Machiavelli, the prince and the discources
Consequentialism
an ethical system that determines the level of goodness or evil from the effect or result of an act
17
where corruption exists, well ordered laws are of no benefit, unless they are administered by one who, with extreme strength, will make them be observed until the people become good (cured)
Similarity between Machiavelli and Aristotle:
while individuals know little, their collective judgement is better then most groups of few people.
Quote on uniting the country (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 12)
"any country never was united or happy, except when it gave its obedience entirely to one Republic or one Prince" (early nationalism?)
Quote from Machiavelli on how we use history (medicine example):
"what is medicine if not the experience had by the ancient Doctors,on which the present Doctors base their judgments?"
Quote on why hereditary monarchies fail with reference to the Rome (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 10)
"when the Empire became hereditary, it came to ruin."
Quote on citizens when they don't have a proper recourse for their concerns (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 7)
"when these moods do not provide a means by which they may be vented, they ordinarily have recourse to extra ordinary means that cause the complete ruin of a Republic. And there is nothing which makes a Republic so stable and firm, as organizing it in such a way that changes in the moods which may agitate it have a way prescribed by law for venting themselves."
Quote from Machiavelli on the need for law (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 3)
"where something by itself works well without law, the law is not necessary: but when that good custom is lacking, the law immediately becomes necessary."
Quote from Machiavelli on the ends justifying the means (the discourses)
"while the act accuses him, the result excuses him"
What does social order require according to Cicero?
"wise leaders who direct citizens towards the proper goals of cooperation and mutual advantage rather and who thus seek peace rather than war" (political thinkers, Boucher and Kelly, page 104)
Machiavelli on Reputation and virtues
A prince should have the reputation of being virtuous in the traditional sense, without actually being so. He cannot actually have these virtues because at times it is necessary to act against them.
ecclesiastical Principalities
A principality technically under the rulership of a prince, but nonetheless strongly dominated by the Church. Easy to maintain but factionalism can become a problem.
Grandezza
A sense of greatness, Machiavelli describes his ideal republic as this
Quote from Machiavelli on human nature
"ungrateful, fickle, simulators, deceivers, avoiders of danger, greedy for gain;"
Machiavelli's parents
Both of Florentine Nobility, his father was a well renowned lawyer
Laura Janara Quote on Machiavelli's democratic nature
"Machiavellian theorizing and action itself hinges on a mode of seeing that invites democratic thinking"
Machiavelli quote from dedication to discourses on not dedicating to a prince
" For men, when they want to judge rightly, should esteem those who are generous, not those who are able to be so; and likewise those who govern a Kingdom, not those who can but have not the knowledge."
Machiavelli quote on Fortunes effect on our choices(The prince, chapter 25)
" I hold it to be true that Fortune is the arbiter of one-half of our actions"
Machiavelli quote on who's hate you should avoid(The prince, chapter 19)
" as princes cannot help being hated by someone, they ought, in the first place, to avoid being hated by every one, .. [or atleast] to avoid the hatred of the most powerful."
Quote on religion as a substitute for the prince(Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 11)
" as the observance of divine institutions is the cause of the greatness of Republics, so the contempt of it is the cause of their ruin, for where the fear of God is lacking it will happen that that kingdom will be ruined or that it will be sustained through fear of a Prince, which may supply the want of Religion"
Machi on the reasons of tumults
" the desires of a free people rarely are pernicious to liberty, because they arise either from being oppressed or from the suspicion of going to be oppressed."
Quote from Machiavelli on peoples attitude to history (discourses, intro):
" they who read take infinitely more pleasure in knowing the variety of incidents that are contained in them, without ever thinking of imitating them, believing the imitation not only difficult, but impossible: "
Machiavelli quote on being loved or feared
"Men worry less about doing an injury to one who makes himself loved than to one who makes himself feared."
Machiavelli quote on liberality (The prince, chapter 16)
", liberality exercised in a way that does not bring you the reputation for it, injures you;", and liberality, when not done with the property of those who are not your subjects, will only bring you a bad reputation.
Machiavelli quote on the fox and lion (The prince, chapter 18)
"A prince, ... ought to choose the fox and the lion; because the lion cannot defend himself against snares and the fox cannot defend himself against wolves. Therefore, it is necessary to be a fox to discover the snares and a lion to terrify the wolves"
Quote on what the founder of a republic should aim for (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 9)
"A prudent Organizer of a Republic, therefore, who has in mind to want to promote, not himself, but the common good, and not his own succession but his country, ought to endeavor to have the authority alone: and a wise planner will never reprimand anyone for any extraordinary activity that he should employ either"
Machiavelli quote on his division of states:
"All states, all powers, that have held and hold rule over men have been and are either republics or principalities."
Quote on the republican interpretation of Machiavelli's views
"Although Machiavelli gained his satanic reputation for advising princes on how to hold on to power, the contemporary republicans inspired by him know that he saved his best advice for citizens seeking to maintain their liberty." (RICHARD REEVES AND DAN LEIGHTON, The new statesman article: the prince, july 2009)
Quote on ceaser (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 10)
"Caesar to be detested, as how much more is he to be censured for that which he did, than he who intends to do evil." ... "a Prince seeking the glory of the world ought to desire to possess a corrupt City, not to spoil it entirely like Caesar, but to reorganize it like Romulus."
Machiavelli quote on Cesare Borgia and cruelty(The prince, chapter 17)
"Cesare Borgia was considered cruel; notwithstanding, his cruelty reconciled the Romagna, unified it, and restored it to peace and loyalty. And if this be rightly considered, he will be seen to have been much more merciful than the Florentine people, who, to avoid a reputation for cruelty, permitted Pistoia to be destroyed."
Machiavelli quote from the discources on the necessity of liberty
"Experience has shown that cities have never increased in dominion or riches except while being at liberty" IMPORTANT
Machiavelli quote on Perspectivism:
"For just as those who sketch landscapes place themselves down on the plain to consider the nature of the mountains and high places to consider the nature of low places place themselves atop high mountains"
Machiavelli quote on why republics should not become too strong(Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 6)
"For there are two reasons why war is made against a Republic: The one, to become lord over her: the other, the fear of being occupied by her."
Machiavelli quote on acting evily
"He should appear to be compassionate, faithful to his word, guileless, and devout. And indeed he should be so. But his disposition should be such that, if he needs to be the opposite, he knows how."
Quote from Machiaevlli on the is-ought distinction
"He who neglects what is done for what ought to be done, sooner effects his ruin than his preservation." (The prince, Machiavelli, Chapter 15)
Important Machiavelli quote on Fortune as a river(The prince, chapter 25)
"I compare her to one of those raging rivers, which when in flood overflows the plains, sweeping away trees and buildings, bearing away the soil from place to place; everything flies before it, all yield to its violence, without being able in any way to withstand it; and yet, though its nature be such, it does not follow therefore that men, when the weather becomes fair, shall not make provision, both with defences and barriers, in such a manner that, rising again, the waters may pass away by canal, and their force be neither so unrestrained nor so dangerous"
Quote from Machiavelli in dedication against dedicating books to Princes:
"I have departed from the common usage of those writers, who usually address their works to some Prince, and blinded by ambition and avarice laud him for all his virtuous qualities when they should be censuring him for all his shameful parts."
Quote from Machiavelli on the point of the discourses(discourses, intro):
"I might judge by comparing ancient and modern events what is necessary for their better understanding" Showing the usefulness of imitating success.
Machi quote on the tumults
"I say that those who condemn the tumults between the nobles and the plebs, appear to me to blame those things that were the chief causes for keeping Rome free, and that they paid more attention to the noises and shouts that arose in those tumults than to the good effects they brought forth,"
Machiavelli quote on fortresses (The prince, chapter 20)
"I shall praise him who builds fortresses as well as him who does not, and I shall blame whoever, trusting in them, cares little about being hated by the people."
Machiavelli quote on the necessity of the elites
"If princes are superior to peoples in ordering laws, forming civil lives, and ordering new statutes and orders, peoples are so much superior in maintaining things ordered that without doubt they attain the glory of those who order them"
Quote from Machiavelli on the nature laws and poverty (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 3)
"It is said therefore that Hunger and Poverty make men industrious, and Laws make them good."
Machiavelli quote ending the prince, calling on the Medici to use his powers to unite Italy (The prince, chapter 26)
"Let, therefore, your illustrious house take up this charge with that courage and hope with which all just enterprises are undertaken, so that under its standard our native country may be ennobled,"
Quote on Machiavelli's empiricism from translator
"Machiavelli always refused to write either of men or of governments otherwise than as he found them"
Quote on the necessity of a strong and independent judiciary representing the rule of law (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 7)
"No more useful and necessary authority can be given to those who are appointed in a City to guard its liberty, as is that of being able to accuse the citizen to the People or to any Magistrate or Council, if he should in any way transgress against the free state." Citizens are too fearful to act against the state and therefore the common good (or at least if they do they are punished for doing so and prevented from continuing), and as it provides a means for citizens to vent their frustrations (the mood of the citizens) [paraphrase]
Quote on the result of divisions in a city, when the power of the classes is out of balance due to the lack of proper means of vented f
"Of the things that resulted there sprung up hate on every side, whence it came to divisions, from divisions to Factions, from Factions to ruin. "
Quote from Machiavelli on if the people are wrong about being oppressed (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 4)
"Should the peoples "opinions should be false, there is the remedy of haranguing (public assembly), where some upright man springs up who through oratory shows them that they deceive themselves" (e.g cicero)
Quote from Machiavelli on a good founder (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 2)
"So that a Republic can be called fortunate which by chance has a man so prudent, who gives her laws so ordered that without having need of correcting them, she can live securely under them." Sparta as an example (800 years). There more laws need to change the worse the republic.
Quote on princes and religion (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 12)
"The Princes of a Republic or a Kingdom ought therefore to maintain their Republic's religions, and in consequence well and united"
What is the best form of government to Cicero
"The best form of government is one in which those particularly qualified to rule do so with the consent of the ruled" (political thinkers, Boucher and Kelly, page 104)
Quote on the Catholic church (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 12)
"The church therefore not being powerful to occupy Italy, and not having permitted that another should occupy her, has been the cause why she has not been able to be united under one head"
Machiavelli Quote on his Writing
"The evening being come, I return home and go to my study; at the entrance I pull off my peasant-clothes, covered with dust and dirt, and put on my noble court dress, and thus becomingly re-clothed I pass into the ancient courts of the men of old, where, being lovingly received by them, I am fed with that food which is mine alone; where I do not hesitate to speak with them, and to ask for the reason of their actions, and they in their benignity answer me; and for four hours I feel no weariness, I forget every trouble, poverty does not dismay, death does not terrify me; I am possessed entirely by those great men."
Andrew Mousley Quote on the effects of Machiavelli's perspectivism
"The metaphor may suggest a stable correspondence between a hierarchical order of society and a hierarchical order of nature but it simultaneously unleashes a series of destabilising alternative perspectives: what if the elevation of the people has the effect of enabling them to understand better their subjugation? What if bringing the ruler down to the level of the people has the effect of permanently undermining his authority?"
Quote on the Princes legacy (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 11)
"The welfare of a Republic or a Kingdom, therefore, is not in having a Prince who governs prudently while he lives, but one who organizes it in a way that, if he should die, it will still maintain itself."
Machiavelli quote on meaness (The prince, chapter 16)
"We have not seen great things done in our time except by those who have been considered mean; the rest have failed."
Machiavelli quote on Agathocles of Syracuse
"Yet one cannot call it virtue to kill one's citizens, betray one's friends, to be without faith, without mercy, without religion; these modes can enable one to acquire empire, but not glory. [...] Nonetheless, his savage cruelty and inhumanity, together with his infinite crimes, do not permit him to be celebrated among the most excellent men. Thus, one cannot attribute to fortune or virtue what he achieved without either."
What is good fortune for a republic (machiavelii quote from the discousces)
"a free beginning, without depending on anyone
Machiavelli quote justifying a prince going against conventional morality
"a man who strives after goodness in all his acts is sure to come to ruin, since there are so many men who are not good."
Machiavelli quote on cruelty and mercy(The prince, chapter 17)
"a prince ... ought not to mind the reproach of cruelty; because with a few examples he will be more merciful than those who, through too much mercy, allow disorders to arise, ... [which, with the example of crimes, ] injure the whole people, whilst those executions which originate with a prince offend the individual only."
Machiavelli quote on conspiracies in good and bad times(The prince, chapter 19)
"a prince ought to reckon conspiracies of little account when his people hold him in esteem; but when it is hostile to him, and bears hatred towards him, he ought to fear everything and everybody"
Machiavelli quote on avoiding liberality(The prince, chapter 16)
"a prince should guard himself, above all things, against being despised and hated; and liberality leads you to both. Therefore it is wiser to have a reputation for meanness which brings reproach without hatred"
Machiavelli quote on advisors (The prince, chapter 23)
"a prince who is not wise himself will never take good advice"
Machiavelli's definition of the state
"all forms of organisation of supreme political power, whether republican or princely."
Quote from Machiavelli on the nature of men (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 3)
"all men are bad"
Quote from Machiavelli on the shortness of regimes (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 2)
"an organiser of a Republic institutes one of those three states in a City, he institutes it for only a short time"
Machiavelli quote on his political Perspectivism:
"to know the nature of peoples one needs to be prince, and to know well the nature of the prince one needs to be of the people."
Quote on the need of one man to establish a state rather than a multitude(Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 9)
"as a general rule, that it never or rarely occurs that some Republic or Kingdom is well organised from the beginning, or its institutions entirely reformed a new, unless it is arranged by one" ... " the organization of anything cannot be made by many because of the diverse opinions that exist among them"
Machiavelli quote on the problem with love (The prince, chapter 17)
"as long as you succeed they are yours entirely; they will offer you their [life and everything else], when the need is far distant; but when it approaches they turn against you"
Quote from Machiavelli on the tarquin kings and the necessity for institutions for the less powerful (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 3)
"as soon as the Tarquins were dead, and that fear left the Nobles, they begun to vent upon the plebs that poison which they had kept within their breasts, and in every way, they could they offended them:"
Machiavelli quote on fortresses
"blame anyone who, trusting in fortresses, thinks little of being hated by the people", divides the prince from their people
Machiavellian normal dictionary definition
"cunning, scheming, and unscrupulous, especially in politics"
Strauss quote on Machiavelli
"even if we were forced to grant that Machiavelli was essentially a patriot or a scientist, we would not be forced to deny that he was a teacher of evil". (1958)
Machi on the need for tumults
"every City ought to have their own means with which its People can give vent to their ambitions, and especially those Cities which in important matters, want to avail themselves of the People"
Quote from Machiavelli on why Rome was stable despite its outward instability (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 4)
"every City ought to have their own means with which its People can give vent to their ambitions,"
Quote on the need for (civil) Religion (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 11)
"finding a very ferocious people and wanting to reduce them to civil obedience by the acts of peace, turned to religion as something completely necessary in wanting to maintain a civilization"
Machiavelli quote on why fear is better than love (The prince, chapter 17)
"for love is preserved by the link of obligation which, owing to the baseness of men, is broken at every opportunity for their advantage; but fear preserves you by a dread of punishment which never fails."
Quote on the need for trials to have many judges in a republic (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 7)
"for the accusing of a powerful one before eight judges in a Republic is not enough; it is necessary that the judges be many because the few always judge in favour of the few" "Judgements must be made in front of a mass of people if they are to vent frustrations"
Machiavelli quote on the balance of fortuna and virtu(The prince, chapter 25)
"fortune being changeful and mankind steadfast in their ways, so long as the two are in agreement men are successful"
Machiavelli quote on fortuna as a woman(The prince, chapter 25)
"fortune is a woman, and if you wish to keep her under it is necessary to beat and ill-use her"
Xenophon quote on new and old princes (pre-machiavelli)
"from all other kings, both those who have inherited their thrones from their fathers and those who have gained their crowns by their own efforts"
Rousseau quote on the Prince:
"he professed to teach kings" but "it was the people he actually taught"
Machi on the tumults results
"he who examines well the result of these, will not find that they have brought forth any exile or violence prejudicial to the common good, but laws and institutions in benefit of public liberty."
Machiavelli quote on deception(The prince, chapter 18)
"he who seeks to deceive will always find someone who will allow himself to be deceived."
Machiavellis view on injuring opponents
"if an injury is to be done to a man, it should be so severe that the prince is not in fear of revenge" (The Prince, chapter 3), they should be hurt so much they cannot respond
Quote on the creation of the tribunes
"if the tumults were the cause of creation of Tribunes, they merit the highest praise, for in addition to giving the people a part in administration, they were established for guarding Roman liberty"
Quote on what the founding prince should do after their rule is done (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 10)
"if to want to organize a City well, it should be necessary to abolish the Principate"
Quote from Machiavelli on the use of the tribunes (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 4)
"in addition to giving the people a part in administration, they were established for guarding Roman liberty"
Aristotle quote on constitutions
"in every republic there are two opposed factions, that of the people and that of the rich"
Quote on Fortuna as a women
"it is better to be impetuous than cautious, because fortune is a woman; and it is necessary, if one wants to hold her down, to beat her and strike her down." (the Prince, chapter 25)
Machiavelli quote on the need for beastliness (The prince, chapter 18)
"it is necessary for a prince to understand how to avail himself of the beast and the man." "it is necessary for a prince to know how to make use of both natures, and that one without the other is not durable"
Machiavelli quote on Virtues and reputation(The prince, chapter 18)
"it is unnecessary for a prince to have all the good qualities I have enumerated, but it is very necessary to appear to have them."
Frederick Douglass quote which supports the non-domination view of liberty
"it was slavery—not its mere incidents—that I hated"
Machiavelli quote on the current state of Italy during his time:
"lawless, crushed, despoiled, torn, overrun"
Quote on why founders should not become tyrannts (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 10)
"let he to whom the heavens gives the opportunity consider that there are two ways: The one which will make him live securely and render him glorious after his death, the other which will make him live in continual anxiety and after death leave of himself an eternal infamy."
Machiavelli quote on how to deal with people
"men ought either to be well treated or crushed"
Machi quote on tumults and virtu
"nor can a Republic in any way with reason be called disordered where there are so many examples of virtu, for good examples result from good education, good education from good laws, and good laws from those tumults which many inconsiderately condemn;"
What is it that makes cities great to Machiavelli (the discources)?
"not individual good, but common good"
Quote on the effects of not having a proper way for the common people to vent their frustrations (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 7)
"offence generates fear, fear seeks defence, for this defence partisans are procured, from the partisans factions arise in the City, (and) the factions cause their ruin."
Machiavelli quote on whether it is better to be loved or feared(The prince, chapter 17)
"one should wish to be both, but, because it is difficult to unite them in one person, it is much safer to be feared than loved"
Renaissance
"rebirth"; following the Middle Ages, a movement that centered on the revival of interest in the classical learning of Greece and Rome
McCormick quote on Machiavelli's populism
"resents, despises, and distrusts"
Machiavelli quote on the need of cruelty through a historical example (The prince, chapter 17)
"short-sighted writers admire his deeds from one point of view and from another condemn the principal cause of them. " on Hannibal, it is only due to his cruelty that he succeeded
Machiavelli quote on how fortuna acts(The prince, chapter 25)
"shows her power where valour has not prepared to resist her, and thither she turns her forces where she knows that barriers and defences have not been raised to constrain her."
Machi quote on Class Conflict in Rome
"that they did not consider that in every Republic there are two different viewpoints, that of the People and that of the Nobles; and that all the laws that are made in favor of liberty result from their disunion, as may easily be seen to have happened in Rome"
Machiavelli quote on just war (The prince, chapter 26)
"that war is just which is necessary,"
Quote on why rulers should rule with virtu (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 10)
"the Eastern and Western armies were not sufficient to save Caligula, Nero, Vitellius, and so many other wicked emperors, from those enemies which their bad customs and evil lives had raised up against them."
Pettit quote on the non-domination view of liberty
"the capacity to interfere in their affairs on an arbitrary basis"
Quote from Machiavelli on why the people can be trusted to not cause chaos (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 4)
"the desires of a free people rarely are pernicious to liberty, because they arise either from being oppressed or from the suspicion of going to be oppressed"
Quote from Machiavelli on who is best suited to guard liberty (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 5)
"the former[Nobles] have a great desire to dominate, and the latter[plebs] a desire not to be dominated and consequently a greater desire to live free ... the People placed in charge to guard the liberty of anyone, reasonably will take better care of it; for not being able to take it away themselves, they do not permit others to take it away. "
Quote from Machiavelli on the virtue of the people (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 4)
"the people, although they are ignorant, are capable of appreciating the truth, and easily give in when the truth is given to them by a trustworthy man."
Quote on why the city should be transferred to its citizens after its founding (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 9)
"the thing organized will not endure long if its remains only on the shoulders of one individual, but it is good when it remains in the care of many, and thus there will be many to sustain it"
Machiavelli quote on analysing things pragmatically
"the way men live is so far removed from the way they ought to live that anyone who abandons what is for what should be pursues his downfall rather than his preservation"
Quote from Machiavelli on the founding of a good republic (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 2)
"their laws were given to them by one and all at one time"
Quote from Machiavelli on the division of regimes (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 2)
"there are three States in them called by them Principality, of the Best [Aristocracy]. and Popular [Democracy], and that those men who institute [laws] in a City ought to turn to one of these, according as it seems fit to them. "
Cicero quote on being loved rather than feared
"there is nothing more suited to protecting and retaining influence than being loved"( De officiis)
Quote from Machiavelli on why the nobles might be more suited to defend liberty (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 5)
"they satisfy more the ambitions of those who playing a greater part in the Republic" but they also desire to dominate so they will get in the way of liberty
Machiavelli quote on faith(The prince, chapter 18)
"those princes who have done great things have held good faith of little account"
Machiavelli quote on avoiding hatred(The prince, chapter 19)
"to be a violator of the property and women of his subjects" "when neither their property nor their honor is touched, the majority of men live content, and he has only to contend with the ambition of a few, whom he can curb with ease in many ways"
Quote on the purpose of founder (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 9)
"to formulate laws for the common good by assigning the authority to themselves"
Machiavelli quote on avoiding hatred and keeping all their subjects satisfied(The prince, chapter 19)
"wise princes have taken every care not to drive the nobles to desperation, and to keep the people satisfied and contented, for this is one of the most important objects a prince can have."
The founding of rome
- Romulus and Remus (Romans) abandoned - Raised by "she wolf" (lupa) (Lupa = prostitute and many people think they weren't picked up by a wolf, but actually a prostitute ) - Brothers get in spat at founding of city (Practicing Augury with each other, the Gods "tell" each brother different things), Romulus kills Remus - Romulus populates new city with creation of the "asylum" - becomes the First King (Rex) of Rome! (the first people in Rome were undesirable people - thieves, murderers, etc)
Quotes on machiavellis 3 primary pieces of advice to a prince
-'one must know how... to be a great liar and deceiver' -Must 'be prepared not to be virtuous' -'safer to be feared than loved'
What is Machiavelli's aim with the Prince?
-Democratises knowledge that was already known to the elites, the common people thought their leaders were virtuous (Rousseau) -Gramsci, educate the Italian populace to know the realpolitik to win Italies independence. -Wanted the Medici's to rule well, actually wanted them to succeed as this would be good for the people -Maybe he just wanted a job from the local boss
Problems of representative democracies
-Elites (and typically wealthy) have much more access to political office (they are more connected) -Elections may fail to secure accountability as they are too far apart, which encourages people to remain unengaged in politics most of the time. -Complexity, the means for holding people to account and understand who is responsible for what is harder than what you might think -Information asymmetries and problems, the politicians know more than the people -Changing circumstances can create new information which may mean that peoples opinions change and the government is no longer representative. -Reduced monitoring capacities, it is harder for the common people to ask questions of their representatives -Parties always required to trade-off, no one gets what they really want
The corruption of Florence (Machi)
-Factional conflict -Inequality -Dependence on foreign mercenaries -Pernicious effect of the Catholic church -Leaders lack virtue
What makes a city with liberty to Machiavelli?
-Independent from any authority apart from that of its own communjty
Conditions of liberty
-Internal: how they govern themselves and construct their institutions -External: Independence from foreign domination This is required for cities to become richer or more powerful
Roman moralists four princely virtues
-Keep faith -Nurture subjects' love -Clemency -Liberality
How would the ideal ruler behave around fortuna to Machiavelli?
-Knows when to take risks, seize opportunities and ride their luck -Takes responsibility, does not blame karma or fate -Does not react to circumstances, but creates them as well
Methods to supplement representative democracy
-Lottery selection: but limited accountability and mandate -Political trials: but for what? It might encourage additional secrecy
Legacies of Machiavelli:
-Political realism(realpolitik): focus effectivness and results rather than abstract metaphysical considerations. To be a good leader sometimes you have to be bad according to conventional morality -Empirial method: Referring to historical evidence -Conflict as being integral to politics, and also seeing as positive -Refering to the relation between luck and skill -Pluralism kind of: different class interests, its okay to have different interest groups in society if they keep those interests in balance -Republican link to American revolution and to modern civic republicanism
Problems with principalities and republics
-Principalities lack traditional legitimacy -Republics are divided because of their warrring factions.
What kinds of servants should the prince have?
-The kind that understands things for itself - which is excellent to have. -The kind that understands what others can understand - which is good to have.
Roman moralists Four general virtues for individuals to follow
-Wisdom -Justice -Courage -Temperance
Common features of the republican tradition
-civic virtue (characteristics required of good citizens) -political participation (involvement in the political process) -the dangers of corruption (that the process and constitutions of states may degrade) - a mixed constitution (related to the separation of powers, different conflictual voices all given outlet for their concerns - have some power in society) - the rule of law (society comes together to decide a common set of laws which is seen as an extension of their will (it is sovereign), applies to all members regardless of their status) - classical references (Cicero, sometimes called a "neo-roman" tradition) - non-domination view of liberty Source: SEP
Three periods of Machiavelli's life
-youth: living in Florence under the ruler of Medici's (Lorenzo de' Medici, Il Magnifico.), most Italian city-states under ruler of small merchant class -Public service: the year Lorenzo fell he entered public service, during this period Florence was a republic During this period he met many important political figures such as the pope(, Alexander VI and his son Cesare Borgia IMPORTANT, and Pope Julius 2) and the king of France (Louis 7). He was removed from office (and even tortured, though apparently he held out quite well) when the Medicis returned to power -Life on the farm: The period in which Machiavelli had written his great works, and gained greater influence. He died a few weeks after the Medici was expulsed did without ever regaining office.
Context of Discourses
1512, Spain invade Florence and end the republic - the Medicis return to power bringing autocracy to the city. Machi is dismissed from his ambassadorial role and tortured on suspicion of being involved in a coup plot. Writes Prince to get a job from Medici, from 1515 he realised that this hasn't worked out - he gives up on this. Instead returns to hi republican ideas, taking a prominent role in the meetings of the republican intellectuals. He thought the fault in the Florentine republic was its lack of power
Savonarola
A Dominican friar that predicted the French invasion of Florence from the paganism and the moral vice of the city. Established a popular republic within Florence before he fell out of power
What was machiavelli's job?
A Florentine civil servant, in particular he was a "roaming ambassador" who went on many (mostly unsucessful) diplomatic missions
Humanism
A Renaissance intellectual movement in which thinkers studied classical texts and focused on human potential and achievements(combining the old with the new) - they put the "humane" - history, philosophy, poetry, -ahead of the study of nature. Earthly affairs were the product of human action, and the human was seen as more than just a soul but their body was also appreciated- working mutually with other humans and being recognised by them was once more seen as a virtue. Emphasises the value and autonomy of human beings above all else, saw their work as objective - challenging the churches power.
Definition of politics to Machiavelli:
A competitive pursuit of power/glory, but should be used as a tool for the service of the republic.
Mirror for princes (Speculum Principis)
A genre of book meant to provide advice to rulers.
Cambridge school
A group of historians of ideas who believe we can only understand a writer if we know what questions they were asking and in what context. we cannot just copy and paste a historically informed view of the world like Machiavelli lived in it.
Machiavellis education
A humanist educaiton: mostly reading the classics, especially Cicero
Example of Aruntes in the need for proper rule of law in a city? (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 7)
A man whose sister was violated by a more powerful man, he had no way to get back at him in his own city so he went out and got some barbarians to help instead. Due to his having no recourse to defend himself in legal means, he used extraordinary ones. Show's the need for the rule of law above any group of people so that all have recourse to justice within the city so will not burn it down.
Machiavelli's Virtu
A morally neutral sense, meaning something more likeability or skill. Dispositions of character that allow you to excel as a leader, saw those with Virtu as being Cunning, Brave, flexible, ambitious, decisive etc. Refers largely to the willingness and ability to do whatever is necessary to obtain glory and greatness, there are things the prince must react to they cannot expect - so they need to gain this skill to rule. These are qualities that the prince must have in order to maintain his state. The world itself is a bit of a play on words.
What does Machiavelli mean by a prince?
A political leader
Realpolitik
A politics based on practical goals and pragmatic analysis of what there is, rather than starting on what should be or focusing on the ideal. Nor nonsense, ethical considerations seen as less important, often associated with national interest.
The use of the Prince
A short little handbook of practical advice, you can take a look at it and get a little bit of advice. Takes some tales from history, and delivers them to modern princes - simply describes the effectiveness of their actions but not their morality.
How corruption could be turned back according to Machiavelli?
A single figure could act to return the republic to its routes, as viciously as the founder did. Every ten years, the republic should return to its constitution - perhaps through a heroic leader.
Who did machiavelli say must found the state?
A single individual, rather than the masses of the people though they would later rule
Soderini
A statesman, or ruler, of the Republic of Florence who was overthrown by the Medici. Was a good friend of Machiavelli - who was one of his main advisers. In this period Machiavelli, establishes his failed Florentine militia and then sacked when the republic falls - later is imprisoned as thought to be part of a conspiracy (although given amnesty).
Representative Democracy
A system of government in which citizens elect representatives, or leaders, to make decisions about the laws for all the people. Seen by Machiavelli as a mix of democracy and oligarchy: electoral selection creates a break in political equality so that some will only rule and others will only be ruled
Machiavelli's role within political theory
A transitional figure, from the transference from abstract thinking to more empirical analysis
Renaissance humanism
A view that humans can control their own destiny, the worldly achievement matter and how politics works can be studied like a science. Driven by the breaking down of feudal order.
What does Machiavelli compare Fortuna to
A woman, and to a torrential river - it cannot be easily controlled during floods, but during calm times dams and other things can be put up.
Mythical example Machiavelli gives in justificaiton of the beast and man analogy
Achilles was taught by Centaur, part beast (horse), part man
Machiavelli's cyclical view of history:
All republics are founded by a single law-giver, but that eventually sink into corruption. In this state, only tyrannical means can return them to their previous states.
What should a prince do to secure a mixed principality in reference to his neighbours?
Allie and head the weaker ones, put down the stronger ones. As to enter a foreign nation is to invite hate from the others.
Florentine government
An independent city-state with a republican government.
Realism in Renaissance Italy
Analysis of politics based on what is, rather than what ought to be. During Machiavelli's time, the major city-states (Naples, Milan, Florence, Venice) of Italy had come to a balance of Power, an equilibrium state of relative stability based on a mutual balance of power.
What does Machiavelli say about what is and should be honoured in history?
Ancient kingdoms or empires are admired rather than the people who made sure that said entities where established and maintained in the first place. Those people should not be neglected but instead imitated. We honour the places rather than aiming to imitate the qualities that made these places possible - what they did matters less than how they came to do it.
Machiavelli on the ends and the means
Any means is justified if it promotes the end of stability.
Discourses form of politics
Arguably a radical form of democracy, a republican system of government , with argument heavily rooted in Machiavelli's personal experiences, in which citizens heavily participate in ruling. Written at the same time of the prince
Humanist view on being loved or feared
Being feared means being hated, which is a bad thing to be.
How to deal with kings of conquered territories according to Machiavelli?
Captured kingdoms are easy to take, but hard to hold due to lingering love for the old royal family. Therefore you must eliminate their entire bloodline so now suitable heir remains. oof.
Julius 2 and Cesare Borgia
Cesare Borgia schemed to get Julius, who had a lot to fear from Cesare, into the prime position for selecting the next pope - pressuring him into acting against Juliuses own interests. This led to Julius eventually ruining Cesare
civic virtue
Characteristics of the personal citizens of a state which affect the methods and levels of their participation in politics - the norms and practices. In any framework of it, based inevitably on their ideological commitments, it is said that the duties and attitudes prescribed are needed for continued preservation and functioning of the political system.
What the middle aged dominated by in political theory?
Christianised Platonic thought (With a little Aristotle), St agustines division between a corrupt material world and a true reality of heaven. Politics ought to tend towards feudal harmony, every one in their place in order of the hierarchy (serfs v nobles).
Utile and honestum
Cicero's divide and relationship between the useful and the honorable
Cicero to Machiavelli
Ciceronian topics discussed in politics, both of which were out of politics when they were writing - expelled after being quite dominant roles. Both writing after their expulsion as a means to keep being political at some level to young politicians as a means to the restoration of a better regime. Both emphasised the relationship between the useful and the honourable - to Cicero self-interest ought not to outweigh morality, only moral methods can attain success. To Machiavelli less so, believed this - more of consequentialist.
Republican view on citizenship
Citizens are expected to hold "mutual commitment to common goods" (for all to be willing to work towards the decided view of what their societies view of their good is) and focus on "the value of political action as public service" (for all to be willing to help decide their societies view of what the common good is, to participate as a duty as a citizen to stop abuses of power, and this being seen as a form of public service). (Partially paraphrased, Encylopedia Brittanica)
Example given of the refounding of a city (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 9)
Cleomenes, king of Sparta, ruled alone to bring the city back to its roots. He killed a large number of people(those who corrupted the city and/or could oppose his power), then immediately restored the rule of law and bring the city back to its original constitution.
Machiavelli's concept of a state
Close to the modern nation-state, a state in set geography in which it the supreme and sovereign power, with the legitimate ability to use violence. Will always pursue a policy of aggrandisement against over states
How to be avoided as a Prince?
Command respect by appearing virtuous and not taking the property or woman away from men
Minimalist theory of democracy
Competitive oligarchy, the sole role of democracy is in occasional elections to hold the oligarchs to account. The democracy is managed and controlled by the oligarchic elements - and there is a highly transactional element between the elites.
Relationship between the prince and the republc
Conceptually related, many ideas in the prince also in the discourcres - like virtu and fortuna. Based on a guide on attaining and reating great things for cities e.g Rome.
Example of the judicial system and tribunes usefulness for venting frustrations of the plebs? (Machi)
Coriolanus saying the plebs should not have grain as they had disobeyed the senate, the plebs would have killed him if it weren't for him being summoned to trial at the tribunes. "if these ordinary means do not exist they will have recourse to extraordinary ones" (Discourses, book 1, chapter 7) which "without doubt ... produce much worse effects"
Biggest threat to liberty according the Machiavelli:
Corruption,
The original Latin title of the Prince
De Principatibus (of principalities)
Tribunate
Debated laws, but did not vote on them, a class-specific institution to help enable popular government by reorientating politics further towards the self-interest of the common people.
Problems with Machiavelli's republicanism:
Democracy is separated from republicanism. In the former the citizens are like the "authors"(petit) or ship captains - the people themselves decided the destination of travel for the ship of state. whereas in a republic the citizens are more like "editors", superior in power to the societies "authors" (the aristocratic class" but in the end do not hold the power to shape how their state will be but merely hold those do to account through scrutiny. In this way, politics is "depoliticised" and power is truly still held in the hands of a small elite.
Machiavelli's non-defeatist view of democracies
Democracy may inevitably dominate power due to their outsize power, but through class-based institutions for the poor in society the less powerful's interests can be properly represented. They can provide an organised countervailing force to balance out the power of the coordinated interests of the wealthy - holding their feet to the fire and keeping these elites accountable for their actions.
Italy at the time of Machiavelli
Divided up into many city-states who were all in competition with each other, as well as being a battleground for Europe's great powers (France and Spain in particular). Lots of political intrigues, moral hypocrisy and gangerstism present in political life. The popehood was largely a political figure based on the plotting of rulers.
Economy of violence
Do as little violence as possible, it is necessary but a prince should act for maximum effect for minimal investment.
Ciceronian Realpolitik
Does not recommend immoral acts for their own sake, but sometimes circumstances dictate that private virtues cannot simply be transferred directly to the public realm. Therefore , although you should attempt to act justly when you can, of you should adjust the way you act to suit your duty as a statesman, sometimes against conventional morality.
Criminal virtue
Doing sometimes cruel or exploitative things for good reasons, the ends justifying the means
The intellectual world proceeding the Renaissance
Dominated by the catholic church, the platonic division between the world of ideas and the material world was put into Christian terms by Saint Augustine as the division between the city of god and the earthly city - the nature of politics was just to fulfil the sinful appetites of the "fallen" man. The desire for national success or any other such desires were seen, as a distraction from the need for obedience to gods will.
Why does Machiavelli trust the people over individual rulers
Due to fortuna the world is unpredictable - requiring constant adaption. Individuals find this hard to do, but is easier to do collectively. The republic will have many leaders among its people rather than just one, meaning their will a diversity of personality types at is disposal (which will naturally clash, dealing with the confirmation bias).
Machievalli's patriotism/nationalism
During the period he was writing in, Italy was divided into city-states and dominated by foreign powers- who were themselves independent nation-states. He wished for his country to unite into a nation-state itself, and the last part of the book is his idealistic plea to the Medici to do just that. He later became a hero to Italian nationalists. Demands a revival of ancient roman spirit.
Gaining power through anothers virtu: (the prince)
Easy to gain, hard to keep. As the prince is dependent on his benefactor's goodwill and it is not sure the selected prince has the skill (as he didn't use his own virtu to gain his position).
Why Machiavelli was against Elite domination of politics
Elite's are selfish and corrupt. Without interventions from the people they will rule for the own self-interest, so the people must be roused to fight for their interests - through gaining concessions and policies.
Way in which the Prince seems anti-Ciceronian
Endorses the violence of Cesare Borgia and says Princes must be prepared to act violently
Machiavelli's view on "beastly" behaviour
Essential for princely behaviour, the lions force (including extralegal forms) is necessary for swiftly dealing with adversaries, whereas the fox's deceit is needed to put yourself in a good position for the aims of the stability of the state. The survival of the state("stato") takes precedence over conventional virtues that might not be instrumental to that end.
Negative liberty
FREEdom FROM constraints or the INTERFERENCE of others, the ability not to be for an individual stopped from doing something. "people are free simply to the extent that their choices are not interfered with ... to be free is, more or less, to be left alone to do whatever one chooses"(SEP).
In what ways does our context differ from Machiavelli's?
Far more stable in the modern day
Where was Machiavelli born?
Florence, Italy
Point of rule of law to Machiavelli
For the common good, protects man from man; faction from faction; republic from selfish private interest
Machiavelli's Perspectivism
For the republic to function, their needs to be the combination and aggregation of the many different persepctives of the different societal classes through negotiation make sure societies each the balance of power of each class remains in balance, with the classes providing a check on each other's power.
Power to Machiavelli
Fragile, contingent, morally fragule construction
Civic liberty
General areas of freedom that the government cannot touch without due process.
Why did Machiavelli support the Medici to reunite Italy?
He acknowledged that a republican unification was unlikely, for any reunification was better than none he supported the Medici if he attempted to unify Italy.
Ernst Cassirer Quote on Machiavelli
He called him the "Galileo of politics" due to the fundamental paradigm shift in the political analysis of social and historical material to a more scientific and inductive methodology.
Machiavelli's reason for writing the discources
He feared Florence was descending from being a republic into principalities, and so wished to look into the past to see what to Rome did to preserve their liberty and republics (Richard reeves and Dan Leighton, New Statesman, 2009)
Machiavelli's Empirical Method
He focused little on abstract ideas and metaphysics, focusing on examining past(his historical bent) and present events through an analytic eye to derive general rules of politics. He focused on what was actually there rather than what ought or should be there. He thus rejected A Priori reasoning, instead preffering a observational approach.
Machiavelli as a republican (quentin skinner):
He heavily advocates for the view of liberty as non-domination, the rule of law a politics of the common good.
How must a dictator act in refounding a republic to Machiavelli
He must make sure the many will take care of his creation: nourish the people's desire for freedom and the conflict that springs from it - he must make constituent power live in and through a renewed conflictuality
What did Machiavelli first say?
He openly said the good political practice is divorced entirely from Christian morality.
Why does Machiavelli not speak much on hereditary principalities?
He sees them as quite easy to rule, he just needs to keep up with traditions and not fall to particularly bad fortune.
Class conflict in Rome (machi)
He thought it was good, it was essential for the greatness of the republic. The elites in the senate where intimated in acting in the interest of the common people (the common good) as the common people have the ability to hold them to account and stop the elites from just help themselves. Addiitonally, the common people benefit from the wisdom of the Elite aristocrats - who Machi sees as being more wise in their leadership
Class Conflict in Machiavelli
He thought it was important that were means for all classes to express their interests through the political institutions of a republic- so they all had a voice in the political system. This was due to his view that conflict between these classes was inevitable, as the poor desire more freedom and the rich more control. There would always be this tension, which is good as this tension guaranteed neither dominated therefore ensuring continuing liberty. Therefore it was better than this conflict was fought through societal negotiation rather than actual combat, they provided a check on each others powers.
Decay in Machiavelli
He thought that all political regimes decay through corruption to their worst forms, republics decay the slowest though.
The immediate reception of the Prince and Machiavelli:
He was a man of the devil, an evil man
Why was Machiavelli tortured?
He was accused of a plot against the Medici's, though he was later given amnesty by them and allowed to leave the city.
Gramsci's view of Machiavelli
He was an archetypal form, embodying a unity of theory and action. He worked to mobilise the Nation against the feuding Aristocrats - his prince was a singular embodiment of a new collective will.
In what way was Machiavelli not scientific?
He was not concerned with the analysis of politics itself mainly, but mainly of statecraft as a skill. He did not provide a rigorous account of political authority or any other political topic, but rather seemed to look back at the past to provide - arguably a priori - interpretations of past events. He has been said to be overly focused on ancient Rome - perhaps due to his nationalism.
Why does Machiavelli leave out discussion of republics in The Prince
He was written about them in other places (the discourses)
Why is it unlikey that Machiavelli had changed his mind between the Prince and the Discources?
He wrote them at the same time, perhaps the Prince was just written due to opportunism - he wished to be reemployed as a civil servant in Florence.
Quote from Friedrich Meinecke on Machiavelli's impact
His "theory was a sword which was plunged into the flank of the body politic of western humanity"
Who does Machiavelli dedicate the Discourses to in the introduction?
His friends rather than a prince, says it is better to talk to those who should be princes but aren't then those who are princes but shouldn't be.
Machiavelli's contestatory republicanism
His preferred style of government was one which guaranteed individual liberty and had a mixed constitution made up of popular institutions checked by an aristocratic leadership. Mixed regime imparts virtù to civic body, which is the entire citizenship. However, consistent with his view of politics as conflict he thought the common people required institutions which could protect their interests from the elites - even if the elites proposed laws. This sort of model helped Rome achieve success through conquest.
The puzzle of Machiavelli
His two main works seem to radically diverge on their viewpoints to the point of contradiction (this is also the case in the interpretations of them), the prince seems to both be extreme realism and pragmatism gave as a rule book to the worst tyrants or as a self-defence manual for republican citizens (teaching them to be aware of what the politicians are doing backstages), versus a handbook for republican handbook.
Machiavelli's scientific method
His works were based on his intense knowledge of history, and his experience as a diplomat. Tries to extrapolate lessons and best practice from success and mistakes of past leaders. It is based on a cynical theory of human nature, people are naturally selfish. We must investigate the world as it rather than how we wish it to be- separate concrete political analysis from normative thought. He doesn't care about questions of morality, but of results.
Machiavelli's main question in the Discourses
How did Rome begin with such virtuous citizens, and how did it sustain this virtue over time?
Quote from lecturer on the realism of the prince's actions in Machiavelli
If prince "insists on making it his business to be good" among men who are not, he 'will surely be destroyed."
Difference between use of virtu in prince and republic
In prince it refers to a skill of the rulers, whereas in the discources it refers to the civic body as a whole - it is the duty of the leader of virtu to transfer this virtu from the ruler to the body politic.
What did Machiavelli's works do to the political relationship with Religion(Christianity)?
In the world around him, the end and means of all political activity were said to religious in nature, politics was religion and vice versa. Machiavelli made is so there was a divide between these two things- politics could be analysed without reference to religion. He analysed politics without any reference to morality, just to what was.
Machiavellis view of human nature in the Prince
Inherently, antisocial. All humans are selfish, aggressive and egotistical. Men only do good under domination and always wish to dominate others.
Controversy around The Prince's point?
Is it a description of how politics is? or how it ought to be?
Whats weird about the prince for the "mirror for princes" genre?
It deals not only with hereditary regimes, but new ones and ones ruled without virtue.
Machiavelli's view on whether it is better to be loved or feared
It is better when possible to be both, but when,as is often the case, this is not possible it is better to be feared. He objects to the equation of fear with hatred, they are different and it is bad to be hated. However, a rule just based on love is unstable as it is controlled annd can be withdrawn by the ruler - will be withdrawn if to their advantage. FEAR, on the other hand is UNDER CONTROL OF THE RULER.
Why is it bad to be hated according to Machiavelli?
It makes your rule unstable, someone is inevitably going to try to remove you from power and any other possible leader would be welcomed.
What does Machiavelli say a prince must do militarily?
It must be his first concern to be ready for war, he must study it physically and mentally- familiarising himself with the geography of his city.
Machiavelli on being hated
It should be avoided, but the prince will inevitably be hated by someone so he should avoided being hated by anyone that powerful.
Why did Machiavelli write The Prince?
It was a job application to new and young prince Lorenzo Medici, it was meant to instruct rulers in general and Lorenzo in particular on how to rule well. He was removed from office and wished to return - this did not work. He also arguably aimed to perhaps spread knowledge of the actions of rulers and maybe to push the Medici to unite Italy. Taking the form of a small practical handbook.
What was good about the roman constitution according to Machiavelli?
It was a mixed government, creating a tensely-balanced equilibrium between social forces - the rich and poor mainly.
How the Romans used religion to create stability (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 13)
It was a way of securing contracts and agreements as the authority of religion went above all of them, helped to create negotiate a balance
Why did Machi excuse Romulus for killing his brother? (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 9)
It was for the sake of the common good, of establishing a city. As only one individual alone can be allowed to found a city due to the opposing opinions getting in the way of agreement and decisive action. Someone is gonna have to get screwed over (you're gonna get hated eventually), so it is better to have that be on one person.
What did Machiavelli like about the founding of Rome?
It was founded as free city, rather than being dominated by foreign powers. This lead to its greatness, due to the state being based on the civic virtue of its citizens
Italy's unique situation
It was somewhat separated from the rest of European medieval politics due to the Northern alps.
Why could Rome not live without tumult according to Machiavelli?(Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 6)
It would have become to tranquil, so as not be able to expand and achieve its greatness. Its tensions created its successes. They needed to expand into an empire.
Context of the discources
Joins the Orti Oricelli (a group of aristocratic republican and humanist intellectuals) which discuss topics in a garden. The prince has failed to get Machi a job - the Medici didn't even read it. Instead he turned to literature, writing plays and a discourse on war.
Dictatorship in Rome
Legal and constitutional tool. Unlimited authority for a limited period with precise competencies circumscribed by other powers. They are the first cause of Rome's greatness and freedom, though they are not sovereign.
What virtues do princes need to keep up an appearance of?
Liberality- appearing to be generous while really being careful with money (parsimony), this is why he believes that Princes should give out benefits as a drip-feed. Clemency- Prince needs to act generously in certain circumstances, but when he needs to this should be done directly and should never be violent when not needed (in fact should be forgiving when possible) Keeping the faith - actually keeping to faith would put the prince at a serious disadvantage and compromise the stability of the state, whereas not appearing faithful would make people resent and hate the prince. Should put up a performance of faith while behaving unfaithfully.
What is discourses named after?
Livy's history of Rome (c.27)
The lion and the Fox
Machiavelli advised rulers that they needed to adopt the characteristics of both of these two wild beasts, one representing stealth(fox) and the other brute strength(lion)
Radical ciceronian and Ciceronian Realism
Machiavelli takes Cicero's idea that statesmen should sometimes act in ways different to conventional morality and applies it as being the case for all politics all the time rather than just part of it. He sees Cicero's aim of the republic as so important that other things can easily be compromised for. The Ciceronian ends justify the arguably unciceronian means. Is arguably both "more ideological and more pragmatic" than Cicero at once.
The discource's
Machiavelli's second masterwork, much longer and dedicated to service to the republic. Commentary on the first ten books by livy on the foundation of Rome - addressed to the aristocrats he associated with during his literary phase. He advises both citizens and leaders oy n how to preserve liberty and avoid corruption. Claims that self-government by the people is better for prosperity and stability then rule of the prince, as the people as a collective exercise better judgement than most princes.
The prince
Machiavelli's short masterwork, written as a letter to the Medici of Florence (Lorenzo). Describes power as the only reality in politics - and this is gained through ruthless and cunning action. The people are only there to be ruled and deceived - as it everyone else.. He describes the nature of principalities and the nature of the great statesman. At the end he calls upon the Medici to work to unite Italy.
Democratic Republicanism
Machiavelli's view of a republican state set up to provide a more representative means of democracy by providing class-specific institutions for the poorer common peoples mutual interests against the competing mutual interests of the rich elites - their power can be controlled through the political empowerment of the socially less powerful.
Republican(Machiavellian and Aristotlian) view on civic virtue
Makes the demand that all citizens should play an active and continuous role in politics, high levels of civic engagement are seen as necessary duties of any citizen in a state. Both to protect against the abuses of governmental power through corruption and to provide an outlet to satisfy their inherent human need for social and therefore political life as necessary for the good life - with a collectively created and maintained an idea of the common good being needed for true human flourishing. (Partially paraphrased, Encylopedia Brittanica)
What Machiavelli says of where cities should be founded? (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 1)
Maybe somewhere that is "sterile", there is some degree of poverty as this means that the people will have to be more united and hardworking. BUT, he DISAGREES, it should be somewhere fertile so that the city may defend itself.
Basic definition of Liberalism
Methodological individualism and the idea of a universal human characteristics of "inalienable" human rights (we have them like we have legs, they are part of our fixed "human nature"), and a social contract between the individuals to be the foundation of government. (Partially paraphrased, Encylopedia Brittanica)
Refounding the republic
Must be brought back to its founding principles through the extra-legal (prince-like) actions of a single individual to bring the city back to a proper point of participation. Ordinary means will not be enough to deal with the crisis (common virtue in Machiavelli), therefore there must be mechanism in law for dealing with extreme circumstances.
Two types of principliaties
Naturali- Authority naturalised, seen as the usual way of things, how things should be Nuovi - recent and RESENTED, especially in former republics, the new rulers are suspect
Machiavelli's view on military expansion
Necessary for the continuation of the republic, he was not a peaceful cosmopolitan - he did not believe that multiple republicans could exist in peace.
What should the prince be guided by According to Machiavelli?
Necessity rather than justice
How is the discourses written?
Neither as a simple history of Rome or a classical republican text, uses history to draw an image of what a future republic could look like. Written as a disconnected series of tales.
Machiavellis rejection of metaphysics
Never apeals to abstract principles of justice or morality, unlike other writers who start from it. Mach thinks that there is no time for abstract thought - actual leaders cannot act like this if they did they would fail. Shouldn't be evil for the point of it, but sometimes you must do it - it's just necessary. Politics is not about perfection of human existence or social justice, its just about survival.
Italy's relation to Feudalism
Never really sprouted there though its seeds were planted.
mixed principalities
New territories added to an existing one already controlled by the prince.
Simple definition of the non-domination view of liberty
Not being subject to the arbitrary rule of another
What does the Prince need to do in order to hold onto a newly acquired mixed Principality given a similar culture?
Not change the laws or taxes of the land. So eventually they will integrate with the main principality.
Non-domination view of liberty (Neo-Republican)
Not only to not be interfered with(negative liberty), but that there should be no force that should be able to interfere in a way which undermines freedom - none should have that power. Liberty can be understood as a structural relationship between people and groups, rather than just an outcome of how interfered with you are. You have STRUCTURAL INDEPENDENCE you are not subject to any arbitrary or uncontrolled power which is your master. (SEP paraphrase)
Fortuna
Not providence or fate - these are deteministic law-like things you can escape. get the rest of the slides lol wtf
Where does civic liberty flourish according to Machiavelli
Not where class conflicts are suppressed but where they are noisy conflicts are constant- then there is liberty. As Aristocrats are driven by a willingness to rule, and the people by a longing not to be ruled. This produces a balance of liberty
Modern example for the amoral case Machiavelli makes about being a good leader
Obama, very "nice" and friendly. Every day he came in and the first thing he did was assassinate people with drones.
Civil Principality
One in which the prince is chosen by his fellows citizens, in this case balancing the different social classes becomes important.
Machiavelli's view on the common good
Only achievable by through the collective participation of virtuous citizens.
Machiavelli's realist view of participatory democracy (or democracy in general)
People aren't and never will be equal in social, economic and political power. Therefore, the rich in organisations will always rise to the top, and it will degrade into an oligarchy
What should a Prince do in order to defend his colonies?
Place his garrisons there.
Croce on Machiavelli
Politics is autonomous of conventional life, it has different rules
What principle was Machiavellis highest?
Pragmatism, in aim of stability. Morality and justice were of little interest to him.
Republican interpretation of Machiavelli's view of politics.
Preserving a political community based on the preservation of the common good, the ideal republican thinker.
How did Machiavelli arguably understand Politics:
Pure power and the technique needed to retain and gain it, autonomous from moral norms as it is governed by its own distinctive rules. Machiavelli saw the task of politician and political theorist as to discover these rules and use them, rather than attempting to banish them using religious indignation.
Republicanism
Refers both to the a set of classical writers in political theory and to a modern interpretation of those writers. They stand opposed to both individual rule and to a non-participatory individualistic small government.
Governo Largo
Refers to a large government made up of many citizens in different positions of power, participatory in nature and contrary to model of the aristocratic view of a small ruling class
Machiavellis view of humanism
Rejects its naive version, but seems to agree with it partially
What was the politics of Cicero
Republican
Example of avoiding hatred of the powerful given
Roman emperors preferring war to peace due to the soldiers preferring war
Machiavelli's model of a republic
Rome
Machiavelli's view in contrast to the aristocrat's of a preferred view of government:
Rome as a model Prefers a Governo Largo: large council with different ranks of citizens. collective decision making of citizens greater than that of a few aristocrats.
Cicero
Rome's greatest public speaker; he argued against dictators and called for a representative government with limited powers. Important political theorist. Saw giving advice as politics to be other means.
against Machiavelli as a populist
Romes flourishing largely down to elite interventions according to Machiavelli. He saw the demos as incapable of self-rule without an elite, namely through proposing laws and policies.
Example of the ends justifying the means to Machiavelli?
Romulus's fratricide of Remulus
Machiavelli's populism
Saw class awareness(of the poor mainly) as important, the classes had to know their interests in order to contest over them. It was additionally necessary for the common people to resent the elites order that they are held to account so that there would be no dominant power and the people would be free.
What two things does Machiavelli see as being the same in the discources
Security and liberty
The republican view on the common good
Seen as achievable only through the participation of citizens in collective action in a role as their own self-government- they are compelled to contribute to political life and engage in the public sphere. (Partially paraphrased, Encylopedia Brittanica)
how Cesare Borgia successfully secured his power even though it was gained through Fortuna
Sent out his henchman(Remirro) to do violent deeds, then killed him by cutting him in half when he became hated - signalling it was not his actions even when it was. Made him liked and feared by the people
Machiavelli quote on why fortune favours young men, and therefore why they should rule (The prince, chapter 25)
She is, therefore, always, woman-like, a lover of young men, because they are less cautious, more violent, and with more audacity command her
Machiavelli's view of mercenaries
Should never be used, the state should rely on arming its own people so they can be the guardians of liberty.
Republicans problem with Florence at the time of Machiavelli
Single lords became more powerful, becoming more like an Aristocratic order (podesta, signori, Principi). This was happening even in cities with high republican "pedigree", links to Machi's concerns with republics becoming corruption, especially with its links to inequality.
Machiavellis view on conflict in society
Societal conflict is inevitable, there are always conflicting interests which can't be reconciled. There is no harmony to be found, their is just a need to keep the conflicts in check.
Machiavelli's example of a mixed constitution
Sparta, contrasted with Athens(the "pure democracy") which he said lasted for much less time
Why does Machiavelli think that politics can't be completely reduced down to a science?
The large element that luck plays, it determines so much of how politics works that trying to simplify away from it wouldn't work. Anyone successful in politics must be lucky. (Quentin skinner, uni of york lecture 2013)
Why could Venice live without tumult according to Machiavelli?(Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 6)
The lower class did not have to fight in war
General theme of The Prince
That the aims of the prince, namely glory, survival and stability can justify the use of immoral means to achieve them.
The common good
That which benefits society as a whole, rather than just its individual members. Even if all individuals in society benefited from something , it wouldn't necessarily be the same as the common good - it is the benefit to the abstract idea of the society itself and not its components. lcg
Generic Aristocratic view on the preferred view of government at Machiavelli's time:
The Venetian model, promoted stability and prosperity (the status quo). Power in the Aristocrats hand (the Governo Stretto - a close-knit ruling class)
Renaissance italy's relationship to the church
The church had long dominated the region, but was losing authority due to its declining influence (due to events like the great schism).
T
The citizen body as a whole can act with virtu, given the right kind of institutions(ordini). These institutions would be created through the actions of one person - the founder. One who isn't bound by the conventional morality of the day, who can act with virtu to establish the city. He can socialise the citizen body to act with virtu. A republic is a more permanent system.
Conflictual nature of Machiavelli's politics
The differing interest of individuals and classes is inherently incompatible - all can not get what they want. For some to achieve their goals, some have to lose out. Therefore, politics to him is inevitably and inherently conflictual. There is no point to attempt to resolve conflict in politics, it should instead attempt to express it in a way which creates a sustainable balance of power.
Why must one ruler establish a republic?
The diversity of opinions would get in his way.
Cicero on the ends and the means
The ends of politics do not justify inhuman means. Unjust action can be divided into two beastly categories: the lion (force) and the fox (deceit). Deceit is bad as it undermines trust (making it impossible), which is the foundation of human sociability.
Quote on why a founder should not make his city hereditary(Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 9)
The founder" will not leave to his heirs (or) any other: for men being more prone to evil than to good, his successor could employ for reasons of ambition that which should be employed for virtuous reasons by him."
Positive liberty
The freedom and ability to pursue one's goals. Not just having no constraints from doing such as one pleases, but actually having the means to do so. "[People are] free in the positive sense to the extent that they exercise self-control or self-mastery."(SEP)
Is/Ought
The gap between describing things as they are, versus prescribing how things ought to be and people should act in the ideal. People often hope between these things, acting like how things should be effect how things are and vice versa.
Machiavellian Consequentialism
The general view of Machiavelli that what makes a good prince is that his acts promote the stability of the state rather even if this means going against traditional morality.
The greatest threat to freedom in Machiavelli's worldview:
The insatiable desire of the view powerful elites to dominate the rest of society. Due to their existing power, they can easily gain complete control, unlike the poor who would find it harder to coordinate their power against the rich.
Machiavelli's Fortune(fortuna)
The objective events of the outside world which are outside our control, but must be held down by Virtuous action. Can be both a benign and malign force at times, as well as being erratic. However, its chaotic nature also means it provides chances that can be taken for great effect. Is like women, swayed by true manliness (virtu)
What is a free city to Machiavelli?
The only authority it relies on is its own power of its citizens, it is free from political servitude both internally from tyrannical rulers and externally from submission to a foreign power
Machiavelli quote on the wisdom of crowds
The people "in regarding to the forming of a false opinion" always "makes fewer mistakes than do princes"
How to gain liberty according the Machiavelli:
The people, as the people all share more than anything the mutual interest in not being dominated so as a mass of people they can protect against tyranny. To achieve liberty we must "we must turn ourselves into servants of the public interest" (quentin skinner) . (Richard Reeves and Dan Leighton, New Statesman, 2009) paraphrased
Balanced class equilibrium
The powers of the different classes are held in balance, one does not get to powerful to dominate the other. They instead hold each other in balance.
Machiavelli on lying
The prince should become a great deciever
What does the Prince need to do in order to hold onto a newly acquired mixed Principality given a different culture?
The prince should go live there for a while, as he can respond to problems quicker- they see orders as they spring up. In addition, he can make sure their officials act fairly - which would help the people develop a better opinion of the prince.
Liberal view on civic virtue
The private life and public life as separate, the former more important. Makes "minimal demands of citizens", living your version of life in your own private good is valued over participating in a collective vision of the common good formed through participation of citizens with active public lives in an active public sphere. Indeed, participation in the liberal tradition is minimal, it is sufficient merely to vote every couple of years and be absent otherwise. (Partially paraphrased, Encylopedia Brittanica)
Mantenere lo stato (national interest)
The reason of the state, what the prince should always use his virtue to act towards. To do this he needs to keep control of his government.
In what period did Machiavelli do his work?
The renaissance period, (1469)
Machiavelli's view of the founding of rome:
The rule of one is necessary to set up a city or reform a corrupt one. Cannot be done through the "virtu of the masses" due to diversity of opinions. The end justifies the means as Romulus set up good laws and institutions, but also the intent is important- not only aiming towards personal success but genuilly creating a good city. HE set up the key institution of the roman republic of the senate which was a collective institutions
What made the Roman republic "perfect" according to Machiavelli (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 3)
The tribune, created a voice for the plebs (poor, common people) to stand up against the wealthy no matter the circumstances (unlike before with the King Tarquin example)
Why is hard for Cities that were principalities to remain republics after they have become such? (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 16)
Their citizens lack civic virtue due to their lack of experience participating in politics, therefore they will try to be as free as possible which will lead to them coming into conflict and perhaps returning their rule to another prince?
Decay in a republic
There are always forces working towards its decomposition, from the inside and outside. They will also face extraordinary circumstances which could weaken them. If there is not a way of dealing with the decay, the ruin of the republic could follow.
Example of weak leader in modern times
Theresa May, didn't properly discipline her party so was pushed around by everyone and was very ineffective
Machiavelli quote on those who use the bear without the fox(The prince, chapter 18)
They "do not understand what they are about" . They are lost
How does Machiavelli divide all states into four categories?
They are either republics or Principalities, both of which can either be new(nuovi, which will be recent and resented) or old (naturali, the authority is naturalised - seen as "just the way things are")
What did most Italian leaders blame for their loss of power and Machiavelli's response?
They blamed luck/fortuna. Machiavelli responds that those with virtu are less likely to be taken down by luck.
Why should the Prince avoid flatterers?
They can get the prince to take rash actions
Why could Sparta live without tumult according to Machiavelli?(Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 6)
They had a smaller population so be effectively be governed by fewer people, and that they did not allow any people to enter their republic.
Why does Machiavelli prefer republics to other forms of government? (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 2)
They last longer, Sparta lived for much longer than Athens
Diffe
They say politics is about justice and moral goofness, machiavelli says politics has nothing to do with the conventional views of justice. Far less abstract, more pragmatic
Why must princes learn how to be evil?
They shall come across men who are evil, and so much learn to do so so they can defeat them and act in the states interest.
What does Machiavelli say about old injuries?
They will not be forgotten by the people, even if new benefits are given
How to do with conquered free states according to Machiavelli?
This topic is unique to Machiavelli in the "Mirror for Princes genre". He gives Three options: - Ruin them (as Rome did to Carthage) - Go live in them or install colonies (send your own people to live there) -Let them rule themselves under a puppet regime Machiavelli recommends the first route as if they the prince didn't destroy the city then can "expect to be destroyed by it"
Which republics is Machiavelli talking about in the discourses? (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 2)
Those which were never under subjegation by a foreign power
Why is reforming a regime so hard according to Machiavelli?
Those who benefit from the status quo are likely to be more vigorous in defending it then those who would benefit from the new regime are in fighting for the new one as its benefits are more uncertain. Additionally, he will inevitably disappoint some of his followers, as it is impossible to live up to everyone's expectations. Therefore the prince must use force to obtain his goals.
The importance of Virtu
Those who rise using virtue often find it harder to rise, but are more secure when they get due to being more skillful
Machiavelli's first division of cities (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 1)
Those who were founded by their inhabitants and those which were founded by foreigners.
Machiavelli as a populist democrat
Thought that there should be class-based institutions, sometimes referred to the people - may be meant just the poor. The political system designed so the poor can hold the elites to account - elite-restraining. The elites would naturally dominate a democracy, so he believes there should be institutions set up to create a countervailing force which would provide more balance. Encourages political participation of the common people, raising their class consciousness and asking them to patrol the elites.
How did Machiavelli aim to balance the powers of the classes?
Through institutional design
negotium and otium
Time in business/work versus time is spent in leisure, links to his concept of virtu. Machiavelli shared cicero's emphasis on the first over the second - although the study of politics was thought to bridge the two.
negotium/otium
Time in business/work versus time is spent in leisure, links to his concept of virtu. Machiavelli shared cicero's emphasis on the first over the second - although the study of politics was thought to bridge the two.
Machiavelli's view of political participation
To Machiavelli popular participation is the solution to all problems, including "iron law of oligarchy"
Paradox of Machiavellis political ethic
To act as virtuously as possible, princes might need to not act virtuously all time time. They need to be able to adapt, to do what is necessary for their stability of their states and consequently for the good of their people. However, they need to keep up appearances of conventional morality.
Difference between being feared and hated to Machiavelli?
To be feared it just to have those you rule be scared of the consequences of crossing you which you give them through your actions - they could like your rule or at least tolerate it and still fear you. Whereas hatred is given by the people in response to having a negative view of your rule.
What was the purpose of the Tribune to the plebs according to Machiavelli?
To defend their interests as a class and to help vent the common moods and frustrations of them.
Why should a city-state not remain neutral in a conflict?
To gain honours, if they win you benefit, if you lose your alliance with the loser is strengthened, if you are more powerful - then they under your control. If you are weaker they owe you something.
What is the difference between the republican analysis of liberty and the modern liberal one?
To liberals just being free from a force acting against your rights is freedom, to republicans, if there is any force that could dominate you then you do not have liberty. (Richard Reeves and Dan Leighton, New Statesman, 2009) paraphrased
What was Machiavelli aiming to do in The Prince?
To provide an account of what good political leadership is.
The Reason of the state to Machiavelli
To provide the end of political stability through what ever means ,whether cruel or deceptive, is made necessary and justified by this end.
Machiavelli on generosity
Too much generosity from a prince will make people more greedy and reduce their resources too much. If he tries to discontinue it he will be seen as greedy, if he raises taxes their'll be backlash. Being seen as ungenerous is better than being hated. However, of "what is not yours or your subjects" you can be more generous with.
Machiavelli on mercy
Too much mercy from a prince will mean there is more uncertainty and instability. Therefore, the prince should act cruelly sometimes. For instance, Cesare Borgia acts of cruelty protected him from rebellion
The Princes reputation
Very controversial, at times has been called a handbook of gangsters and a guide to evil. All Machiavelli's works were put onto the Catholic Churches list of banned works.
Machiavelli's view on the wealthy
Viewed them as perhaps one of the greatest threats to the republic, increasing income inequality could lead to the power of the two groups becoming unbalanced - leading to the domination of the wealthy over the poor.
Roman political life's influence on Machiavelli
Was in constant flux, to remain still was to lose.
The reception of the Prince and Machiavelli in the 18th century:
Was seen as a misunderstood lover of peace and liberty, Rousseau described the prince as a satire to inform the people of the evil actions of their rulers. An uncompromising republican who tried to warn all of the dangers of despotism.
When did Machiavelli think Principalities may be necessary:
When the state is degenerate, and the people are full of vice.
The two things that a founder must take into account to Machiavelli (Discourses, Book 1, Chapter 1)
Where the city is to be founded and the laws to established
Why did Machiavelli see a civic religion as important?
While Machiavelli did think that religious interpretations of the world should be kept separate from the political interpretations, he was not anti-religion. However, he saw religion as subservient - simply useful for political ends. A god-fearing community would be more likely to follow the laws and to keep up their civic virtues and duties. Because of this, he favoured Romes religion over Christianity as it glorified strength rather than humbleness. (A noble lie?)
Classed-based institutions in Machiavelli
With their absence the poor become less free as the rich emerge as a force which can dominate them. For the poor to be free they must have power in class-based institutions to fight for their own interests.
The prince as satire
Writing about what the rulers were really up to help the people dispose them.
Why does machiavelli advice against using allies forces:
You own them a debt after the fact
Andrew Mousely Quote on Machiavelli's perspectivism:
a "carnivalesque inversion, with ruler and ruled exchanging positions or at least points of view", there is a constant flux or conflict in Machiavelli's vision
Idealist/participatory democrats
a model of democracy in which citizens have the power to decide directly on policy and politicians are responsible for implementing those policy decisions. Differs from direct democracy, as the people have to carry out decisions and policies themselves, rather than just making the decisions and having others carry them out. e.g Town hall meetings
Tribune
an official in ancient Rome chosen by the plebeians to protect their interests. A class-based institution which allowed the plebians to have greater political power and, in Machiavelli's view, avoid being dominated and as such losing their liberty. Had the power to veto certain laws.
Relationship between conflict between social classes and liberty according to Machiavelli
both cause and effect
Attacks on humanist writers in the prince
c16 liberality 17clemency 17loved rather than feared c18 keep faith
Class conflict
conflict between entire classes over the distribution of a society's wealth and power
Federal expansion in rome
created foreign alliances: subordinate but protected by Roman law
Quote on why citizens would not use "extra ordinary" means to vent frustrations when they have legal ones (Machi)(Discourses, book 1, chapter 7)
for having the remedy at home it was not necessary to go outside for it.
Sound foundations to keep State in control
good Armies, good laws/institutions, show qualities of princely leadership
Why in a republic must the rich and poor be kept in balance?
if one controls the other then the constitution is easily corrupted - due to competing self interest. Therefore a mixed constitution must be set up to keep these social forces in balance.
Rule of law
principle that the law applies to everyone, even those who govern. You are subject to the law, and no master/owner as in a principality.
Why did Machiavelli favour a civic religion
promote patriotism and well-being of the republic, rather than perhaps divided loyality
Ciceronian
resembling the Roman orator Cicero in oratorical or literary qualities, refers largelly to the historical moment in which Cicero lived. With the mixed constitution of the late roman republic.
The Ciceronian form of the prince
shown in the use of latin chapter headings, the musings on Ciceronian topics and direct responses to ciceros own thoughts and writings (better to be feared then loved)
What is the focus of the prince and the discources
stability vs liberty
Liberal view on government and the individual
the freedom of the individual to find their own way of life suitable to their own conception of the good life ("the pursuit of happiness), with the idea of the common good being one that is rejected entirely. There is naturally conflict between individuals, which can never go away, but they purposely give away some liberties to government in a social contract to have others protected - however government power itself is limited as a risk to human rights.(Partially paraphrased, Encylopedia Brittanica)
Machiavelli quote on reputation and meaness (The prince, chapter 16)
the prince " ought to hold of little account a reputation for being mean, for it is one of those vices which will enable him to govern."
iron law of oligarchy
the tendency of organizations to become increasingly dominated by small groups of people, especially in democracies - they slowly get corrupted and decay to oligarchies
Perspectivism
the theory that there cannot be any uninterpreted "facts" or "truths," because everything we encounter is seen from one perspective or another. Put ourselves in each other's shoes.
How to acquire and hold new princedoms
through a mans own virtu, hard to get hold of - easy to maintain Through Fortuna - easy to get hold of if you have it, hard to maintain due to a lack of foundations and good laws
