Metacognition and Metamemory

As far as preparing for exams is concerned, what does managing time effectively mean?

Spending less time or no time on the parts of the materials that you also know very well, and spend more time on the parts that you have not mastered.

3. Judgment of learning (JOL) a. is the same as the TOT phenomenon b. is the same as the FOK phenomenon c. is more accurate when it is made after some time has passed since learning d. is more accurate when made right after learning

c. is more accurate when it is made after some time has passed since learning

10. Which of the following is an example of metacognition? a. I know that I will forget what I heard the professor say in class a weak ago. b. I know that I cannot reply on my prospective memory. c. I know that my IQ is not very high. d. All of the above.

d. All of the above.

6. Which of the following memory strategies use(s) mental imagery? a. method of loci b. peg words c. key word d. all of the above

d. all of the above

8. Which is (are) a possible explanation of the TOT phenomenon? a. transmission deficient b. blocking c. incomplete activation d. all of the above

d. all of the above

9. Metacognition is correlated with a. GPA b. reading comprehension c. effectiveness in studying d. all of the above

d. all of the above

5. According to research on the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, a. when an item is on the tip of your tongue, you will seldom be able to recover it. b. your memory about the TOT target is a complete blank space. c. you feel that later you will be able to recognize the target item but not to recall it d. you often can guess the number of syllables and the first letter of the target word with considerable accuracy.

d. you often can guess the number of syllables and the first letter of the target word with considerable accuracy.

7. Research found that "better than average effect" a. is common among people b. is adaptive if not gone to an extreme c. is maladaptive d. you often can guess the number of syllables and the first letter of the target word with considerable accuracy.

d. you often can guess the number of syllables and the first letter of the target word with considerable accuracy.

1. Which is NOT a failure in source monitoring in memory? a. false memory b. implanted memory c. false famousness d. recall intrusion e. none of above

e. none of above

What are the two theories about how we know whether we will be able to recall or recognize something that we cannot recall or recognize right now?

· Direct access theory: this theory says that we can directly measure the activation level of a piece of information we have in our memory although it cannot be retrieved right now. When the activation level is high, we will predict that we can remember it later. · Indirect or inferential theory: This theory says that we do not have direct access to the piece of information we cannot remember right now. But we can estimate whether we will be able to remember it later by using other clues or cues, such as whether we can remember at least a part of it, or anything related to it.

In a TOT experience, people cannot recall something. What is the difference between a TOT and simply failing to recall something?

A TOT is a special type of failing to recall something where people know that they are able to recall it at a later time. it is as if people know that this is a temporary forgetting of something.

Does aging affect prospective or retrospective memory more?

Aging affects the prospective memory more. However, older people are more careful about remembering things to do (e.g., taking medication at a future time) in the future than are young people, so they actually remember things to do later better than young people in real life situations. But in a lab test, older people do not do as well as young people in prospective memory tasks.

How can confidence measure be used to evaluate people's metacognition?

Both over- and under-confidence about one's ability, or cognition, or memory, or comprehension is an indication of poor metacognition. If you predict that you would get 75, and you indeed get 75, you have accurate metacognition. If you predict you would get 85, and you get 75, you are overly confident. If you predict you will get 65, and you get 75, you are underconfident.

What is the explanation for distributed learning being more successful than massed learning?

Distributed learning: you learn something a little bit at a time over a long period of time like you take a course in a fall semester. Massed learning: you learn something by cramming it over a short period of time, like you take a course in a mini-summer session. Use an analogy of digestion: eat a little bit at a time facilitates digestion. Eating a lot at one time hinders digestion.

What is the most essential ingredient of memory strategies?

First, trying to relate what you are learning with the old information in your long term memory. Second, using mental imagery, trying to visualize what you are learning.

What did TOT research find?

First, when one is experiencing a TOT, one almost always has some partial information about the word one fails to recall, e.g., the beginning or the ending syllable, how long the word is, the general sound pattern, etc.

What factors can affect memory retrieval success?

How often the info is retrieved, once a day, once a month, once every 10 years? Use it or lose it. if you do not use something often, the next time you want it, you cannot remember it. The cue (i.e., the reminder), something that is related to the target info one wants to retrieve. Some are effective cues, some are ineffective. For example, a person's first name is an effective cue for retrieving that person's last name, but that person's professional is not an effective cue for remembering that person's last name. Contexts: the more the contexts (the time, the place, the other peoples present, and everything else in the environment) match between learning and remembering, the better the chance that the info will be remembered. How much other info is being retrieved with the target info. The more the other info, the poorer the chance that the target info can be retrieved. Related info competes with each other for being retrieved more than unrelated info.

What did meta reading comprehension research find about metacomprehension?

In general, college students are not good at reading comprehension. They often do not fully understand what they read. College students are often overly confident about their understanding of the materials they read. Metacomprehension scores (indicating how well one understands one's own comprehension) and reading comprehension scores are positively correlated (r = + .43).

What is the labor-in-vain effect?

In preparing for an exam, if time available is limited, and yet you spend a lot of time on very difficult materials that you can hardly understand, then you are wasting your time and efforts. You get a labor-in-vain effect from your study. When time is limited, you should spend your time on easier materials that you have not reviewed or studied yet. This will benefit your test score maximally.

Why does this demonstrate that people have metamemory?

It demonstrates one's metamemory because one knows that it is there and will come out later (this shows that one understands how one's own memory system works).

What is key word strategy and what is its major use?

It is largely used for learning the vocabulary of a second language. It involves the use of mental imagery and the following steps: Find a word in your native language that sounds very close to the foreign word. For example, if you are learning the Spanish word "Pato" (duck), then find the English word "Pot". Make a mental image for each object, i.e., a duck and a pot. Combine those two things in your mental image in a very creative way, e.g., a duck is wearing the pot on its head. Next time, when you see the Spanish word "pato", you will think of the "pot" and that will let you see the picture and remember the meaning of the foreign word.

Why is it more difficult than retrospective memory?

It is more difficult for two reasons: 1) the event has not happened yet, so there are few sensory or perceptual records in memory; 2) it is like doing two things at the same time (a dual task). For example, I need to pass out the attendance-check sheet in the middle of the class I am teaching. I do not sit there doing nothing just wait to pass out the attendance sheet. I am teaching and have to remember passing out the attendance sheet at the right time. Isn't that like doing two things at the same time? Another example, you are studying somewhere on campus and need to meet with a professor two hours later. So, you are studying (doing one thing) and have to remember the appointment (doing another thing).

What is TOT?

It is the tantalizing feeling that the word one fails to recall is right at the tip of the tongue (almost coming out but just a bit short of actually coming out) and one strongly feels that one can eventually remember it

What is FOK?

It stands for feeling of knowing. When one cannot remember something, one either knows that one can recall it later, or one knows that one cannot recall it later, but will be able to recognize it if presented with the target item. When you know that you will be able to recognize it later, but not recall it, you have the FOK.

What is metacognition?

Metacognition: one's understanding of one's own cognitive processes.

What is Metacomprehension?

Metacomprehension: one's understanding of how much one understands what one read, "Did I understand what the article is about?"

What is Metamemory?

Metamemory: one's understanding of one's own memory processes.

What is prospective memory?

Prospective memory is memory about things that should be done in the future.

Which part of the brain is most involved in metacognition?

The frontal lobe.

What factors affect the extent that TOT occurs?

The same factors affecting any retrieval also apply here. How often the info is retrieved, once a day, once a month, once every 10 years? Use it or lose it. if you do not use something often, the next time you want it, you cannot remember it. The cue (i.e., the reminder), something that is related to the target info one wants to retrieve. Some are effective cues, some are ineffective. For example, a person's first name is an effective cue for retrieving that person's last name, but that person's professional is not an effective cue for remembering that person's last name. Contexts: the more the contexts (the time, the place, the other peoples present, and everything else in the environment) match between learning and remembering, the better the chance that the info will be remembered. How much other info is being retrieved with the target info. The more the other info, the poorer the chance that the target info can be retrieved. Related info competes with each other for being retrieved more than unrelated info. However, for TOT, age is also a factor. Older people experience TOT more often than younger people, and take a longer time to recover the sought-after word.

In metacognitive studies, what is found to be correlated with students' metacognitive abilities?

Their GPA and IQ scores are positively correlated with students' metacognitive ability. Students with better metacognitive ability tend to have higher GRP and IQ scores.

What is a time-based cue and event-based cue for a prospective memory? Which one is more reliable?

Time-based cue: you depend on remembering what time you need to do what (e.g., taking a medication). Event-based cue: you create an event that will happen to remind yourself that it is the time to do it, e.g., set an alarm clock or watch to beep at the medication-taking time. The event-based cue is more reliable.

Why is a distributed practice more effective than a massed practice strategy?

Use battery re-charging as an analogy. When the battery is charged too frequently, not much power can be added to the battery. But when the battery power goes low, then recharging can add a lot of power to the battery. When you still remember everything, practicing on it will not help you learn more. So it is better to wait longer before reviewing or practicing on the materials. But don't wait so long that the battery is dead (you forget the materials).

In some metacognition studies, where people were asked to judge their own learning (JOL) and predict their performance in a future test, what are the most important findings?

When the judgment is made right after the learning, people tend to overestimate their own learning (overconfidence). When it is made some time after the learning, their estimate of their learning is more accurate.

What are external memory aids?

Writing down what you need to do in the future on a piece of paper and put it at an easily visible place. Or putting something somewhere to remind yourself of the thing you need to do in the future, e.g., putting the letter you need to mail on top of your car (when you open the car door, you see the letter).

13. Which of the following study approaches will lead to the labor-in-vain effect before an exam? a. concentrating on the very difficult parts of the chapters that you can hardly understand. b. Spending the bulk of time on the larger portions of the chapters that are easier to understand but that have not been reviewed yet. c. Spending equal amounts of time and efforts on the easier and harder parts of the chapters. d. focusing exclusively on the easiest parts of the chapters.

a. concentrating on the very difficult parts of the chapters that you can hardly understand.

11. Which of the following is a mnemonic device using a sentence to memorize a list of items? a. Roy G. Biv. b. My very energetic mother just served us nine pizzas. c. kingfish, pickerel, cat fish, overflowed God's sea. d. NATO.

b. My very energetic mother just served us nine pizzas.

2. According to the discussion of the "false memory controversy," a. we have overwhelming evidence that people repress painful memories and later recover them. b. in some cases, therapists have suggested that unpleasant events may have occurred during childhood, and people may mistakenly believe that they actually occurred. c. researchers have constructed a checklist to determine whether an individual is telling the truth about an early life event; the checklist is highly valid. d. the research shows that people seldom make errors; when they say they experienced an event, it is almost certain that they did so.

b. in some cases, therapists have suggested that unpleasant events may have occurred during childhood, and people may mistakenly believe that they actually occurred.

4. The information that is not accessible at that moment when experiencing TOT is ____ in nature. a. semantic b. phonological c. perceptual d. spatiovisual

b. phonological

12. Déjà vu can be explained as a _____ effect. a. memory interference b. similarity c. schema d. spooky

b. similarity