Juvenile Justice: Exam 3
Children of teen parents have increased chances of what?
"The principal reason for this correlation is that teenage parents tend to use inadequate parenting practices"(p.58).
The what envisions local communities dealing with their own deviants?
'Big Society'
Research indicates a significant overlap in risk factors for substance abuse and offending suggesting a common what?
'Causal conflagration'
Age of responsibility is how old in Austria, China, Germany and Italy?
14
Age of responsibility is how old in Belgium and Luxembourg?
18
The United Nations convention on the rights of the child was ratified by how many states?
193
Newcastle 1,000 Family Study
3 generations of families studied over 30 years
American Society for the Positive Care of Children and Child help report men and women in prison are 2 times as likely as the general population to have been what?
Abused as a child
Adverse school experiences have implications for what?
Academic performance, attendance, discipline problems, dropout, and future delinquency
There are two prevailing narratives that have implications for juvenile justice policy. What are they?
Adolescent brain development and exposure to violence and trauma.
No More Excuses 1997 argued that doli incapax is contrary to 'common sense' and not in the interest of justice, victims, or of the young people themselves. Thus a child at 10 could be considered as legally responsible for their actions as a what?
Adult
Developmental differences render children and young people the least ready to assume the responsibilities to participate in their own criminal proceedings, and most seriously in need of what?
Adult help and guidance
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted by the UN in 1966) requires that young offenders be segregated from who?
Adults
Prefrontal lobe controls of ___________________ and __________________.
Aggression and impulses
The lives of children with mental health problems often include residential instability and difficult family relationships. Comorbid problem of what?
Alcohol and/or substance misuse.
Increased internalizing of symptoms. This is what?
An effect of maltreatment on behavioral, social, and emotional functioning
Weakened response to positive feedback. This is what?
An effect of maltreatment on behavioral, social, and emotional functioning
Parental responsibility obscures the fact that the government can be implicated in the causes of what?
Anti-social behavior
Police and Justice Act, 2006 allows parenting orders where there is reason to believe that a child is engaged in what?
Anti-social behavior
Office for National Statistics study (2000) found that 47% of children assessed as having a mental health disorder had a parent who was likely to have a mental health problem, such as ________________ or ____________________.
Anxiety or depression
Minimize the necessity of intervention by the youth justice system and reduce the harm caused by what?
Any intervention
The traditional objectives of the criminal justice system must give way to rehabilitation and restorative justice objectives in dealing with young offenders.
Article 3
A variety of dispositions that are alternatives to institutional care should be available to children appropriate to their well-being and proportionate to both their circumstances and their offense.
Article 40
State must promote the 'dignity and worth' of any child alleged, accused or recognized as having committed a criminal offense.
Article 40
High incident of mental health problems among youth involved in what? (Placement in foster care)
Both child welfare and juvenile justice system
Birth cohort of 411 boys born in Camberwell, London in 1953. This was part of what study?
Cambridge study of delinquent development
DJ West (1961-1981); David Farrington (1918- present) were part of what study?
Cambridge study of delinquent development
Marital Conflict; attitudes of indifference toward child; positive rejection or neglect; inconsistent or overly-harsh discipline. This was part of what study?
Cambridge study of delinquent discipline
With Respect and Responsibility, 2003, police lost their discretion to deal with _______________________ informally.
Cases
Truancy may be both a __________________ and ____________________ of offending behavior; it is difficult to tell which causes which.
Cause and consequence
Neighborhood justice panels that use restorative and reparative techniques. This is a what?
Characteristic of the Big Society approach
Increase involvement in what?
Child welfare and juvenile justice systems
The instruments of international law are too vague on detention as a last resort, too weak on the age of criminal responsibility and incomplete on the trial process, sentencing and serious crimes committed by who?
Children
Reaffirming the best interest of who?
Children and youth
The United Nations convention on the rights of the child was a legally binding statement of what?
Children's rights
Decentralization and centralization of systems a key factor in _________________________.
Collaboration
No direction to the Courts or others in the Juvenile System that the child's welfare should be of primary consideration.
Crime and Disorder Act, 1998
The Youth Court must be satisfied that no other types of penalty can be justified. This was part of the what?
Crime and Disorder Act, 1998
Young people portrayed as threats to public safety, and the justice system should primarily be concerned with preventing this threat from being realized.
Criminal Justice and Immigration Act, 2008
American Society for the Positive Care of Children and Child help report abused and neglected children are about 9 times more likely to become involved in what?
Criminal behavior
Multi-agency collaboration, comprehensive services. Has to do with the what?
Crossover Youth Practice Model (CYPM)
Dually Involved Youth
Crossover youth who have some level of concurrent involvement (diversionary, formal, or a combination of both) with both the child welfare and justice systems.
Children in care may be related to what?
Cumulative risk factors
The emphasis on individual responsibility allows for crime to be disassociated from its social roots and masks the fact that the state and the law-abiding majority also have responsibilities. This was a problem with what?
Custodial sanctions
Youth offending is found in what?
Damaged and damaging families.
Mankind owes to the child the best it has to give -childhood is entitled to special care and assistance. This was a revision of the what?
Declaration on the Rights of the Child
Communities should encourage personal development and education to prevent what?
Delinquency
Youth Lifestyles Survey (2000) found over half of offenders agreed that alcohol or drugs had been associated with their offending; 44% said they sometimes committed crimes to get money for what?
Drugs or alcohol
The 2016 Childhood Outcomes Need New Efficient Community Teams (CONNECT) Act authorizes DHHS to provide grants to collect data and develop policies and practices to improve responses to what?
Dual status youth
Dually Adjudicated Youth
Dually involved youth who are formally involved (sustained dependency court allegation) and are adjudicated by the delinquency court.
Cathy Spatz Widom(1989,1992) study of 908 substantiated cases of child abuse and a comparison group of 667 children with no official record of victimization to determine outcome of what?
Early childhood victimizations
In the Bryan et al. (2007), communications problems tend to get labelled as behavior problems, and difficulties in understanding make young people vulnerable in relation to what?
Education
Child sexual abuse has significant impact on children's what?
Education and social development.
DOJ funding for demonstration projects in 8 communities including what?
Evidence based strategies and trauma-informed practices.
Crossover Youth
Experience maltreatment and engage in delinquency who may or may not be known to child welfare and justice systems.
Help schools recognize reactions to victimization. This is NOT a strategy to support victimized youth at risk of offending. True/False?
False- a strategy to support victimized youth at risk of offending.
Blaming culture, reduction in resources and welfare services, greater reliance on parental punishments. This is NOT a characteristic of the Big Society approach. True/False?
False-a characteristic of the Big Society approach.
Lowest intervention possible; More discretion to the police. This is NOT a characteristic of the Big Society approach. True/False?
False-a characteristic of the Big Society approach.
Prevention policies and intervention should avoid a narrow focus on parents and take into account the social and contextual factors that are typically associated with youth offending. This is NOT a problem with custodial sanctions. True/False?
False-a problem with custodial sanctions
Culture of hostility toward children and young people and their families. This was NOT a problem with custodial sanctions. True/False?
False-a problem with custodial sanctions.
A young person with serious risk beyond their control subject to greater deprivation of liberty. This was NOT a problem with risk assessments as a basis for intervention. True/False?
False-a problem with risk assessments as a basis for intervention.
Intervene early and provide trauma-focused interventions. This is NOT a strategy to support victimized youth at risk of offending. True/False?
False-a strategy to support victimized youth at risk of offending.
Judgement, impulse control and foresight develops in the thirties. True/False?
False-in the twenties
Age of responsibility is 16 in Denmark, Egypt, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. True/False?
False-is 15 in Denmark, Egypt, Finland, Norway, and Sweden
Delayed developmental milestones. This is NOT an effect of maltreatment on behavioral, social, and emotional functioning. True/False?
False-is an effect of maltreatment on behavioral, social, and emotional functioning
Hyper-arousal. This is NOT an effect of maltreatment on behavioral, social, and emotional functioning. True/False?
False-is an effect of maltreatment on behavioral, social, and emotional functioning
Directs states to create conditions necessary for children to develop into citizens who will contribute to the community This is one of the guiding principles for the Declaration of Independence (1924). True/False?
False-one of the guiding principles for the Declaration on the Rights of the Child (1924)
39% were violently victimized two or more times. This is part of the National Survey of Children's Exposure to Violence (2011) (CCRC-UNH). True/False?
False-part of the National Survey of Children's Exposure to Violence (2009) (CCRC-UNH)
The polyvictimization of children—the cumulative effect over time of repeated exposure to multiple forms of violence includes a greater risk of exposure to other forms of violence and accumulation of multiple adversities and trauma. This is NOT part of the National Survey of Children's Exposure to Violence (2011) (CCRC-UNH). True/False?
False-part of the National Survey of Children's Exposure to Violence (2011)
Young people with high grades less likely to be involved in violence; violence increase as learning difficulties decrease. True/False?
False-violence increase as learning difficulties increase
The United Nations convention on the rights of the child was completed in 1999. True/False?
False-was completed in 1989
Orders for 4-14 months, half of the time spent in the community under the supervision of a social worker, probation officer or a member of a YOT. This was NOT part of the Crime and Disorder Act, 1998. True/False?
False-was part of the Crime and Disorder Act, 1998
Abdication of government responsibility to support who?
Families and citizens
Placement in foster care is related to what?
Future delinquency and criminality.
In 2010, Attorney General Eric Holder began the Defending Childhood Initiative to prevent exposure to violence and to mitigate the negative effects to children by funding what?
Grants, research and public education
Teens have difficulties in empathy and considering the perspectives of others, diminished capacity for autonomy and resisting pressure from others and ability to experience __________________ and ______________ are underdeveloped.
Guilt and shame
Many young offenders are victims of deprived and depriving families and should be seen as under-socialized individuals in need of _________________ and ___________________.
Help and assistance
School based trauma
High rates of bullying and cyber-bullying
This statement defines the expected relationship between variables, as predicted by the proposition of theory.
Hypothesis
Hertz et al. (2012) developed better what?
Identification protocols
Based on the results of a study, these are the suggestions for future research or changes in policy or practices.
Implications of study
Smith and Thornberry (1995)
Intergenerational transmission of violence and the maltreatment-delinquency hypothesis.
Young person given who commits a serious offense can receive a community order with minimal intervention because they present few assessed risks. This was a problem with risk assessments as a basis for what?
Intervention
UN Convention on the Rights of the Child proclaims the paramountcy of the welfare of the child in all public actions, and the importance of reintegration of the child offender into society. Custody should only be used as a what?
Last resort
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted by the UN in 1966) accorded treatment appropriate to their what?
Legal age and status
This is the process of examining prior studies to see what is known about the variables of interest used in a current study, and to determine what types of sample and measures have been previously used.
Literature review
The Anti-Social Behavior Act 2014 provides more discretion to local communities to shape the police response to what?
Local crime and anti-social behavior
Widom and Maxfield (2001) and Fromknecht (2014) found a relationship between ____________________ and _______________________.
Maltreatment and delinquency
The rate of what is high among young offenders, particularly in persistent young offenders?
Mental health problems
In the course of their lifetimes, children exposed to one type of violence are prone to additional types of violence and often multiple times. This is part of what?
National Survey of Children's Exposure to Violence (2009) (CCRC-UNH)
Children are less likely to offend if their physical, emotional and social needs are met throughout childhood with protection from all forms of what?
Neglect, abuse or exploitation
One in six children living affluent districts became offenders compared to one in three in the poorest neighborhoods. This was part of what study?
Newcastle 1,000 Family Study
This is the process of collecting data appropriate to the study hypothesis.
Observation
Enjoying school, doing well and achieving good results can be significant factors in preventing what?
Offending
The more persistent the truancy, the higher rate of what?
Offending
This is the process of turning theoretical concepts of interest into variables that can be measured in real world observations.
Operationalization
Appalling conditions in institutions.
Overcrowding, brutality, suicide, and self-harm
Living in poverty can contribute to what?
Parental conflict, poor parenting and abuse by parents.
Children of teen parents have increased chances of less proficient in problem-solving, higher levels of what?
Parenting stress, poor health, poverty and relationship breakdown.
The Crime and Disorder Act, 1998 introduced the 'Parenting Order' which requires parents of youthful offenders to attend what?
Parenting training
Prevention practices provide resources and support services which equip parents to be good parents, reduce their isolation and promote the welfare of who?
Parents and children
Failure to set clear expectations for behavior; failure to supervise and monitor children; excessive and severe, harsh or inconsistent punishment; child maltreatment and neglect; weak relationships between parents and child; poor child-rearing skills; family discord and low family income.
Poor Family Management Practices
Changing narrative in juvenile justice that is evidence based and at the same time returns the system to its original focus on _________________ and ________________.
Prevention and treatment.
League of Nations set up a Committee for the what?
Protection of Children (1919)
Interaction and involvement of parents with their children, strong family bonding, articulate standards for behavior, monitor their children's behavior, engage in inductive reasoning and consistent discipline when infractions incur.
Protective factors
Evidence based implications for what?
Public policy and youth treatment
No More Excuses 1997 expanded the range of criminal behaviors subject to what?
Punishment
The Criminal Justice and Immigration Act, 2008 established the youth rehabilitation order as the standard community sentence for the majority of young offenders—designed to provide for what?
Punishment, protection of the public, reducing re-offending and reparation
Article 18.2 of the UN Convention sets out the obligations of the state to assist families in what?
Raising their children
There are three indicators by which the youth justice system can be measured. What are they?
Reduce reliance on custody, reduce the number of first time entrants in the youth system, and reduce reoffending.
Early indication of success in reducing mental health and behavior problems. This reduces what?
Reduces out of home placements and reduces institutionalizations.
Hertz et al. (2012) did an assessment of interventions in relation to what?
Reduction in offending
This is the process of repeating a study, using a different population to see if results are consistent with a prior study.
Replication
The key goal is to empower individuals and communities, enabling them not just to feel secure but to be more able to act together to make their neighborhoods safer and better.
Respect Action Plan, 2006
Inalienable rights granted to human beings. What are they?
Rights to life and rights to freedom on conscious
The response to youth offending does not address the multi-faceted, complex, and deep-rooted problems of offending youth: such as, what?
School failure, psychological health, family problems, drug and alcohol abuse
With the United Nations convention on the rights of the child, there are 54 Legally binding principles that include children's health care, education and nationality, and the role of the child in what?
Society
Divestment of state support systems, reduction in the responsibility of the _____________________.
State
Engage families. This is a what?
Strategy to support victimized youth at risk of offending.
Improve trauma-informed screening and assessment in service systems. This is a what?
Strategy to support victimized youth at risk of offending.
Strong association between what?
Substance abuse and anti-social behavior
Economic hardship diminishes parents capacity for what?
Supportive and consistent parenting
NCJJ is examining the level of what?
System integration
Child must be given the means requisite for its normal development, both materially and spiritually. This is one of the guiding principles for what?
The Declaration on the Rights of the Child (1924)
There should be a close relationship between the age of criminal responsibility and the age at which young people acquire other social rights such as what?
The right to vote, marry, etc.
Set of two or more related, empirically testable assertions of proportion--statements that describe the relationship between two or more variables. They provide explanations for delinquency of the individual and social level.
Theory
In addition to individual level strategies that improve self-control, decision-making skills, and healthy coping we also need system-based changes that focus on what?
Trauma-informed practices
There was a strong link between ____________________ and ____________________.
Truancy and conflict
Odds of offending 3 times greater among ___________________.
Truants
60% of children in the United States were exposed to violence, crime or abuse. This is part of the National Survey of Children's Exposure to Violence (2009) (CCRC-UNH). True/False?
True
A child aged 10 years and 1 day fully responsible for actions. True/False?
True
Adolescent parents are in the stage of life in which they lack maturity and development to properly raise a child. True/False?
True
Age of responsibility is 16 in Spain and Portugal. True/False?
True
Article 40: Age appropriate treatment of young people who offend. True/False?
True
Bryan et al. (2007) found that 60% of children in the criminal justice system had significant speech, language or communication problems; 30% have learning disorder, 10% have anxiety disorder, 5% have symptoms of psychosis. True/False?
True
By age 33, 18% of the non-deprived children had been convicted of an offense; 49% of the deprived, and 66% of multiply deprived. This is part of the Newcastle 1,000 Family Study. True/False?
True
Children in care face the challenges of setting up and managing a home, getting a job and developing a support network at very young ages. True/False?
True
Children in care lack financial help and guidance when leaving care. True/False?
True
Children of teen parents have increased chances of low school attainment, anti-social school behavior, aggressive behavior, substance abuse and early sexual intercourse (compared to children with older parents). True/False?
True
Community involvement in supporting families, the management of the criminal justice system and the treatment of offenders, promoting a sense of responsibility among offenders towards society. True/False?
True
Compared to the control group, the victimized groups were more likely to be arrested as juveniles (27% v 17%) and as adults (42% v 33%). (Cathy Spatz Widom (1989, 1992) study). True/False?
True
Complicated social interactions. This is an effect of maltreatment on behavioral, social, and emotional functioning. True/False?
True
Consequences of exposure to violence and victimization include well-being issues, developmental problems, school and academic disruption, mental health difficulties and substance abuse, and the children are more likely to suffer from "depression, anxiety, and post traumatic stress disorder" (Finkelhor et al. 2015). True/False?
True
Contacted at 8, 10,14, 16,18, 21, 25, 32. This was part of the Cambridge study of delinquent development. True/False?
True
DTO-generic custodial sanction given to any 15-17 year old for any offense considered serious enough to warrant custody; and to 12-14 year olds who are considered persistent offenders. This was part of the Crime and Disorder Act, 1998. True/False?
True
DeLisi et al. (2014) found that being a victim of sexual abuse increased the odds by 6 times of subsequent sexual offender. True/False?
True
Detention is a measure of last resort. True/False?
True
Developmental differences in the brain's biochemistry and anatomy that may limit adolescents' ability to perceive risks, control impulses, understand consequences and control emotions. True/False?
True
Diminished executive functioning. This is an effect of maltreatment on behavioral, social, and emotional functioning. True/False?
True
Diminishes concern for the welfare of children, obscures the relevance of socio-economic conditions of the child. True/False?
True
Due process rights, right to have charges against them explained, fair and just trial. True/False?
True
Early indication of success in reducing mental health and behavior problems. Has do do with the Crossover Youth Practice Model (CYPM). True/False?
True
Early studies show improvement of living arrangements, greater access of mental health services, improvement in academic success, fewer behavioral problems and closure of JJ and CW cases. True/False?
True
European Committee of Social Rights has declared the age of responsibility as manifestly too low. True/False?
True
Evans-Chase (2014) nationwide survey of residential facilities found that 56% of children in custody experience at least one violent victimization, including physical assault (29%) and sexual assault (12%) from staff or other residents. True/False?
True
Formal system that draws in younger children and escalates them up the sentencing ladder and into custody. True/False?
True
Given the need to make families function better, the obligation and objective of society must be to provide the environment, the resources and the opportunities through which families can become competent to deal with their own problems. True/False?
True
Growing awareness that children placed in the care of the local authority are disproportionately represented among offenders, court defendants, and youth in prison. True/False?
True
Hertz et al. (2012) question whether the child welfare system can effectively screen youth at risk of delinquency and provide effective interventions. True/False?
True
If two young people commit the same offense, they can receive different outcomes based on risk assessment.. This was a problem with risk assessments as a basis for intervention. True/False?
True
Improve reporting of youth victimization. This is a strategy to support victimized youth at risk of offending. True/False?
True
Integrate practical support. This is a strategy to support victimized youth at risk of offending. True/False?
True
Local innovation and civic action. This is a characteristic of the Big Society approach. True/False?
True
No More Excuses 1997 called into question the concept of doli incapax (children not criminally responsible unless prosecution could prove actus rea, mens rea, and when doing the act the children knew that what he or she were doing was seriously wrong. True/False?
True
No More Excuses 1997 was a white paper. True/False?
True
Offender acknowledge the consequences of their crime. This is a characteristic of the Big Society approach. True/False?
True
Older at placement, male, placement instability, chronic maltreatment. (Placement in foster care) True/False?
True
Only Somalia and the United States have refused to sign the United Nations convention on the rights of the child. True/False?
True
Parents are cast as 'bad parents' and insufficient attention is paid to the ways in which parental capacity is affected by the financial and material circumstances within which parenting takes place. This is a problem with custodial sanctions. True/False?
True
Persistence can be established on the first conviction without the presence of an earlier reprimand or warning. This was part of the Crime and Disorder Act, 1998. True/False?
True
Persistent fear response. This is an effect of maltreatment on behavioral, social, and emotional functioning. True/False?
True
Physically abused children were more likely to have been arrested for a violent crime (21% v 14%). (Cathy Spatz Widom (1989, 1992) study). True/False?
True
Policies should avoid criminalizing behavior to the develop of the child or others. True/False?
True
Prevention practices provides the environment, resources and opportunities that promote parental competency so that they ca deal with their own problems. True/False?
True
Recognition the child's status is different from adults, emphasis on the child's welfare, and participation of children in all decisions affecting them. True/False?
True
Respect and Responsibility, 2003 was a white paper. True/False?
True
Return to conservative views that youth offending can be attributed to a breakdown of morality associated with dysfunctional families and a delinquent underclass. True/False?
True
Still searching for a developmentally based approach for constructing social policy. True/False?
True
Studies indicate that the "relationships between parent and child is the casual mechanism that determines whether tendencies towards anti-social and offending behavior are inhibited or allowed to develop (p.58)." True/False?
True
Teens are overly emotional, prone to risk-taking, subject to wide mood swings, immature judgement, decreased risk perception and impaired future time perspective. True/False?
True
The Criminal Justice and Immigration Act, 2008 Scaled Approach program, matches interventions with offender scores on Asset (a common, structured assessment profile, and presentence reports). True/False?
True
The Criminal Justice and Immigration Act, 2008 was a requirement chosen by the court that must be more suitable for the offender and the restriction of liberty must be commensurate with the seriousness of the offense. True/False?
True
The Declaration on the Rights of the Child (1924) has guiding principles for nations. True/False?
True
The United Nations convention on the rights of the child prohibits the death penalty and life imprisonment for young people, and requires that any period of imprisonment be for the shortest appropriate period of time. True/False?
True
The best interest of the child of paramount consideration. This was a revision of the Declaration on the Rights of the Child. True/False?
True
The delinquent child must be reclaimed. This is one of the guiding principles for the Declaration on the Rights of the Child (1924). True/False?
True
Thus, with the Police and Justice Act 2006, parents who have not committed a crime can receive a parenting order in response to their children who have not committed any crime. True/False?
True
United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice (the Beijing Rules-1985) and United Nations Guidelines for the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency (the Riyadh Guidelines-1990). These protect the best interest of the child. True/False?
True
Welfare concerns eroded by the individualization of risk, early intervention, a focus on deeds rather than the needs, responsibilization, and growing penal populism. This is a problems with custodial sanctions. True/False?
True
Where detention is used children must be protected form harm and must be treated with humanity and respect. This is part of the United Nations convention on the rights of the child. True/False?
True
With Respect and Responsibility, 2003, it extended length of Juvenile record: impact subsequent sentences. True/False?
True
With Respect and Responsibility, 2003, responsibility not just the offender's to understand what they have done, repair the damage and feel remorse, but also those of other citizen's to help in the process of the offender's rehabilitation and the victim's recovery. True/False?
True
With the United Nations convention on the rights of the child, all children have the same rights and adults, and distinct rights that apply to human being under the age of 18. True/False?
True
With the United Nations convention on the rights of the child, there are supplementary agreements concerning special provisions for especially vulnerable children (child workers, child prostitutes, child soldiers, child refugees and young people who offend). True/False?
True
Youth 14-17 reported more assaults and victimization and witnessed more violence. This is part of National Survey of Children's Exposure to Violence (2011) (CCRC-UNH). True/False?
True
Youth Lifestyles Survey (2000) found drug use highest among the most-frequent offenders and lowest among less frequent offenders. True/False?
True
The Declaration on the Rights of the Child was revised by the what in 1959?
United Nations
General Assembly of the United Nations (1948) voted 48 to 0 to adopt the what?
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Pickens et al.(2016:p.6) suggest there is a need to stress the importance of restoring a sense of psychological safety in order to interrupt the cycle of what?
Victimization and youth offending
Children who are chronically exposed to _________________ are at increased rick for neurological changes that can manifest from extended stress responses.
Violence
96 boys had parents deemed to have been unsatisfactory 32.3% became what?
Young offenders
Persistent feature in the lives of many what?
Young offenders
Policies that strengthen families could be effective as what?
Youth crime-prevention policies.
Non-binding rules that serve to identify current international thinking on human rights for young people that represent the minimum recommended standards on what?
Youth justice
Diversion should be a core objective of every what?
Youth justice system
With Respect and Responsibility, 2003, it prematurely places children in the what?
Youth justice system
Parental involvement in schools, and monitoring in school performance lessens involvement in what?
Youth offending