred sources, while work songs are secular in content. • Work songs contained syncopation, call and response, melodies performed slightly behind the beat, blue notes (flat third and flat seventh scale degrees), and tonal manipulation.

Influence of brass bands and marches

The typical instrumentation of the early New Orleans jazz ensemble grew out of the brass band tradition. The front line consisted of cornet, clarinet, and trombone. The rhythm section consisted of a tuba or upright bass; drums, cymbals, and other optional percussion instruments; and piano, banjo, and/or guitar. Any combination of these instruments make up what we know to be the traditional early New Orleans style jazz ensemble. • However, it is important to remember that not all early New Orleans music was played using the previous brass band-derived instrumentation. Many of the groups were "salon" groups. The salon groups were better suited for more intimate settings because they also had string instruments such as the guitar, string bass, and violin. • Early New Orleans jazz was built around "hot" bands playing their interpretations of marches, rags, polkas, blues, quadrilles, and popular tunes. Early jazz musicians were not improvising the way today's jazz musicians do; they were simply embellishing and ornamenting familiar melodies. They were syncopating (ragging) these melodies and often creating a coarse tone by using mutes and sometimes growling into their instruments. They also added blue notes. • Unlike today's jazz, early New Orleans jazz featured "collective improvisation" where several players were improvising at once. The overall group effect took precedence over the importance of any one player at any given time. The cornet, trombone, and clarinet all play different melodies at the same time, yet they are able to avoid chaos because of their advanced knowledge of individual roles and their sensitivity to each other. Occasionally there are instrumental "breaks" where the band stops and one player is featured in a short solo improvisation, but these breaks seem to be more the exception than the rule. In many marches by American composers, the last section, or "dogfight," usually contains much interplay, with two or more melodies being played simultaneously. This interplay influenced the New Orleans musicians in their approach to collective improvisation. Review of the Characteristics of Early New Orleans Jazz • Collective improvisation • Brass/military band tradition and instrumentation • The use of string instruments in salon bands • Ragtime and blues influence • Use of blue notes, growls, loosening of melody line, ornamentation/embellishment, combined with rudimentary improvisation • Ungirding of the 2/2 beat with an underlying 4/4 beat • Uneven playing of eighth notes (long-short) European influences • Melodies—French/Prussian marches, Spanish rhythms and melodies, etc. • Harmony—European diatonic system and notation • European instruments and technique • Counterpoint—collective improvisation • Brass band tradition • British folk songs and hymns African influences • Rhythm and time feel • Cross-rhythm • Overlapping call and response • Tonal manipulation • Pitch inflection • Melodies subservient to rhythm • Instruments played as an extension of the voice Differences between ragtime and jazz • Jazz was mostly improvised—ragtime was not. • The jazz rhythmic feel was much looser and relaxed whereas ragtime had a more strict rhythmic feel. • Collective improvisation was of primary importance in jazz and was a very complex interweaving of instruments, each with a specific and well-established role. • Jazz had more vitality and variety. Performance Characteristics • The cornet (or trumpet) player played the main melody. It was often altered melodically and rhythmically, but it could still be recognized. • The clarinet had a dual role, serving a harmonic function above the melody (embellished filigree) and was used to create momentum and excitement with its natural flexibility. • The trombone played a "tailgate" style, often creating "smears" or trombone glissandi as the trombonist outlined harmony and made it recognizable to the others. • The tuba or string bass played the bass notes or chord roots as it does in marches, usually in 2/2 time. • The drums (snare, bass drum, cymbals) and banjo (or guitar or piano) were the rhythm section where the banjo plays chords rhythmically and the drummer(s) played in a rudimentary march style. • The standard format of arrangements tended to be as follows: Ensemble chorus Collective improvisation (later solo improvisation) Stop time breaks (where band stops and one player has a short solo) Ensemble melody Short musical tag at the end • Collective improvisation was responsible for the rhythmic variety, texture, and interest, causing the constant shift of accents among the three front line instruments. Each player knew his role and how to fit in with the others to complement the ensemble.

Syncretism

When different religions come into contact with each other, an accommodation and synthesis of values called syncretism takes place.

Scales

a sequence of different notes arranged in ascending and/or descending order. Most Western European scales are seven different notes arranged a half or whole step apart. Most melodies are derived from scales; therefore they are the ABCs of music.

Melody

a sequence of single notes arranged in time; generally what you sing is a melody. Music notation arranges melody notes horizontally from left to right.

Measure

also referred to as a bar. Each group of 4 beats in 4/4 time (also indicated with a C for common time), 3 beats in 3/4 time, or 2 beats in 2/4 time is arranged into one measure (bar) of music. In music notation, the measures are separated by bar lines, which explains why the term bar has come into common use.

Meter

arranging beats in groups of two (notated as 2/4), three (notated as 3/4), or four (notated as 4/4)

Rhythm

events organized in time. In music, sounds are arranged to happen in a sequence at specific points in time. Rhythm encompasses beats, tempo, meter, and various time values assigned to events (notes or sounds).

Drums

in conjuction with teh bass, the drummer establishes the beat using the ride cymbal, high hat, snare, and/or bass drum. The drum set is also used to provide accents and color, and supplies excitement and drive. The drummer must know how to play many different styles and work closely with the bassist.

Syncopation

intermittent events (notes) that happen between beats and/or sounds, which are stressed in unexpected ways

Buddy Bolden

is given credit for being the first "jazz" musician. A somewhat mythical figure, he is remembered by New Orleans musicians as being one of the best cornet players from about 1895 to 1906, when he began to show signs of mental illness. The next year he was committed to an institution where he spent the rest of his life. After 1900, many bands in New Orleans were playing in the collective improvisational style reminiscent of Buddy Bolden's band. Of the same generation are drummer D. D. Chandler, trombonist Willie Cornish, cornetist King Oliver, and members of the clarinet-playing Tio family

Meade Lux Lewis

is the Father of Boogie-Woogie. Born in Chicago, Lewis grew up listening to blues pianists including Jimmy Yancey. In 1927 he recorded his famous "Honky Tonk Train Blues," inspired by the trains he heard in his youth pass by his South La Salle Street home. The recording wasn't released until 1929. He was discovered by John Hammond in 1935, and he made recordings in the late 1930s and 1940s. He also ap-peared in the movie New Orleans with Louis Armstrong in 1947.

Jazz

is the original fusion music

Chorus

one complete revolution or cycle through a piece of music is called a chorus. Most of the time, jazz musicians cycle through a song more than once; in such a case, they would be playing more than one chorus. For example, four complete times through "I Got Rhythm" would be described as playing four choruses of "I Got Rhythm." Each chorus would probably have something different happen; yet everyone would still know that the selection being performed is "I Got Rhythm."

Sidney Bechet

played clarinet and soprano sax. He was one of the most highly regarded musicians in early jazz and one of the first important soloists to appear. Had a big sound with a wide vibrato and played with imagination and authority. Known primarily as a soloist, he hated to relinquish the spotlight to others. His carefully chosen and bent or scooped notes had tremendous impact in solos. Bechet influenced Johnny Hodges and John Coltrane

Rhythm

polyrhythms, an abundance of syncopation, and a tendency to place notes slightly behind the bea

Piano

provided harmonic framework by playing chords, improvises rhythms and chord voicings, and provides creative accompaniment for a soloist

Beat

the basic pulse; usually your foot taps with the beat; often notated as quarter notes.

Form

the content of any piece of music has one or more distinctive sections. Musicians usually label each section with a capital letter such as A (for the first section), B (for the second section), and so on. Many jazz selections have sections that appear more than once; thus the form could be represented by repeating the letter. For example, George Gershwin's "I Got Rhythm" has the form AABA because the first section labeled A (eight bars long) happens twice; then a new section appears labeled B (also eight bars long and also called the bridge, since it connects the three A sections); then one more A section appears. Jazz musicians use their knowledge of a song's form to keep track of where they are while they are playing.

Subdivision

the division of each beat into equal or unequal parts. Music notation attempts to indicated beat subdivisions using whole, half, quarter, eight, sixteenth, and so on notes

Dynamics

the intensity of sound. Generally, people perceive music to be soft (low intensity), loud (high intensity), or something in between. The change of intensity level is an important aspect of musical expression. In music notation, soft dzynamic levels are indicated with mp, p, or pp (for very soft) symbols, and progressively loud dynamic levels are indicated with mf, f, or ffsymbols. Gradually building from soft to loud intensity levels is called a crescendo, and the opposite—gradually going from loud to soft intensity levels—is called a decrescendo.

People may not be aware that

the jazz quality of a piece is determined by the manner in which it is played

Improvisation

the spontaneous creation of something done in real time (at the moment). In the case of music, performers improvise by spontaneously creating music using a repository of ideas either arranged ahead of time or thought of at the moment

Bass

time keeper, plays bass notes at a consistent rate that outlines chords, creates rhythmic drive, helps to create rhythmic feel, in swing emphasizes beats two and four of each measure.

Harmony

use of blue notes that cannot be notated according to the Western European harmonic system.

Scott Joplin

was born in Texas and raised in Texarakana. As a boy he showed obvious signs of exceptional musical talent. A local German piano teacher was so impressed that he gave Joplin lessons free of charge. Joplin learned to read and write music, becoming knowledgeable about European classical composers. In his teenage years he was an itinerant musician, mostly in the Midwest. At some point in the 1880s he settled in St. Louis, but he also lived in nearby Sedalia, where he attended the George Smith College for Negroes. While attending the Chicago Exposition of 1889, Joplin became aware of and interested in a newly developing piano style that would eventually evolve into ragtime. • Joplin's first ragtime composition, "Original Rags," was published in 1899. Later that same year, he met a white publisher in Sedalia who offered to publish what would become his most successful and popular composition, "Maple Leaf Rag." John Stark was an exceptional businessman who cared little about race, creed, or color. He is now perceived as a champion of ragtime music who helped talented composers and performers, white and black, become successful In 1903, Joplin composed and produced his first ragtime opera, A Guest of Honor. Very little is known about the opera, and the score has been lost. Joplin was attempting to elevate the status of ragtime and solicit public acceptance by composing a ragtime opera. • Joplin moved to New York City in 1906. He lived in Harlem, where he also gave piano lessons. Joplin wrote several ragtime methods that clearly articulate how to become a ragtime performer. • In 1911, he composed and produced Treemonisha, his last ragtime opera. Few people, however, were ready to take a ragtime opera seriously. Even John Stark was not willing to publish it. Since Joplin was not able to afford an orchestra, the opera was performed with two pianists and minimal stage props. The opera was not a success, and Joplin suffered until his death from the effects of its failure. • Joplin died in New York in 1917, leaving behind thirty-three rags, six method books, a ragtime ballet, two ragtime operas, and numerous songs and waltzes. His music was rediscovered in the 1970s, and in 1977 Treemonisha was finally

Joe "King" Oliver

was one of the most popular and best-known New Orleans cornetists. He was a mentor to young Louis Armstrong. Oliver played with many successful bands in New Orleans before moving to Chicago in 1918. He excelled at the collective improvisational style. He was also a master of tonal manipulation and the use of mutes. His Creole Jazz Band was one of the most popular bands in Chicago and boasted a collection of the finest New Orleans musicians. The Creole Jazz Band made important recordings in 1923 that featured his protégé, Louis Armstrong.

Harmony

—an arrangement of two or more notes that occur simultaneously. It is generally referred to as chords or harmonies; we are used to hearing the piano or guitar create two or more note sonorities. Music notation indicates chords (or harmonies) by stacking notes vertically. Most conventional chords are made up of the first, third, and fifth notes of a scale; thus each note in a chord can be referred to as the root (first note in the scale), third and fifth; and if the chord contains more than three notes (as is often the case in jazz), the designation can be expanded to include the seventh, ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth.

Voicing

—the way the notes of a chord are arranged on a piano, guitar, or perhaps in an ensemble of instrumentalists (see previous example). The way a chord is voiced contributes to its strength and timbre. For example, jazz pianists can often be distinguished one from another by their chord voicings.