Module 4

3 different causes of relapse in addicted individuals have been identified

- stress major factor - drug priming - Exposure to cues (e.g., people, times, places, or objects) previously associated with drug taking has been shown to precipitate relapse

Progestins

. The third class of steroid hormones that includes progesterone.

Laws again Marijuana

1926 New Orleans newspaper - "menace of marijuana," - claiming that marijuana turns people into violent, drug-crazed criminals. -The misrepresentation of the effects of marijuana by the news media led to the rapid enactment of laws against the drug

alternative approach to the problem of heroin addiction

1994, the Swiss gov (funded) - legalized - clinic, heroin injection from a physician for a small fee - positive results - Most users gave up criminal lifestyles, return to families and jobs, curtailed, reduced, or gave up - drug-related crime has substantially declined - new numbers of addition declined

The failure of physical-dependence theories of addiction and detoxification as a treatment - it does not stop addicted individuals from renewing their drug-taking habits

1st - highly addictive drugs, such as cocaine and amphetamines - no severe withdrawal distress 2nd - pattern: drug users involves an alternating cycle of binges and detoxification

presence or absence

1st General Conclusion of the Development of Sex Differences in the Behavior of Humans In the case of humans, it appears to be only reproduction-related behaviors that clearly fall into the category of sexual dimorphisms. The ______ of prenatal testosterone appears to be a major factor in the development of these behaviors.

The animal literature on drug self-administration has suggested 2 additional factors that may play a role in drug craving and relapse.

1st, environmental enrichment after drug withdrawal has reduced cue and stress-induced, - but not drug-priming-induced, relapse of drug self-administration 2nd, a few brief exposures to nondrug reinforcers can reliably reduce relapse of cocaine self-administration

cycle

The major difference between the endocrine function of females and males is that in human females, the levels of gonadal and gonadotropic hormones go through a ____ that repeats itself every 28 days or so.

Morphine.

The major psychoactive ingredient in opium.

Nicotine.

The major psychoactive ingredient of tobacco.

Amino acid derivative hormones.

Hormones that are synthesized in a few simple steps from an amino acid molecule. Ex:epinephrine, which is released from the adrenal medulla and synthesized from tyrosine

When an animal is deficient in sodium, it develops an immediate and compelling preference for the taste of sodium salt. In contrast, an animal deficient in some vitamin or mineral must learn to consume foods that are rich in the missing nutrient by experiencing their positive effects (improved health); this is because vitamins and minerals other than sodium normally have no detectable taste in food.

How do animals select a diet that provides all of the vitamins and minerals they need?

Alpha fetoprotein Alpha fetoprotein is present in the blood of rodents during the perinatal period, and it deactivates circulating estradiol by binding to it.

How do genetic females of species whose brains are masculinized by estradiol keep from being masculinized by their mothers' estradiol, which circulates through the fetal blood supply?

Hypothalamic

How regulates the anterior pituitary?

Because testosterone is immune to alpha fetoprotein, it can travel unaffected from the testes to the brain cells where it is converted to estradiol. Estradiol is not broken down in the rodent brain because alpha fetoprotein does not readily penetrate the blood-brain barrier.

How, then, does estradiol masculinize the brain of the male rodent fetus in the presence of the deactivating effects of alpha fetoprotein?

heart disease

However, Serotonin agonists were subsequently withdrawn from the market because chronic use was found to be associated with _____ in a small but significant number of users.

change little

Human males are, from a neuroendocrine perspective males' levels of gonadal and gonadotropic hormones ____ from day to day.

gut peptides

Hunger and Satiety Peptides Gibbs, Young, and Smith's research led to the hypothesis that circulating ______ provide the brain with information about the quantity and nature of food in the gastrointestinal tract and that this information plays a role in satiety

smaller

Hunger and Satiety Peptides In 1973, Gibbs, Young, and Smith - injected one of these gut peptides, cholecystokinin (CCK), into hungry rats and found that they ate ____ meals.

bloodstream

Hunger and Satiety Peptides Ingested food interacts with receptors in the gastrointestinal tract and in so doing causes the tract to release peptides into the _____.

peptides

Hunger and Satiety Peptides Soon after the discovery that the stomach and other parts of the gastrointestinal tract release chemical signals to the brain, evidence began to accumulate that these chemicals were _______.

Release-inhibiting hormones.

Hypothalamic hormones that inhibit the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary.

Releasing hormones.

Hypothalamic hormones that stimulate the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary.

Supraoptic nuclei.

Hypothalamic nuclei in which the hormones of the posterior pituitary are synthesized.

Paraventricular nuclei.

Hypothalamic nuclei that play a role in eating and synthesize hormones released by the posterior pituitary.

paraventricular nucleus

Hypothalamic nuclei that plays a role in eating and synthesizing hormones released by the posterior pituitary

Conditioned compensatory responses.

Hypothetical conditional physiological responses that are opposite to the effects of a drug that are thought to be elicited by stimuli that are regularly associated with experiencing the drug effects.

female, male - exposing in a dramatic fashion the weakness of mamawawa thinking

If Sry protein is injected into a genetic female fetus 6 weeks after conception, the result is a genetic ____________with testes; or if drugs that block the effects of Sry protein are injected into a _________ fetus, the result is a genetic male with ovaries.

gorging

If untreated, most patients with Prader-Willi syndrome become extremely obese, and they often die in early adulthood from diabetes, heart disease, or other obesity-related disorders. Some have even died from _____ until their stomachs split open.

The Case of Sigmund Freud - essay "Song of Praise" was about cocaine and was published in July 1884.

In 1883, a German army physician prescribed cocaine, which had recently been isolated, to Bavarian soldiers to help them deal with the demands of military maneuvers. - Freud read about this and decided to procure some of the drug. - pressed it on his friends and associates - used for 3 years and stopped using - told to quit smoking because it was causing a heart arrhythmia - could not stop, 20 cigar per day - developed cancer in his mouth and severe heart pains (tobacco angina) - 1936: 33 operations > oral cancer - jaw removed and replaced by an artificial one. - constant pain - could swallow, chew, and talk only with difficulty - kept smoking. - Freud died of cancer in 1939

Replacement injections.

Injections of a hormone whose natural release has been curtailed by the removal of the gland that normally releases it.

Sexual dimorphisms.

Instances where a behavior (or structure) comes in two distinct classes (male or female) into which most individuals can be unambiguously assigned.

The default program of development is the female program, which is overridden in genetic males by perinatal exposure to testosterone. The initial assumption was that this same mechanism would prove to be the sole mechanism responsible for the development of other differences between male and female brains. However, this has not proven to be the case. These complex mechanisms are different in different mammalian species.

Is perinatal exposure to testosterone responsible for the differences between male and female brains?

aromatization

It has been hypothesized that perinatal testosterone must first be changed to estradiol before it can masculinize the male rat brain. This is called the _______ hypothesis.

sexual arousal, occasionally to orgasm, triggered by sexually provocative visual images or masturbation.

It impossible using current imaging technology to investigate the neural activity associated with coitus (copulation) between females and males. Thus research on humans has focused on _______

experience daylight

It is extremely important to remember that hormone release can be regulated by _______________. I.e., many species that breed only in the spring are often prepared for reproduction by the release of sex hormones triggered by the increasing daily duration of _____________.

The energy set point assumption is the view that eating is the means of the body by which energy resources of the body are returned to their optimal level.

What exactly is the set-point assumption?

Gender identity.

The gender that a person most identifies with: female, male, some combination of male and female, neither female or male, or some other gender category.

15

The genetic cause of Prader-Willi syndrome is the an accident of reproduction that deletes or disrupts a section of chromosome ____ coming from the father.

penis, clitoris

The glans grows into the head of the _______ in the male or the ________ in the female

long-term regulation

The glucostatic theory was thought to account for meal initiation and termination, whereas the lipostatic theory was thought to account for ______. Thus, the dominant view in the 1950s was that eating is regulated by the interaction between two set-point systems: a short-term glucostatic system and a long-term lipostatic system.

Luteinizing hormone (LH).

The gonadotropic hormone that causes the developing ovum to be released from its follicle.

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).

The gonadotropic hormone that stimulates development of ovarian follicles.

"kicking the habit."

The gooseflesh skin and leg spasms of the opioid withdrawal syndrome are the basis for the expressions "going cold turkey" and ____

Diet-induced thermogenesis. (DIT)

The homeostasis-defending increases in body temperature that are associated with increases in body fat.

androgens (or testosterone),

The hormonal factor that triggers the development of the human Müllerian system is the lack of _______ around the third month of fetal development.

Menstrual cycle.

The hormone-regulated cycle in females of follicle growth, egg release, buildup of the uterus lining, and menstruation.

steroid

The hormones that influence sexual development and the activation of adult sexual behavior (i.e., the sex hormones) are all ________ hormones.

The hypothalamus-tegmentum circuits

The hypothalamus-tegmentum circuits that play a role in female and male sexual behavior in rats

Aromatization hypothesis.

The hypothesis that the brain is masculinized by estradiol that is produced from perinatal testosterone through a process called aromatization.

Withdrawal syndrome.

The illness brought on by the elimination from the body of a drug on which the person is physically dependent.

stress

The impact of _____ on drug taking was illustrated in a dramatic fashion by the marked increases in cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana consumption by New Yorkers following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.

The conditional response is always similar to the unconditional response.

The important point about all of this is that once one determines the unconditional stimulus and unconditional response, it is easy to predict the direction of the conditional response in any drug-conditioning experiment: ____

orchidectomy

The important role played by gonadal hormones in the activation of male sexual behavior is clearly demonstrated by the asexualizing effects of ______.

eliminates

The influence of the VMN on the sexual behavior of female rats appears to be mediated by a tract that descends to the periaqueductal gray (PAG) of the tegmentum. Destruction of this tract ______ female sexual behavior.

Hyperphagia

excessive eating

subcutaneous fat

fat stored directly under the skin

visceral fat

fat stored within the abdominal cavity in association with the internal abdominal organs

Lipids

fats and oils

Drug sensitization sensitization to the motor stimulant effects of amphetamine.

- 10 amphetamine injections - one every 3 or 4 days - increased the ability of amphetamine to activate the motor activity of rats - but only in the familiar environment

four important role in mediating intracranial self-stimulation

- Many of the brain sites at which self-stimulation occurs are part of the mesocorticolimbic pathway. - Intracranial self-stimulation is often associated with an increase in dopamine release in the mesocorticolimbic pathway. - Dopamine agonists tend to increase intracranial self-stimulation, and dopamine antagonists tend to decrease it. - Lesions of the mesocorticolimbic pathway tend to disrupt intracranial self-stimulation.

THCV (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabivarin)

has been shown to have antipsychotic effects

breathing

high doses of heroin kill by suppressing ______

the seminal vesicles

hold the fluid in which sperm cells are ejaculated

tropic hormones

hormones that stimulate other glands to release their hormones; hypothalamic releasing hormone

positive incentive theory

humans and other animals are not normally driven to eat by internal energy deficits but are drawn to eat by the anticipated pleasure of eating

Drug sensitization

increasing sensitivity to a drug can be situationally specific

sham eating

indicates that satiety signals from the gut or blood are not necessary to terminate a meal

subcutaneously (SC)

into the fatty tissue just beneath the skin

intramuscularly (IM)

into the large muscles

R.H.

male with severe amnesia for long-term explicit memory; hunger not resulted from energy deficit He had bilateral damage to the medial temporal lobes.

80

marijuana contains more than __ cannabinoids

hedonic (pleasurable)

most researchers now assume that the more important factor in addiction is the drugs' ______ effects

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair that distinguish males from females.

lorcaserin

one approved serotonin agonist for the treatment of obesity that has a more favorable side-effect profile: ____

Insulin

promotes the use of glucose as the primary source of energy; promotes conversion of bloodborne fuels to forms that can be stored (glucose to glycogen, fats to fatty acids, proteins to amino acids

Pavlovian conditioning of hunger; Weingarten

provided strong support for the view that hunger is often caused by the expectation of food, not by an energy deficit.

Persons with anorexia or bulimia both attempt to lose weight by strict dieting, but those with bulimia are less capable of controlling their appetites and thus enter into a cycle of starvation, bingeing, and purging.

scientists often find it more appropriate to view them as variations of the same disorder due to how they begin. Explain

peptides

short chains of amino acids that can function as hormones and neurotransmitters

appetizer effect

small amounts of food consumed before a meal actually increase hunger rather than reduce it

prefrontal

stimulant-dependent individuals have less gray matter in their ____ cortex.

addiction treatment clinics

studies use samples of drug users from the general population, the outcomes can be quite different from studies that recruit drug users from _______, which are the most severe cases

Rolls 1990

suggested that sensory specific satiety has tow effects: relatively brief effects that influence the selection of foods within a single meal; relatively enduring effects that influence the selection of foods from meal to meal.

ovariectomy

surgical removal of one or both ovaries

orchidectomy

surgical removal of one or both testicles

dimorphic

that is, most come in one of two models: female and male.

incentive-sensitization theory

the _____ theory, is able to explain why some drug users become habitual users and others do not. It is also able to explain the discrepancy between the hedonic value and the positive-incentive value of drug taking in addicted persons

labioscrotal

the _____________swellings form the scrotum in the male or the labia majora in the female.

blood-brain barrier

the blood-brain barrier proves and makes it difficult for many potentially dangerous bloodborne chemicals (drugs) to pass from the blood vessels of the CNS into the extracellular space around CNS neurons and glia.

Cannabis

the common hemp plant of which there are three species: Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis

Gluconeogenesis

the conversion of protein or fat into glucose

cephalic phase

the earliest phase of digestion, in which the brain thinks about and prepares the digestive organs for the consumption of food. It begins with the sight, smell, or even just the thought of food, and it ends when the food starts to be absorbed into the bloodstream.

Mullerian system

the embryonic precursor of the female reproductive ducts - uterus - upper vagina - fallopian tubes

shaft, hood

the lateral bodies form the ______of the penis in the male or the _______of the clitoris in the female

fasting phase

the metabolic phase that begins when energy from the preceding meal is no longer sufficient to meet the immediate needs of the body and during which energy is extracted from fat and glycogen stores

gonadotropin breast growth in males

the negative feedback from high levels of anabolic steroids reduces _______ release; this leads to a reduction in testicular activity, which can result in testicular atrophy (wasting away of the testes) and sterility. Gynecomastia (________) can also occur, presumably as the result of the aromatization of anabolic steroids to estrogens.

endocrine glands

the organs whose primary function appears to be the release of hormones

absorptive phase

the phase of metabolism during which nutrients are absorbed from the digestive system; glucose and amino acids constitute the principal source of energy for cells during this phase, and excess nutrients are stored in adipose tissue in the form of triglycerides

master gland

the pituitary is sometimes called the _____ because most of its hormones are tropic hormones.

Comparison of healthy liver with cirrhosis liver.

Comparison of healthy liver with cirrhosis liver.

Aphagia.

Complete cessation of eating.

Control of the anterior and posterior pituitary by the hypothalamus

Control of the anterior and posterior pituitary by the hypothalamus

In mice - lowest incidence of cancer, the best immune responses, and the greatest maximum life span—they lived 67 percent longer than mice that ate as much as they liked. In humans - conducted over shorter periods of time (e.g., 2 years), but they support the findings in nonhumans

Controlled experiments of calorie restriction in more than a dozen different mammalian species, including monkeys and humans, whose results have been remarkably consistent, show the following:

alcohol

Convulsions and hyperthermia are symptoms of withdrawal from ______.

- just thinking about a drug is enough to induce craving and relapse

Cues that predict drug exposure come to elicit conditioned compensatory responses through a Pavlovian conditioning mechanism, and because conditioned compensatory responses are usually opposite to the original drug effects, they produce tolerance. - conditioned compensatory responses seem to increase craving in abstinent drug-addicted individuals - triggering relapse

others

Feelings of satiety also depend on whether we are eating alone or with others. People and rats consume more when eating with _____.

nonfertility

Female primates are the only female mammals motivated to copulate during periods of _____.

Figures are based on a survey of people 12 years of age and over who live in households and used the drug in question at least once in the past month.

Figures are based on a survey of people 12 years of age and over who live in households and used the drug in question at least once in the past month.

many hypothalamus Hunger and Satiety Peptides

First, the sheer number of these hunger and satiety peptides indicates that the neural system that controls eating likely reacts to _____ different signals, not just to one or two (e.g., not just to glucose and fat). Second, the discovery that many of the hunger and satiety peptides have receptors in the ______ has renewed interest in the role of the hypothalamus in hunger and eating.

reward value or pleasure

For example, in rats, dopamine antagonists blocked the self-administration of, or the conditioned preference for, several different addictive drugs, and they reduced the reinforcing effects of food. These findings suggested that dopamine signaled something akin to ______.

cocaine

For example, only 10 percent of rats given a choice between consuming sucrose and self-administering cocaine displayed a preference for the ______

sweetened

For example, rats that prefer to drink _____ water and rats that are more active in a novel environment are both more likely to self-administer cocaine. These 2 behavioral traits have been likened to novelty seeking, a behavioral trait commonly associated with initial drug taking in humans

some of these genes seem to influence the likelihood of obesity by affecting one's gut microbiome

Genetic and Epigenetic Factors. - about 100 human chromosome loci (regions) have already been linked to obesity - single gene mutations have been linked to pathological conditions that involve obesity

Exocrine glands.

Glands that release chemicals into ducts that carry them to targets, mostly on the surface of the body.

6 weeks

Gonads appear __________________ after fertilizations.

The guinea pigs returned to their previous level of copulatory activity.

Grunt and Young rated the sexual behavior of each of the male guinea pigs in their experiment. - basis of the ratings, male guinea pigs were divided > Low, medium, and high sex drive - Castrated: sexual behavior dropped - series of testosterone replacement injections After testosterone replacement injections did the copulation level increase, decrease, or return to previous levels>

No It is unlikely that such sex differences in the brain would not be reflected in behavioral differences, but so far no such brain-behavior links have been clearly identified.

Have we found sex differences in the brain which produce behavioral differences?

Indirect correlational found through of Marijuana research - memory deficits

Heavy MJ users - memory problems - because it is not clear whether the memory deficits persist after the cessation of marijuana use, it is not clear if they are indicative of persistent brain damage

Indirect correlational found through of Marijuana research - schizophrenia diagnose for adolescence with history of schizophrenia in their families

Heavy MJ users - slightly more likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia - especially if they began using during adolescence - Until the reasons for this correlation are sorted out, youths with a history of schizophrenia in their families should refrain from marijuana use

0.5%

High doses result in unconsciousness; and if blood levels reach ____, there is a risk of death from respiratory depression.

Ketones

High glucagon levels stimulate the conversion of free fatty acids to ______________.

Historic influences that shaped current thinking about the brain mechanisms of addiction

Historic influences that shaped current thinking about the brain mechanisms of addiction

circulating non-hormonal, circulating hormones, nervous system

Hormone release is regulated by three different kinds of signals:____________, ___________ and ______________________

pulses

Hormones tend to be released in__________ (see Plant, 2015); they are discharged several times per day in large surges, which typically lasts no more than a few minutes.

Protein hormones.

Hormones that are long chains of amino acids.

Peptide hormones.

Hormones that are short chains of amino acids.

Steroid hormones.

Hormones that are synthesized from cholesterol.

addiction

The propensity to relapse, even after a long period of voluntary abstinence, is a hallmark of _____.

Basal metabolic rate.

The rate at which energy is utilized to maintain bodily processes when resting.

physically dependent,

An individual who displays a withdrawal syndrome when intake of a drug is curtailed is said to be ______ on that drug.

cardiovascular

Anabolic steroids have been shown to have a variety of _____ effects, which have been linked to premature death

cannabinoid

Anandamide was the first endogenous ______ to be identified.

classic research on drug tolerance and physical dependence

classic research on drug tolerance and physical dependence - 2 lines of thinking: Line 1 physical-dependence theories of addiction (inconsistent) = positive-incentive approach to addiction - positive-incentive approach to addiction + dopamine and intracranial self-stimulation = mesocorticolimbic pathway and the mechanisms of reward Line 2 - physical-dependence theories of addiction > drug tolerance and physical dependence > Pavlovian conditioning mechanism > Conditioned Responses in Drugs Craving > Relapses

gut microbiome

commensal bacteria in large intestines

adipsia

complete cessation of drinking

portal veins blood supply Finding 2 Hypothalamopituitary portal system.

cutting the _____ of the pituitary stalk disrupts the release of anterior pituitary hormones until the damaged veins regenerate

intravenously (IV)

directly into veins at points where they run just beneath the skin

test of conditioned tolerance to the anticonvulsant effect of alcohol tolerance was observed only when the rats were injected in the environment that had previously been paired with alcohol administration

2 groups of rats - 20 alcohol and 20 saline injections in an alternating sequence - 1 injection every other day. Group 1 - all alcohol injections in a distinctive test room - all saline injections in a colony room Group 2 - all alcohol injections in a colony room - all saline injections in the distinctive test room hypothermic effects of alcohol was assessed ?

overlap - presence or absence of prenatal testosterone exposure, contribute to the development of these kinds of sex differences, but account for only a portion of each difference.

2nd General Conclusion of the Development of Sex Differences in the Behavior of Humans Most differences between the behavior of average human males and average human females are small and characterized by substantial _____ between individuals of the two groups.

susceptibility Male prevalence - (3 times +) dyslexia, early-onset schizophrenia, stuttering, and autism spectrum - (10 times +) attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Female prevalence - (2 times +) depression, anxiety disorders, and Alzheimer's disease - (10 times +) eating disorders.

3rd General Conclusion of the Development of Sex Differences in the Behavior of Humans There are often differences in the _____ of human males and females to behavioral disorders.

the Wolffian system or Mullerian system

6 weeks after fertilization, both males and females have two complete sets of reproductive ducts. Through either the ______ or _____.

sry, sry

7th week after conception, the _____gene on the Y chromosome of the male triggers the synthesis of ____ protein, and this protein causes the medulla of each primordial gonad to grow and to develop into a testis.

cycling pituitary removed

A _____ from a mature female rat became a steady-state pituitary when transplanted at the appropriate site in a male, and a steady-state pituitary removed from a mature male rat began to cycle once transplanted into a female.

portal vein

A _____ is a vein that connects one capillary network with another.

Buerger's disease.

A condition in which the blood vessels, especially those supplying the legs, are constricted whenever tobacco is smoked. The disease can progress to gangrene and amputation.

ablatio penis

A condition produced when the penis is removed.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia. e.g. The Case of the Little Girl Who Grew into a Boy

A congenital deficiency in the release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex, which leads to the excessive release of adrenal androgens.

cafeteria diet

A diet offered to experimental animals that is composed of a wide variety of palatable foods

Aphagia

A disorder characterized by a complete cessation of eating is called ____________

Teratogen.

A drug or other chemical that causes birth defects.

Depressant.

A drug that depresses neural activity.

Sry gene.

A gene on the Y chromosome that triggers the production of Sry protein.

Anhedonia.

A general inability to experience pleasure in response to natural reinforcers

twice water

A gram of fat can store almost _____ as much energy as a gram of glycogen, and (2) glycogen, unlike fat, attracts and holds substantial quantities of _____.

Ventromedial nucleus (VMN).

A hypothalamic nucleus that is thought to be involved in female sexual behavior. - Female rats with bilateral lesions of the VMN do not display lordosis, and they are likely to attack suitors who become too ardent.

anticipated pleasure

A key point of the incentive-sensitization theory is that it isn't the pleasure (liking) of taking the drug that is the basis of habitual drug use and addiction; it is the ______ of drug taking (i.e., the drug's positive-incentive value)—the wanting or craving for the drug.

Narcotic.

A legal term generally used to refer to opioids. marijuana was legally classified as one. Marijuana bears no resemblance to opioid narcotics.

Prader-Willi syndrome.

A neurodevelopmental disorder that is characterized by insatiable appetite and exceptionally slow metabolism. - acts as though he or she is starving - other symptoms: weak muscles, small hands and feet, feeding difficulties in infancy, tantrums, compulsivity, and skin picking.

arcuate nucleus

A nucleus of the hypothalamus that contains high concentrations of both leptin receptors and insulin receptors

Neuropeptide Y (NPY)

A peptide neurochemical secreted by the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus that initiates eating; the gut hunger peptide

Cholecystokinin (CCK).

A peptide that is released by the gastrointestinal tract and is thought to function as a satiety signal.

negative feedback

A primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a physiological variable that is being monitored triggers a response that counteracts the initial fluctuation.

Progesterone.

A progestin that prepares the uterus and breasts for pregnancy.

Leptin.

A protein normally synthesized in fat cells; it is thought to act as a negative feedback signal normally released by fat stores to decrease appetite and increase fat metabolism.

Alpha fetoprotein.

A protein that is present in the blood of many mammals during the perinatal period and that deactivates circulating estradiol by binding to it.

A rat pressing a lever to obtain rewarding brain stimulation

A rat pressing a lever to obtain rewarding brain stimulation

mother The effect is relatively large: The probability of a male being gay increases by 33.3 percent for every older brother he has

A recent study of blended families (families in which biologically related siblings were raised with adopted siblings or step-siblings) found that the effect is related to the number of males previously born to the _____, not the number of older males one is reared with.

Codeine.

A relatively weak psychoactive ingredient of opium.

Heroin.

A semisynthetic opioid. 1870 - synthesized by the addition of 2 acetyl groups to the morphine molecule - greatly increased its ability to penetrate the BBB. 1898 by the Bayer Drug Company - freely available without prescription - widely advertised as a superior kind of aspirin. - less likely to induce nausea & vomiting - 1924 made it illegal for anybody to possess, sell, or use - 507,000 Americans currently use

resisting

A set-point mechanism should make it virtually impossible for an adult to gain or lose large amounts of weight. The theory suggest that the best method of maintaining a constant body weight is to eat each time there is a motivation to eat because, according to the theory, the main function of hunger is to defend the set point. However, many people avoid obesity only by _____ their urges to eat.

Drug priming.

A single exposure to a formerly abused drug. - failed sense of healing that the addiction is under control.

Drug tolerance.

A state of decreased sensitivity to a drug that develops as a result of exposure to the drug.

Amphetamine.

A stimulant drug. -1960 - orally, potent form: d-amphetamine (dextroamphetamine) - effects comparable to those of cocaine - produce a syndrome of psychosis called amphetamine psychosis

A summary model of the regulation of gonadal hormones

A summary model of the _____

Adjustable gastric band procedure

A surgical procedure for treating obesity in which an adjustable band is implanted around the stomach to reduce the flow of food. - hollow silicone band - can be easily removed

gastric bypass

A surgical procedure for treating obesity in which the intestine is cut and connected to the upper portion of the stomach, which is isolated from the rest of the stomach by a row of staples. - it holds less food; also called stomach stapling

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS).

A syndrome produced by prenatal exposure to alcohol and characterized by brain damage, intellectual disability, poor coordination, poor muscle tone, low birth weight, retarded growth, and/or physical deformity.

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

Drug self-administration paradigm.

A test of the addictive potential of drugs in which laboratory animals can inject drugs into themselves by pressing a lever. - nonhuman animals press a lever to inject drugs into themselves through implanted cannulas (thin tubes).

Conditioned place-preference paradigm.

A test that assesses a laboratory animal's preference for an environment in which it has previously experienced drug effects relative to a control environment. - nonhuman animals repeatedly receive a drug in one compartment (the drug compartment) of a two-compartment box - measured the proportion of time it spends in the drug compartment vs the control compartment - prefer the drug compartmen

70%

About ____ of all people who experiment with smoking tobacco become addicted - addiction develops quickly, within a few weeks

homeostatic balance The body defend its homeostasis by entering the cephalic phase (releases insulin and blood glucose) when the usual mealtime approaches. The strong, unpleasant feelings of hunger one may experience at mealtimes are not cries for food; they are the sensations of your body's preparations for the expected homeostasis-disturbing meal. Mealtime hunger is caused by the expectation of food, not by an energy deficit.

According to Woods, the key to understanding hunger is to appreciate that eating meals stresses the body. Before a meal, the body's energy reserves are in reasonable _______; then, as a meal is consumed, there is a major homeostasis-disturbing influx of fuels into the bloodstream. How does the body defend its homeostasis?

aromatization hypothesis

According to the ________, perinatal testosterone does not directly masculinize the brain; the brain is masculinized by estradiol that has been aromatized from perinatal testosterone.

- The flavor of the food you are likely to consume - Previous experiences you had or from other people - time since you last ate - type & quantity of food in your gut - whether or not other people are present and eating - if or not are blood glucose levels within the normal range.

According to the positive-incentive perspective, the degree of hunger you feel at any particular time depends on the interaction of all the factors that influence the positive-incentive value of eating. These factor could be?

changes

According to the settling-point model, body weight remains stable as long as there are no long-term ______ in the factors that influence it; and if there are such changes, their impact is limited by negative feedback.

increase

According to the settling-point model, body weight tends to drift around a natural settling point. The idea is that as body-fat levels _____, changes occur that tend to limit further increases until a balance is achieved between all factors that encourage weight gain and all those that discourage it.

self-control

Addicted individuals have been found to make poor decisions, to engage in excessive risk taking, and to have deficits in _____

paraventricular nuclei and supraoptic nuclei neurosecretory cells

After their creation, ______ are transported along the axons of these neurons to their terminals in the posterior pituitary and are stored there until the arrival of action potentials causes them to be released into the bloodstream. - Neurons that release hormones into general circulation are called _____

irritates

Alcohol _____ the lining of the digestive tract and, in so doing, increases the risk of oral and liver cancer, stomach ulcers, pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas), and gastritis.

heart

Alcohol erodes the muscles of the ____ and thus increases the risk of heart attack.

2 million 76 million

Alcohol is involved in more than _____ deaths each year across the globe, including deaths from birth defects, ill health, accidents, and violence. Worldwide, approximately _____ people are heavy users of alcohol.

functional

Alcohol produces both tolerance and physical dependence. -livers of heavy drinkers metabolize alcohol more quickly than the livers of nondrinkers - this increase in metabolic efficiency contributes only slightly to overall alcohol tolerance; most alcohol tolerance is _______.

hangover

Alcohol, even after a single bout of drinking, can produce a withdrawal syndrome of headache, nausea, vomiting, and tremulousness, which is euphemistically referred to as a ______.

anterior pituitary

All endocrine glands, with the exception of the_____________, are directly regulated by signals from the nervous system.

peptides

All hypothalamic releasing hormones, like all tropic hormones, have proven to be ______ .

same not functions

Although males and females possess the ____ hormones, these hormones are ____ present at the same levels, and they do not necessarily perform the same _____.

knockout mice

Although the female program of reproductive organ development proceeds typically in the absence of gonadal steroids, recent evidence suggests that estradiol plays an active role; _______ without the gene that forms estradiol receptors do not display a typical female pattern of brain development

smoking

Although the increased risk of lung cancer receives the greatest publicity, _____ also increases the risk of cancer of the larynx (voice box), mouth, esophagus, kidneys, pancreas, bladder, and stomach.

mesocorticolimbic pathway

Although there is some intermingling of the neurons between these two dopaminergic pathways, several pieces of evidence have supported the view that the _______ plays an important role in mediating intracranial self-stimulation.

Drug craving.

An affective state in which there is a strong desire for a particular drug. - a major defining feature of addiction

Leaky-barrel model.

An analogy for the settling-point model of body-fat regulation.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).

An anterior pituitary hormone that triggers the release of adrenal hormones from the adrenal cortices.

anorexia nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by an obstinate and willful refusal to eat, a distorted body image, and an intense fear of being fat - health-threatening weight loss.

learning

An important line of psychopharmacologic research has shown that ______ plays a major role in drug tolerance.

Drug sensitization.

An increase in the sensitivity to a drug effect that develops as the result of exposure to the drug. Drug tolerance often develops to some effects of a drug but not to others.

positive-incentive theories

Another challenge faced by _____ theories is that they are unable to explain why addicted individuals often experience a big discrepancy between the hedonic value (liking) and the positive-incentive value (wanting) of their preferred drug.

Anorexia often require treatment for reduced metabolism, bradycardia (slow heart rate), hypotension (low blood pressure), hypothermia (low body temperature), and anemia (deficiency of red blood cells). Bulimia often require treatment for irritation and inflammation of the esophagus, vitamin and mineral deficiencies, electrolyte imbalance, dehydration, and acid reflux

Are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa really different disorders, as current convention dictates? From the perspective of a physician, it is important to distinguish between these disorders because starvation produces different health problems than does repeated bingeing and purging.

No / Ex: aromatase in the hypothalamus of rat brains Sex differences develop independently in different parts of the brain at different points in time and by different mechanisms. For example, aromatase is found in only a few areas of the rat brain (e.g., the hypothalamus), and it is only in these areas that aromatization is critical for testosterone's masculinizing effects

Are brains masculinized or feminized as a whole?

growth hormone

Are the only anterior pituitary hormone that does not have a gland as its primary target

primates

Aromatization seems to play a less prominent role in _____ than in rats and mice.

Thermogenesis

As an individual grows fatter, further weight gain is minimized by diet induced __________

exceeded two kinds of individual differences play a role in obesity: - those that lead to differences in energy input - those that lead to differences in energy output.

At a superficial level, the answer is obvious: Those who are obese are those whose energy intake has ______ their energy output; those who are slim are those whose energy intake has not exceeded their energy output.

marijuana impair psychological functioning

At high doses - short-term memory is impaired, - inability to carry out tasks involving multiple steps to reach a specific goal - Slurred speech - unreality - emotional intensification - sensory distortion, feelings of paranoia - motor impairment are also common. - Driving is dangerous

second, bipotential

At the end of the ___________ month of pregnancy, the ___________ precursor of the external reproductive organs consists of four parts: the glans, the urethral folds, the lateral bodies, and the labioscrotal swellings.

In a comparable study of female twins - 48 percent of the monozygotic twin sisters and 16 percent of the dizygotic twin sisters were gay.

Bailey and Pillard (1991) studied - group of gay males who had twin brothers: 52 percent of the monozygotic twin brothers and 22 percent of the dizygotic twin brothers were gay. Is is the same for women? What has research found?

Testosterone, females

Because it is ____________, not the sex chromosomes—that triggers Wolffian development, genetic ______- who are injected with testosterone during the appropriate fetal period develop male reproductive ducts along with their female ones.

uncertainty in drug research

Because most studies compare the health of known drug users with that of nonusers, one can never be certain that any observed differences in health are due to the drug or to some other difference between the two groups. - most studies

proceptive behaviors reproduction

Because much of the research on hormones and the development of reproductive behavior has focused on the copulatory act we know less about the role of hormones in the development of proceptive behaviors and in the development of sex-related behaviors that are not directly related to ______ . However, perinatal testosterone has been found to disrupt the proceptive hopping, darting, and ear wiggling of receptive female rats.

ventral striatum

Because orgasm is associated with pleasure, it comes as no surprise that the ______ is activated in human volunteers by sexually provocative visual images. Research on rats has shown that the activity in this area is associated with the anticipation and experience of sex and other forms of pleasure.

Thus indicating that satiety is a function of previous experience, not the current increases in the body's energy resources. However, after the first few sham meals, rats begin to sham eat larger meals.

Because sham eating adds no energy to the body, set-point theories predict that all sham-eaten meals should be huge. The first sham meal of rats sham eating their usual diet is typically the same size as previous normal meals. What does this indicates?

loss The therapeutic effects of replacement injections of testosterone have confirmed this assumption.

Because testosterone is the major testicular hormone, the major symptoms of orchidectomy have been generally attributed to the _____ of testosterone rather than to the loss of some other testicular hormone or to some nonhormonal consequence of the surgery. How was this confirmed?

The opioid withdrawal

Begins 6 to 12 hours after the last dose - restlessness; pace and fidget - fitful sleep - extreme cases by chills - shivering - profuse sweating - gooseflesh - nausea - vomiting - diarrhea - cramps - dilated pupils - tremor - muscle pains and spasms 2nd and 3rd day - most severe 7th day - they have all * a bad case of the flu:

Proceptive behaviors.

Behaviors that solicit the sexual advances of members of the other sex.

Physically dependent.

Being in a state in which the discontinuation of drug taking will induce withdrawal reactions.

Cocaine sprees.

Binges of cocaine use. - extremely high levels - a day or two - increasingly tolerant to the euphoria-producing effects The effects of sprees - sleeplessness - tremors - nausea - hyperthermia - rare cases: cocaine psychosis (mistakenly diagnosed as schizophrenia) Risk - loss of consciousness - seizures - respiratory arrest - heart attack - stroke

Indirect correlational found through of Marijuana research - hippocampal volumes reduction

Brain-imaging studies - hippocampal volumes tend to be slightly reduced in some heavy marijuana users. - might be the result of preexisting differences between users and nonusers

Satiety

CCK is a gut peptide though to be a ___________peptide

satiety peptides (peptides that decrease appetite). Hunger and Satiety Peptides

CCK, bombesin, glucagon, alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, and somatostatin) have been reported to reduce food intake. These have become known as _______

self-medication e.g schizophrenics use nicotine to alleviate any cognitive impairments and anhedonia

Caffeine - alertness nicotine - alertness alcohol - low dose > facilitate social interaction and sexual intercourse, release stress and anxiety cannabis - elease stress and anxiety

epileptics

Caloric restriction has been shown to reduce seizure susceptibility in human ______ and to improve memory in the elderly.

nutritive density

Calories per unit volume of a food

Adrenogenital syndrome. e.g. The Case of the Little Girl Who Grew into a Boy - 1 in 10,000

Caused by congenital adrenal hyperplasia, which results in the excessive release of adrenal androgens which have masculinizing effects in females.

Most humans have a special fondness for sweet, fatty, and salty tastes, which is adaptive because in nature sweet and fatty tastes are typically characteristic of high-energy foods rich in vitamins and minerals, and salty tastes are characteristic of sodium-rich foods. In contrast, bitter tastes are often associated with toxins.

Certain tastes have a high positive-incentive value for virtually all members of a species. Why is this?

Hormones.

Chemicals released by the endocrine system directly into the circulatory system.

Cannabis Cultivation

China 6000 yrs - rope, grain, psychoactive, medicine Middle Ages - rope European imperialism and American colonies - rope - George Washington

melanocortin

Class of peptides that include the gut satiety peptide a-melanocytes-stimulating hormone; located in the arcuate nucles

crack

Cocaine hydrochloride - converted to its base form by boiling it in a solution of baking soda until the water has evaporated. - The impure residue of this process is ______

local anesthetic

Cocaine hydrochloride is an effective _____ and was once widely prescribed as such until it was supplanted by synthetic analogues such as procaine and lidocaine.

schizophrenia

Cocaine sprees can produce cocaine psychosis, a syndrome that resembles ______ .

coca paste

Cocaine's crude extract called ____ Today it is more common to extract cocaine hydrochloride.

Hashish.

Dark corklike material extracted from the resin on the leaves and flowers of Cannabis.

THC

Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, the main psychoactive constituent of marijuana.

rodents It appears to be a direct effect of testosterone in primates, but it appears to be produced by estradiol aromatized from testosterone in rodents.

Dihydrotestosterone, a nonaromatizable androgen, restores the copulatory behavior of castrated male primates; however, it fails to restore the copulatory behavior of castrated male _____.

energy

Distribution of stored ______ in an average person.

Yes

Do current theories of hormones and sexual development pass the test of the three preceding cases of exceptional sexual development?

The answer is an emphatic "no." In fact, the effects appear to be uniformly disruptive.

Do the outrageously large doses of anabolic steroids routinely administered by many users enhance their sexual function?

Inhalation route

Drug absorbed through the nasal passages, oral passage, or endotracheal or tracheostomy tubes. e.g anesthetics: tobacco & Mariguana

behavioral problem

Drug addiction is a specific expression of a more general problem: the inability to refrain from a behavior despite its adverse effects.

functional,

Drug tolerance is of two different types: metabolic and ______.

Contingent drug tolerance.

Drug tolerance that develops as a reaction to the experience of the effects of drugs rather than to drug exposure alone.

Functional tolerance.

Drug tolerance that results from changes that reduce the reactivity of the sites of action to the drug. It can result from several different types of adaptive neural changes: - exposure = reduction of receptors - diminished binding effect on receptors. - Epigenetic mechanism

dose-response curve

Drug tolerance.

Drug withdrawal effects and conditioned compensatory responses are similar:

Drug withdrawal effects and conditioned compensatory responses are similar: - both are responses that are opposite to the unconditioned effect of the drug. The difference: - drug withdrawal effects are produced by elimination of the drug from the body - conditioned compensatory responses are elicited by drug-predictive cues in the absence of the drug.

but not all habitual drug users are drug-addicted individuals.

Drug-addicted individuals are habitual drug users,

Pavlovian

Drug-associated cues come to elicit conditioned compensatory responses through a _____ conditioning mechanism and that these conditioned responses are largely responsible for functional drug tolerance.

oral ingestion injection inhalation absorption through the mucous membranes of the nose, mouth, or rectum.

Drugs are usually administered in one of four ways:

psychoactive,

Drugs that affect the nervous system and behavior are called ______ drugs.

Psychoactive drugs.

Drugs that influence subjective experience and behavior by acting on the nervous system.

Stimulants.

Drugs that produce general increases in neural and behavioral activity.

Analgesics.

Drugs that reduce pain.

Endocrine glands.

Ductless glands that release chemicals called hormones directly into the circulatory system.

No These differences are unlikely to be the product of perinatal hormones.

During puberty some sex differences in the brain manifest. Could they be product of perinatal hormones?

initiate the maturation of the genitals and the development of secondary sex characteristics.

During puberty the release of gonadotropic hormone and adrenocorticotropic hormone cause the gonads and adrenal cortex to increase their release of gonadal and adrenal hormones

Insulin

During the absorptive phase, the pancreas releases a great deal of ___________into the bloodstream

Individuals who did not have these characteristics were unlikely to survive a food shortage or a harsh winter, and so these characteristics were passed on to future generations

During the course of evolution, inconsistent food supplies were one of the main threats to survival. As a result, the fittest individuals were those who preferred high-calorie foods, ate to capacity when food was available, stored as many excess calories as possible in the form of body fat, and used their stores of calories as efficiently as possible.

free fatty acids

During the fasting phase, the primary fuel of the body are

glucose

During the fasting phase, the primary fuel of the brain is______________

10,000

Each year in the United States, more than _____ people die in alcohol-related traffic accidents alone.

Describe the research that led to the discovery of the hypothalamic releasing hormones. Sheep pig They provided the major impetus for the isolation and synthesis of other releasing and release-inhibiting hormones.

Efforts to isolate the putative (hypothesized) hypothalamic releasing and release-inhibiting hormones led to a major breakthrough in the late 1960s. Evidence Guillemin and his colleagues isolated thyrotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus of _________ Schally and his colleagues isolated the same hormone from the hypothalamus of ___________

copulation copulatory

Electrical stimulation of the medial preoptic area elicits ______ behavior in male rats, and _____ behavior can be reinstated in castrated male rats by medial preoptic implants of testosterone.

i.e., the pituitary and pineal glands

Endocrine glands located in the brain are regulated by cerebral neurons;

sympathetic, parasympathetic - The effects of experience on hormone release are usually mediated by signals from the nervous system.

Endocrine glands located outside the CNS are innervated by the autonomic nervous system - Both _____________ and __________branches - opposite effects on hormone release.

glycogen

Energy is stored in three forms: fats, _____, and proteins.

barbiturates or alcohol.

Even in its most severe form, however, [opioid] withdrawal is not as dangerous or terrifying as withdrawal from _____

genitals

Every typical fetus develops separate precursors for the male (medulla) and female (cortex) gonads and for the male (Wolffian system) and female (Müllerian system) reproductive ducts; then, only one set, male or female, develops. In contrast, both male and female ______—external reproductive organs—develop from the same precursor

positive incentive

Evidence suggests that hunger is greatly influenced by the current ____________ value of food

primordial gonads

Existing in the beginning Each _____ has an outer covering, or cortex, which has the potential to develop into an ovary; -which has the potential to develop into an ovary - and an internal core, or medulla which turns into a testis

listen to your bodies

Experimental results indicate that the common prescription for good health of "___________" and eat as much as they need to satisfy their hunger could not be further from the truth.

Self-administration by rat - Food restriction - social stress - environmental stress facilitate the acquisition - environmental enrichment - social interaction - access to nondrug reinforcers protect against

Experimental studies of drug self-administration in rats have pointed to a variety of factors that facilitate, or protect from, initial drug taking:

Restriction

Experimental studies on calorie _________ have shown that typical ad libitum levels of consumption are unhealthy in many mammalian species.

- Major energy deficits clearly increase hunger and eating, they are not a common factor in the eating behavior of people like us, who live in food-replete societies. - You may believe your body is usually short of energy just before a meal, it is not.

Factors That Determine What, When, and How Much We Eat Why are energy deficits are not included among these factors?

Weingarten provided strong support for the view that hunger is often caused by the expectation of food, not by an energy deficit.

In a classic series of Pavlovian conditioning experiments on laboratory rats. Conditioning phase (11 days) - rats had six meals per day at irregular intervals, and he signaled the impending delivery of each meal with a buzzer-and-light conditional stimulus. Test phase - rats started to eat each time the buzzer and light were presented - even if they had recently completed a meal

They found that the lack of early exposure of male rats to testosterone both feminizes and demasculinizes their reproductive behavior as adults. The aromatization of perinatal testosterone to estradiol seems to be important for both the defeminization and the masculinization of rodent copulatory behavior In contrast, aromatization does not seem to be critical for these effects in monkeys

In a study complementary to that of Phoenix and colleagues, Grady, Phoenix, and Young (1965) - Male rats castrated after birth - failed: copulatory pattern after been treated with testosterone > mounting, intromission, & ejaculation - when injected with estrogen and progesterone as adults - exhibited more lordosis than uncastrated controls. What did they found?

testosterone

In experiments on nonhuman female primates, replacement injections of ______, but not estradiol, increased the proceptivity of ovariectomized and adrenalectomized rhesus monkeys.

- amenorrhea (cessation of menstruation) - sterility - hirsutism (excessive growth of body hair) - growth of the clitoris - development of a masculine body shape, baldness - shrinking of the breasts - deepening and coarsening of the voice. They are irreversible

In females, anabolic steroids can produce - amenorrhea: _____ - sterility - hirsutism: _____ - growth of the clitoris - development of a masculine body shape, baldness - shrinking of the breasts - deepening and coarsening of the voice. Can they be reversed?

perinatal castration

In general, the _____ of males has increased their preference as adults for male sex partners; similarly, prenatal testosterone exposure in females has increased their preference as adults for female sex partners.

Pfeiffer experiments

In his experiments, some neonatal rats (males and females) were gonadectomized and some were not, and some received gonad transplants (ovaries or testes) and some did not.

fertility Ovariectomy

In one study, human females were more likely to engage in masturbation and other sexual activity during periods of ______, and they preferred masculine faces more on their fertile days than on their nonfertile days ____ has been shown to reduce sexual desire and frequency of sexual fantasies

males, females

In pubertal __________, androgen levels are higher than estrogen levels, and masculinization is the result; in pubertal __________, the estrogens predominate, and the result is feminization.

drug interaction

In some cases, the deceased have low levels of heroin in the blood and high levels of other CNS depressants such as alcohol and benzodiazepines. In short, some so-called heroin overdose deaths appear to be a product of _______

Ventromedial

In the 1950's, the __________hypothalamus was thought to be a satiety center.

meth

In the 1990s, d-amphetamine was supplanted as the favored amphetamine-like drug by several more potent relatives. One is methamphetamine, or ________

third, testosterone

In the _______month of male fetal development, the testes secrete ____________ and Müllerian-inhibiting substance

cortical cells

In the absence of Sry protein, the ____________ of the primordial gonads develop into ovaries.

ovaries

In the absence of the Sry protein, the cortical cells of the primordial gonads develop into _______.

These sex differences in the hypothalamus include differences in - volume of various nuclei - cell number - connectivity - cell morphology - neural activity - neurotransmitter type - all of which are influenced by perinatal exposure to estradiol

In the first few days after birth, the male sexually dimorphic nuclei grow at a high rate and the female sexually dimorphic nuclei do not - triggered by estradiol What does these sex differences in the hypothalamus include?

The females' responses indicated that they were significantly more sexually attracted to females than was a group of matched controls. Ehrhardt and her colleagues concluded that perinatal estrogen exposure does encourage lesbianism and bisexuality in females but that its effect is relatively weak: The sexual behavior of all but 1 of the 30 participants in this study was primarily heterosexual.

In the quasiexperimental study of Ehrhardt and her colleagues interviewed adult females whose mothers had been exposed to diethylstilbestrol (a synthetic estrogen) during pregnancy. What were the findings?

limits return

In the settling-point model, the negative feedback merely ______ further changes in the same direction, whereas in the set-point model, negative feedback triggers a ______ to the set point.

Müllerian-inhibiting,

In the third month of male fetal development, the testes secrete testosterone and _____ substance.

Neural System

In tolerance and withrdrawal theory, exposure to a drug produces compensatory changes in the ______ that offset the drug's effects & produce tolerance. Then, when the drug is eliminated these compensatory neural changes—without the drug to offset them—manifest themselves as withdrawal symptoms; opposite to the effects of the drug.

there was a time-dependent increase in the number of lever presses the rats made in response to a drug-associated cue

Incubation of cocaine craving in rats that were previously self-administering cocaine. After cocaine withdrawal, .....

castrated

Individuals _____ prior to puberty do not become sexually mature unless they receive replacement injections of androgens or estrogens.

4 kinds of findings from research on laboratory animals that focused attention on the nucleus accumbens

Laboratory animals self-administered microinjections of addictive drugs directly into the nucleus accumbens. Microinjections of addictive drugs into the nucleus accumbens produced a conditioned place preference for the compartment in which they were administered. Lesions to either the nucleus accumbens or the ventral tegmental area blocked the self-administration of addictive drugs into general circulation or the development of drug-associated conditioned place preferences. Both the self-administration of addictive drugs and the experience of natural reinforcers were found to be associated with elevated levels of extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens.

avoid

Learned Taste Preferences and Aversions. Animals learn to prefer tastes that are followed by an infusion of calories, and they learn to _____ tastes that are followed by illness.

medial preoptic areas

Lesions in _____ areas have been shown to abolish male reproductive behaviors in both male and female rats without affecting female behaviors.

testosterone

Like the development of the internal reproductive ducts, the development of the external genitals is controlled by the presence or absence of _____________. If not present then the genitals develop along the female line.

heart pathology electrocardiographic

Many cocaine-dependent, amphetamine-dependent, and methamphetamine-dependent patients have been found to have ____ abnormalities

governments

Many of the medical risks arise out of the battle between the relentless addictive power of opioids and the attempts of _____ to eradicate addiction by making opioids illegal.

Finding of Marijuana research

Marijuana may actually have neuroprotective effects. Nguyen and colleagues (2014) - adults that were treated for traumatic brain injury - individuals who tested + for marijuana use were 80% less likely to die from the brain injury than nonusers of marijuana.

defeminization

Masculinization separately from _______ and feminization separately from demasculinization

adrenal cortex steroids 10

McClintock and Herdt (1996) have suggested that the emergence of sexual attraction may be stimulated by ______. Unlike gonadal maturation, adrenal maturation occurs at about the age of ___.

THC

Medical use of ____ does not appear to be associated with any serious adverse side effects

no

Meta-analysis found that moderate alcohol consumption had _____ benefit in terms of reducing mortality risk

crystal meth

Meth commonly used in its even more potent, smokeable, crystalline form.

Parkinson

Methamphetamine and amphetamine users, but not cocaine users, have a greater risk of developing _____ disease

Ob/ob mice. Jackson Laboratory at Bar Harbor, Maine

Mice that are homozygous for the mutant ob gene; their body fat produces no leptin, and they become very obese. - ate more than control mice - convert calories to fat more efficiently - use their calories more efficiently

Certain neurons within the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus have been shown to act as nutrient sensors that can influence feeding and satiety Several distinct neuronal populations within the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus have been shown to either: (1) control the metabolism of adipose tissue (2) reduce feeding (3) increase feeding

Modern Research on the Role of Hypothalamic Nuclei in Hunger and Satiety. Recent evidence suggests that certain distinct cell populations within the hypothalamus can influence hunger and satiety. These areas are?

Dopamine transporters.

Molecules in the presynaptic membrane of dopaminergic neurons that attract dopamine molecules in the synaptic cleft and deposit them back inside the neuron. - cocaine and its derivatives exert their effects is by altering the activity of this

14 million

More than _____ people used cocaine in the past year across the globe

124 million

More than __________ people used marijuana in the past year across the globe

opium

Morphine and codeine are constituents of ______.

Opioids.

Morphine, codeine, heroin, and other chemicals with similar structures or effects.

fasting

The ____ phase is characterized by high blood levels of glucagon and low levels of insulin. Without high levels of insulin, glucose has difficulty entering most body cells; thus, glucose stops being the body's primary fuel.

hypothalamic

Most early studies of intracranial self-stimulation involved septal or lateral _____ stimulation because the rates of self-stimulation from these sites are spectacularly high: Rats typically press a lever thousands of times per hour for stimulation of these sites, stopping only when they become exhausted.

salty

Most humans have a preference for sweet, fatty and _____________tastes.

indirect

Most medical risks of opioid addiction are _____, not entirely attributable to the drug itself. - trapped in a life of poverty and petty crime - due to inflated prices of morphine and heroine - risk due tp poor medical care, unsterile needles, overdose due to impurities

Duodemum

Most of the absorption of nutrients into the body takes place through the wall of the ____________ or upper intestine.

nigrostriatal pathway Parkinson's

Most of the axons of dopaminergic neurons that have their cell bodies in the substantia nigra project to the dorsal striatum; this component of the mesotelencephalic dopamine system is called the _____. It is degeneration in this pathway that is associated with _____ disease

membranes

Most other hormones produce their effects by binding to receptors in cell ____________.

VMH dynamic phase

Myth of Hypothalamic Hunger and Satiety Centers Begins as soon as the subject regains consciousness after an operation and is characterized by several weeks of grossly excessive eating and rapid weight gain.

VMH static phase

Myth of Hypothalamic Hunger and Satiety Centers Comes after the dynamic phase where consumption gradually declines to a level sufficient to maintain a stable level of obesity.

lesions to the ventromedial hypothalamus

Myth of Hypothalamic Hunger and Satiety Centers In 1940, it was discovered that large bilateral electrolytic ______ produce hyperphagia (excessive eating) and extreme obesity in rats

VMH (ventromedial hypothalamus)

Myth of Hypothalamic Hunger and Satiety Centers The area of the hypothalamus that was once though to contain the satiety center. Lesions produce hyperaphagia.

lateral hypothalamus

Myth of Hypothalamic Hunger and Satiety Centers The part of the hypothalamus that produces hunger signals Once thought to control feeding

dynamic and static.

Myth of Hypothalamic Hunger and Satiety Centers This VMH syndrome has two different phases:

Myth of Hypothalamic Hunger and Satiety Centers

Myth of Hypothalamic Hunger and Satiety Centers VMH (ventromedial hypothalamus) - Satiety lateral hypothalamus - feeding

VMH syndrome

Myth of Hypothalamic Hunger and Satiety Centers has two different phases: dynamic and static.

melanocortin system

Neurons in the arcuate nucleus that regulate alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone and in so doing play a role in satiety

Their axons to a variety of telencephalic sites - including specific regions of the prefrontal cortex, the limbic cortex, the olfactory tubercle, the amygdala, the septum, the dorsal striatum, and, in particular, the nucleus accumbens

Neurons that compose the mesotelencephalic dopamine system have their cell bodies in two midbrain nuclei—the substantia nigra and the ventral tegmental area.

nicotinic cholinergic

Nicotine acts on _____ receptors in the brain

Teratogen.

Nicotine is a ______ and can increases the likelihood of miscarriage, stillbirth, and early death of the child if the mother smokes during pregnancy

NEAT.

Nonexercise activity thermogenesis, which is generated by activities such as fidgeting and the maintenance of posture and muscle tone. fidgeting and the maintenance of posture and muscle tone small role in dissipating excess energy

Nucleus accumbens.

Nucleus of the ventral striatum and a major terminal of the mesocorticolimbic dopamine pathway.

Longer

Okinawans eat less and live __________

mediate

Olds and Milner (1954), the discoverers of intracranial self-stimulation, argued that the specific brain sites that _____ self-stimulation are those that normally mediate the pleasurable effects of natural rewards (i.e., food, water, and sex).

central nervous system

Once a drug enters the bloodstream, it is carried to the blood vessels of the _______ .

to be most clearly related to the experience of reward and pleasure.

Once evidence had accumulated linking dopamine to natural reinforcers and drug-induced reward - explore particular sites in the mesocorticolimbic dopamine - findings focused attention on the nucleus accumbens. - Events occurring in the nucleus accumbens and dopaminergic input to it from the ventral tegmental area appeared ______

androgens female

Once release of gonadotropins from the anterior pituitary is controlled by the hypothalamus was discovered, it became apparent that Pfeiffer's experiments had provided the first evidence of the role of perinatal (around the time of birth) ______ in overriding the preprogrammed cyclic _____ pattern of gonadotropin release from the hypothalamus and initiating the development of the steady male pattern.

anorexia

One of the clinical complications that results from feeding meals to famine victims is ____

Oxytocin

One of the two major peptide hormones of the posterior pituitary, which in females stimulates contractions of the uterus during labor and the ejection of milk during suckling.

Vasopressin.

One of the two major peptide hormones of the posterior pituitary; it facilitates reabsorption of water by kidneys and is thus also called antidiuretic hormone.

Tobacco and alcohol have a greater negative impact than marijuana, cocaine, and heroin - Tobacco 5 million deaths per year - alcohol in approximately 2 million deaths per year - all other drugs combined in about 250,000 deaths per year

One way of comparing the adverse effects of tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, and heroin is to compare the prevalence of their use in society as a whole.

Dalby's Carminative (flatulence)

Opium potions such as laudanum (a very popular mixture of opium and alcohol), Godfrey's Cordial, and ____ were very popular. Mrs. Winslow's Soothing Syrup and the aptly labeled Street's Infant Quietness.

shopping

Other addicting behaviors -overeating - compulsive gambling - kleptomania - compulsive ______

binding influencing influencing

Others act in a more specific way: by _____ to particular synaptic receptors; by _________ the synthesis, transport, release, or deactivation of particular neurotransmitters; or by _________ the chain of chemical reactions elicited in postsynaptic neurons by the activation of their receptors

They found that the rates of mortality and of all aging-related diseases were found to be substantially lower in Okinawa than in other parts of Japan, a country in which overall levels of caloric intake and obesity are far below Western norms. In short, low-calorie diets seem to slow down the aging process

People living on the Japanese island of Okinawa eat so few calories that their eating habits became a concern of health officials. What did the officials found in this nonexperimental studies of humans who consume fewer calories than others?

opportunities and surroundings.

Perhaps the best way of preventing relapse in recovered drug-addicted individuals is to improve their _____ and _____

Pharmacological.

Pertaining to the scientific study of drugs.

testes

Pfeiffer also found that transplantation of _____________ into gonadectomized or intact female neonatal rats caused them to develop into adults with the steady male pattern of gonadotropin release.

female

Pfeiffer found that gonadectomizing neonatal rats of either genetic sex caused them to develop into adults with the _______ cyclic pattern of gonadotropin release.

testicular hormones

Pfeiffer incorrectly concluded that the presence or absence of ___________________ in neonatal rats influenced the development of the pituitary because he was not aware that the release of gonadotropins from the anterior pituitary is controlled by the hypothalamus.

Finding of Marijuana research

Research on THC changed - 1990s - discovery of two receptors for it: CB1 and CB2. - CB1 turned out to be one of the most prevalent G-protein-linked receptors in the brain and it is present in other parts of the body as well - CB2 is found throughout the CNS and in the cells of the immune system

Development of Reproductive Behaviors in Laboratory Animals Females exposed to perinatal testosterone displayed more male-like mounting behavior in response to testosterone injections in adulthood than adult females who had not been exposed to perinatal testosterone. And when as adults the female guinea pigs were injected with progesterone and estradiol and mounted by males, they displayed less lordosis

Phoenix and colleagues (1959) demonstrated that the perinatal injection of testosterone masculinizes and defeminizes a genetic female's adult reproductive behavior. Experiment - injected pregnant guinea pigs with testosterone. - when the litters were born - ovariectomized the female offspring. - female guinea pigs reached maturity - injected testosterone - assessed their copulatory behavior. What difference did they found between females who were both exposed to perinatal testosterone and were injected testosterone in adulthood versus adult females who had not been exposed to perinatal testosterone?

cortical

Presumably ____ activation mediates the most complex aspects of sexual experience. These may include feelings of release and loss of control, changes in self-awareness, disturbances of perceptions of space and time, and feelings of love.

the adrenal cortex - function in sex and reproduction

Primary function of the adrenal cortex - regulation of glucose and salt levels in the blood - not generally thought of as a sex gland. - yet it does release small amounts of all of the sex steroids released by the gonads.

In order to survive, it was important for them to eat large quantities of good food when it was available so that calories could be banked in the form of body fat.

Problems with Set-Point Theories of Hunger and Eating. 1st. Set-point theories of hunger and eating are inconsistent with basic eating-related evolutionary pressures as we understand them. The major eating-related problem faced by our ancestors was the inconsistency and unpredictability of the food supply. Thus.....

The problem is that reductions in blood glucose of the magnitude needed to reliably induce eating rarely occur naturally. 68 percent of U.S. adults have a significant excess of fat deposits when they begin a meal. Conversely, efforts to reduce meal size by having volunteers unknowingly consume a high-calorie drink before eating have been unsuccessful.

Problems with Set-Point Theories of Hunger and Eating. 2nd. Major predictions of the set-point theories of hunger and eating have not been confirmed The leveling of Glucose... Can leveling glucose reduce portion size?

Hunger and eating are not rigidly controlled by deviations from energy set points.

Problems with Set-Point Theories of Hunger and Eating. 3rd. fail to recognize the major influences on hunger and eating of such important factors as taste, learning, and social influences How so?

Empathogens.

Psychoactive drugs that produce feelings of empathy. 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA, or ecstasy) - orally

increase anterior pituitary

Puberty is associated with an _____ in the release of hormones by the _______. - growth hormone acts directly on bone and muscle tissue to produce the pubertal growth spurt. - gonadotropic hormone and adrenocorticotropic hormone cause the gonads and adrenal cortex to increase their release of gonadal and adrenal hormones

alcohol tolerance experiment reapplied by Ramsay and Woods

Ramsay and Woods would argue that the unconditional stimulus was the hypothermia directly produced by the exposure to alcohol, and the compensatory changes that tended to counteract the reductions in body temperature were the unconditional responses.

disturbances

Reinterpretation of the Effects of LH Lesions. Early research focused exclusively on the aphagia and adipsia that are produced by LH lesions, but subsequent research has shown that LH lesions produce a wide range of severe motor ______ and a general lack of responsiveness to sensory input (of which food and drink are but two examples).

free fatty acids

Release of ________________ is promoted by high levels of the fasting -phase

Ridaura and colleagues Differences in Gut Microbiome Composition. Those mice that were colonized with microbes from the obese co-twins gained more weight and had greater amounts of body fat compared with those colonized with microbes from the lean co-twins.

Reported on the effects of taking mice raised in a germ-free environment and colonizing them with the fecal microbiota of twin Paris that were discordant for obesity. - 1/2 the mice were colonized by microbes from the lean twins - 1/2were colonized by microbes from their obese co-twins. What did they found?

lower

The function of insulin during the cephalic phase is to _____ the levels of bloodborne fuels, primarily glucose, in anticipation of the impending influx.

although mesocorticolimbic pathway lesions or dopamine antagonists disrupt habitual cocaine self-administration, they did not disrupt habitual heroin self-administration

Research on the self-administration of stimulants has led to two major conclusions about the mechanisms of drug addiction: (1) that all addictive drugs activate the mesocorticolimbic pathway (2) that dopamine is important for the reinforcing properties of all addictive drugs.

Androgen insensitivity syndrome. e.g. The Case of Anne S., the Woman Who Wasn't

Results from a mutation to the androgen receptor gene that renders the androgen receptors unresponsive and leads to the development of a female body.

The glucose levels in the extracellular fluids that surround CNS neurons stay relatively constant, even when blood glucose levels drop.

Role of Blood Glucose Levels in Hunger and Satiety 4 observations - The time course of the glucose decline is not consistent with the idea that it reflects a gradual decline in the body's energy—it occurs suddenly just before eating begins. - Eliminating the premeal drop in blood glucose does not eliminate the meal - If an expected meal is not served, blood glucose soon returns to its previous level. - _____

They found that large stomach contractions were related to pangs of hunger. Cannon and Washburn's finding led to the theory that hunger is the feeling of contractions caused by an empty stomach, whereas satiety is the feeling of stomach distention.

Role of the Gastrointestinal Tract in Satiety Cannon and Washburn in 1912 - Washburn swallow a ballon - pumped some air into the balloon - connected the end of the tube to a water-filled glass U-tube - stomach contractions produced a momentary increase in the level of the water - "pang" of hunger each time a large stomach contraction was recorded

- the transplanted stomach had no functional nerves, the gastrointestinal satiety signal had to be reaching the brain through the blood. - because nutrients are not absorbed from the stomach, the bloodborne satiety signal could not have been a nutrient. - It had to be some chemical or chemicals that were released from the stomach in response to the caloric value and volume of the food—which leads us nicely into the next section.

Role of the Gastrointestinal Tract in Satiety In the 1980s, there was a resurgence of interest in the role of the gastrointestinal tract in eating. Transplantation of an extra stomach and length of intestine in a rat. Koopmans (1981) implanted an extra stomach and length of intestine in each of his experimental subjects. He then connected the major blood vessels of the implanted stomachs to the circulatory systems of the recipients. Food injected into the extra stomach and kept there by a noose around the pyloric sphincter decreased eating in proportion to its volume and caloric value. What did he found?

duodenum

Role of the Gastrointestinal Tract in Satiety The support of Cannon and Washburn's theory quickly waned with the discovery that human patients whose stomach had been surgically removed and whose esophagus had been hooked up directly to their ______ continued to report feelings of hunger and satiety and continued to maintain their normal body weight by eating more meals of smaller size.

estradiol

Roney and Simons (2013) found that only high ______ levels were related to human females' sexual desire.

greater because weight gain is limited by a progressive decrease in the efficiency of energy utilization.

Rothwell and Stock (1982) created a group of obese rats by maintaining them on a cafeteria diet, and they found that the resting level of energy expenditure in these obese rats was 45 percent ______ than in control rats.

sensory specific

Satiety that is specific to the particular foods that produce it is called _________ satiety.

Cirrhosis.

Scarring of the liver, which is a major cause of death among heavy alcohol users.

This profile of effects suggested that serotonin might be useful in combating obesity in humans. Indeed, serotonin agonists (e.g., fenfluramine, dexfenfluramine, fluoxetine) have been shown to reduce hunger, eating, and body weight in obese humans under some conditions

Serotonin and Satiety The initial evidence for the role of serotonin in satiety came from a line of research in rats: Three major properties: 1. It caused the rats to resist the powerful attraction of highly palatable cafeteria diets. 2. It reduced the amount of food consumed during each meal rather than reducing the number of meals 3. It was associated with a shift in food preferences away from fatty foods.

more

Serving Size and Satiety. The larger the servings, the ____ we tend to eat.

thermostat

Set-point models assume that hunger and eating work in much the same way as a ______-regulated heating system in a cool climate

neuropeptide Y, galanin, orexin-A, and ghrelin Hunger and Satiety Peptides

Several hunger peptides (peptides that increase appetite) have also been discovered. These peptides tend to be synthesized in the brain, particularly in the hypothalamus. The most widely studied of these are _______

independent

Sex chromosomes have been found to influence brain development ______ of their effect on hormones

archaic circuits

Sexual behavior was once assumed to be regulated by ____ in the brain stem of early evolutionary origin. This assumption is no longer tenable.

This case suggests that the clinical practice of surgically modifying a person's sex at birth should be curtailed—irrevocable treatments should await early puberty and the emergence of the patient's gender identity. At that stage, a compatible course of treatment can be selected.

The Case of the Twin Who Lost His Penis What was learned from David Reimer's case?

estrus Female Sexual Behavior and Gonadal Hormones Describe the role of testosterone in female sexual behavior.

Sexually mature female rats and guinea pigs display 4-day cycles of gonadal hormone release. There is a gradual increase in the secretion of estrogens by the developing follicle in the 2 days prior to ovulation, followed by a sudden surge in progesterone as the egg is released These surges of estrogens and progesterone initiate _____

Pavlovian conditional stimuli unconditional stimuli

Siegel views each incidence of drug administration as a ________ conditioning trial in which various environmental stimuli that regularly predict the administration of the drug are _____ and the drug effects are _____.

SRY protein

Six weeks after conception, the Sry gene on the Y chromosome of the human male triggers the production of .

diffusely

Some drugs (e.g., alcohol and many of the general anesthetics) act ______ on neural membranes throughout the CNS.

CCK reduces appetite and eating at doses substantially below those required to induce taste aversion in rats, and thus it qualifies as a legitimate satiety peptide. Hunger and Satiety Peptides

Some evidence suggest that CCK, induces illness: - CCK administered to rats after they have eaten an unfamiliar substance induces a conditioned taste aversion - CCK induces nausea in humans. Yet what qualifies it as a satiety peptide?

estrogen

Some studies of postmenopausal human females found that ____ therapy renewed sexual interest, whereas other studies did not. Likewise, some studies found that testosterone renewed sexual interest, whereas other studies did not.

Anabolic steroids.

Steroid drugs that are similar to testosterone and have powerful anabolic (growth-promoting) effects.

postmenopausal

Still other studies found that testosterone increased sexual desire in ______ human females but only at supraphysiological levels (i.e., levels above natural levels).

Interoceptive stimuli.

Stimuli that arise from inside the body. internal, private stimuli both the thoughts and feelings produced by the drug-taking ritual and the drug effects experienced can, through conditioning, come to reduce the full impact of a drug

Exteroceptive stimuli.

Stimuli that arise from outside the body. public stimuli, such as the drug-administration environment

the relation between Siegel's theory of drug tolerance and Woods's theory of mealtime hunger

Stimuli that predict the homeostasis-disrupting effects of meals trigger conditioned compensatory responses to minimize a meal's disruptive effects in the same way that stimuli that predict the homeostasis-disrupting effects of a drug trigger conditioned compensatory responses to minimize the drug's disruptive effects.

uncertainty in drug research

Studies that recruit samples of drug users from addiction treatment clinics typically find that drug addiction is difficult to treat. In contrast, studies that recruit samples of drug users from the general population have found that many drug users can successfully treat their own addictions without professional help and live productive lives thereafter

no damage

Surprisingly, _____ that can reasonably be attributed to marijuana use has been found in the brains of living or deceased marijuana users

THC therapeutic effects

THC therapeutic effects (1990) - suppress nausea and vomiting in cancer patients and to stimulate the appetite of patients with AIDS. - block seizures; to dilate the bronchioles of asthmatics - to decrease the severity of glaucoma (a disorder characterized by an increase in the pressure of the fluid inside the eye) - to reduce anxiety, some kinds of pain, and the symptoms of multiple sclerosis. - In 2010, Sativex, a mouth spray that contains THC and other cannabinoids, treatment of multiple sclerosis symptoms

test of contingent tolerance to the anticonvulsant effect of alcohol

Test of contingent tolerance to the anticonvulsant effect of alcohol Group 1 - alcohol before test - completely tolerant to alcohol's anticonvulsant effect Group 2 - alcohol after test - no tolerance to alcohol's anticonvulsant effect.

lack of menstruation and pain during sexual intercourse Examination of her external genitals revealed nothing atypical Her vagina was only 4 centimeters long, and her uterus was underdeveloped.

The Case of Anne S., the Woman Who Wasn't Anne S., an attractive 26-year-old female, sought treatment for two sex-related disorders:

vagina

The Case of Anne S., the Woman Who Wasn't Anne's ______ was surgically enlarged, she was counseled to consider adoption, and, as far as we know, she is still happily married and unaware of her genetic sex.

1. Analyzed of cells revealed XY type 2. A tiny incision in Anne's abdomen - revealed a pair of internalized testes but no ovaries 3. hormone tests revealed that Anne's hormone levels were those typical of a male.

The Case of Anne S., the Woman Who Wasn't Anne's doctors concluded that her sex chromosomes were XY What was their evidence?

estrogens

The Case of Anne S., the Woman Who Wasn't At puberty, Anne's testes released enough ______ to feminize her body in the absence of the counteracting effects of androgens; however, adrenal androstenedione was not able to stimulate the growth of pubic and axillary hair.

androgens

The Case of Anne S., the Woman Who Wasn't Her external genitals, her brain, and her behavior developed along female lines, without the effects of _____ to override the female program, and her testes could not descend from her body cavity with no scrotum for them to descend into.

ob gene

The Case of the Child with No Leptin She was found to be homozygous for the ______ and had no detectable leptin. Thus, leptin therapy was commenced. The leptin therapy immediately curtailed the weight gain. She began to eat less, and she lost weight steadily over the 12-month period of the study, a total of 16.5 kilograms (about 36 pounds), almost all in the form of fat. There were no obvious side effects

Although tending toward the masculine, their behavior is usually within the range considered to be typical female behavior by the current standards of our culture.

The Case of the Little Girl Who Grew into a Boy Adrenogenital teenage girls who have received early treatment tend to display more tomboyishness, greater strength, and more aggression than most teenage girls, and they tend to prefer boys' clothes and toys, and play mainly with boys. In conclusion what can be said about the behavior of treated adrenogenital females?

secondary sex characteristics

The Case of the Little Girl Who Grew into a Boy Elaine—sought treatment in 1972. Elaine was born with somewhat ambiguous external genitals, raised by her parents as a girl without incident until the onset of puberty, when she suddenly began to develop male _______.

The direction of their pubertal development was unpredictable. In some cases, adrenal androgens predominated and masculinized their bodies; in others, ovarian estrogens predominated and feminized their bodies.

The Case of the Little Girl Who Grew into a Boy Prior to the development of cortisol therapy in 1950, genetic females with adrenogenital syndrome were left untreated. What were the findings of their pubertal development?

Wolffian system

The Case of the Little Girl Who Grew into a Boy The gonads and internal ducts of individuals with Adrenogenital syndrome are usually typical because the adrenal androgens are released too late to stimulate the development of the _____

Adrenogenital syndrome e.g. The Case of the Little Girl Who Grew into a Boy

The Case of the Little Girl Who Grew into a Boy _____ syndrome is caused by congenital adrenal hyperplasia—a congenital deficiency in the release of the hormone cortisol from the adrenal cortex, which results in compensatory adrenal hyperactivity and the excessive release of adrenal androgens.

Both assumptions are incorrect Sex drive and testosterone levels are uncorrelated in healthy males, and testosterone injections do not increase sex drive.

The Case of the Man Who Lost and Regained His 'Manhood' The fact that testosterone is necessary for male sexual behavior has led to two widespread assumptions: (1) that the level of a man's sexuality is a function of the amount of testosterone he has in his blood (2) that a man's sex drive can be increased by increasing his testosterone levels. Correct or incorrect? Why?

testosterone replacement Dr. Foss

The Case of the Man Who Lost and Regained His 'Manhood' The very first case report of the effects of ______ therapy concerned an unfortunate 38-year-old World War I veteran, who was castrated in 1918 at the age of 19 by a shell fragment that removed his testes but left his penis undamaged. Testosterone resurrected a broken man to the 'manhood'.

positive-incentive value conditioned taste aversion

The Case of the Student with Anorexia Eating started to lose its ____ Her parents would force her to eat a big meal. She would eat so much that feel ill. The experiences taught her body to associate her favorite foods with illness—kind of a ______

John Money

The Case of the Twin Who Lost His Penis Because there was no satisfactory way of surgically replacing the lost penis, an expert in such matters, ______, recommended that he be castrated and raised as a girl, that an artificial vagina be created, and that estrogen be administered at puberty to feminize the body.

typical female override

The Case of the Twin Who Lost His Penis Money reported in 1975, when the patient was 12, that "she" had developed as a ______, thus confirming his prediction that being gonadectomized, having the genitals surgically altered, and being raised as a girl would _______ the masculinizing effects of male genes and early androgens.

ablatio penis nature-nurture controversy

The Case of the Twin Who Lost His Penis Money's (1975) report of this case of ______ was influential. It was seen by some as the ultimate test of the ______ with respect to the development of gender identity and behavior.

David Reimer

The Case of the Twin Who Lost His Penis ______, an identical twin whose penis was accidentally destroyed during circumcision at the age of 7 months.

oral route

The _____ is the preferred route of administration for many drugs. Once they are swallowed, drugs dissolve in the fluids of the stomach and are carried to the intestine, where they are absorbed into the bloodstream. e.g alcohol

route

The _____ of administration influences the rate at which and the degree to which the drug reaches its sites of action in the body.

practice of smoking

The _____ the flower buds of the Cannabis plant and the word marijuana itself seem to have been introduced to the southern United States in the early part of the 20th century.

situational specificity of tolerance

The ______ of drug tolerance led Siegel and his colleagues to propose that drug users may be particularly susceptible to the lethal effects of a drug overdose when the drug is administered in a new context.

positive-incentive perspective This is often over looked because they display display substantial interest in food.

The ______ on eating suggests that the decline in eating that defines both anorexia and bulimia is likely a consequence of a corresponding decline in the positive-incentive value of food.

11

The ability of single injections of testosterone to masculinize and defeminize rat reproductive behavior seems to be restricted to the first ___ days after birth.

Harrison Narcotics Act.

The act passed in 1914 that made it illegal to sell or use opium, morphine, or cocaine in the United States. - act did not include the semisynthetic opioid heroin

liver

The actions of most drugs are terminated by enzymes synthesized by the _____.

closed prefrontal cortex

The activity in secondary visual cortex (occipitotemporal and inferotemporal cortices) occurs during sexual arousal even when eyes are _____, and the activity in _______ is suppressed during orgasm

Androstenedione

The adrenal androgen that triggers the growth of pubic and axillary hair in human females

Hedonic value.

The amount of pleasure that is actually experienced as the result of some action.

They seem to play a role in the identification of potential mating partners based on sensory social signals, which are primarily visual in humans and olfactory in rats.

The amygdalas, located in the left and right medial temporal lobes, play a general role in the experience of emotions and social cognition. What role do they play in sexual behavior?

Thyrotropin.

The anterior pituitary hormone that stimulates the release of hormones from the thyroid gland.

positive incentive value

The anticipated pleasure associated with a particular action, such as drug or eating

Positive-incentive value.

The anticipated pleasure associated with a particular action, such as taking a drug.

Medial preoptic area.

The area of the hypothalamus that includes the sexually dimorphic nuclei and that plays a key role in the control of male sexual behavior.

Mesotelencephalic dopamine system.

The ascending projections of dopamine-releasing neurons from the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area of the mesencephalon into various regions of the telencephalon.

set-point assumption

The assumption that hunger is typically triggered by the decline of the body's energy reserves below their set point

extremely Evidence for the extremely noxious effects that eating meals has on starving humans is found in the reactions of World War II concentration camp victims to refeeding—many were rendered ill and some were even killed by the food given to them by their liberators

The aversive effects of meals are much greater in people who have been eating little. Meals, which produce adverse, but tolerable, effects in healthy individuals, may be _____ aversive for individuals who have undergone food deprivation.

contingent,

The before-and-after design is used to study ______ drug tolerance.

Regulation of Body Weight by Changes in the Efficiency of Energy Utilization. efficiency

The body controls its fat levels, to a large degree, by changing the ______ with which it uses energy. As a person's level of body fat declines, that person starts to use energy resources more efficiently, which limits further weight loss.

intermittent

The body uses energy continuously, but its consumption is _____; therefore, it must store energy for use in the intervals between meals.

15

The brains of males tend to be about ____ percent larger than those of females, and many other anatomical differences between male and female brains have been documented.

Lipolysis.

The breakdown of body fat

incentive-sensitization theory

The central tenet of the _____ theory is that the positive-incentive value of addictive drugs increases (i.e., becomes sensitized) with repeated drug use in addiction-prone individuals

The changes that typically occur in males and females during puberty

The changes that typically occur in males and females during puberty

Smoker's syndrome.

The chest pain, labored breathing, wheezing, coughing, and heightened susceptibility to infections of the respiratory tract commonly observed in tobacco smokers.

Balloon

The classic study of Washburn and Cannon was the perfect collaboration. Cannon had the ideas and Washburn could swallow a _________

Mesocorticolimbic pathway.

The component of the mesotelencephalic dopamine system that has cell bodies in the ventral tegmental area that project to various cortical and limbic sites.

Drug metabolism.

The conversion of a drug from its active form to a nonactive form. Thus eliminates a drug's ability to pass through lipid membranes of cells so that it can no longer penetrate the blood-brain barrier

The cortex, hypothalamus, amygdala, and ventral striatum: their putative roles in sexual activity. The amygdala and ventral striatum are hidden in this view

The cortex, hypothalamus, amygdala, and ventral striatum: their putative roles in sexual activity. The amygdala and ventral striatum are hidden in this view

Estrous cycle.

The cycle of sexual receptivity displayed by many female mammals.

The development of an ovary and a testis from the cortex and the medulla, respectively, of the primordial gonadal structure that is present 6 weeks after conception

The development of an ovary and a testis from the cortex and the medulla, respectively, of the primordial gonadal structure that is present 6 weeks after conception

bipotential precursor

The development of male and female external reproductive organs from the same ______

the Wolffian and Müllerian systems

The development of the internal ducts of the male and female reproductive systems from the ______ and ______ systems, respectively

ovarian, ovaries

The differentiation of the internal ducts of the female reproductive system is not under the control of_________ hormones; the ________ are almost completely inactive during fetal development. The development of the Müllerian system occurs in any fetus that is not exposed to testicular hormones during the critical fetal period.

rush

The effect of opioids most valued by users is the ____ that follows intravenous injection. The heroin rush is a wave of intense abdominal, orgasmic pleasure that evolves into a state of serene, drowsy euphoria.

sensory-specific As a result, you soon become satiated on that food and stop eating it. However, if another food is offered to you, you will often begin eating again.

The effect on meal size of cafeteria diets results from the fact that satiety is to a large degree _____. As you eat one food, the positive-incentive value of all foods declines slightly, but the positive-incentive value of that particular food plummets.

Gorski (1980)

The effects of neonatal testosterone exposure on the size of the sexually dimorphic nuclei in male and female adult rats, as reported by _____

Wolffian system.

The embryonic precursor of the male reproductive ducts. Cable of developing into the male reproductive system. - seminal vesicles - vase deferens

The endocrine glands

The endocrine glands

reversing breeding seasons provides evidence of the implication of the nervous system in controlling the anterior pituitary

The evidence that the nervous system is implicated in the control of the anterior pituitary came from the behavioral research on birds and other animals - breed only during a specific time of the year - seasonal variations (light-dark cycles) triggered many of the breeding-related changes in hormone release. - taking animal to a different hemisphere > reversing breeding seasons - visual input to the nervous system controlled > release of tropic hormones from the anterior pituitary.

insuln

The expectation of a meal normally stimulates the release of ______ into the blood, which reduces blood glucose.

Before-and-after design.

The experimental design used to demonstrate contingent drug tolerance; one group receives the drug before each of a series of behavioral tests and the other group receives the drug after each test.

more more

The fact that adult ovaries tend to release ______ estrogens than androgens and that adult testes release _____ androgens than estrogens has led to the common, but misleading, practice of referring to androgens as "the male sex hormones" and to estrogens as "the female sex hormones."

situationally specific,

The fact that drug tolerance is often ______ suggests that Pavlovian conditioning plays a role in drug tolerance.

easily

The fact that the many U.S. soldiers who became addicted to heroin while fighting in the Vietnam War _____ shed their addiction when they returned home has been attributed to removal from their drug-associated environment.

brain brain

The fasting phase saves the body's glucose for the ______, because insulin is not required for glucose to enter most ____ cells. The low levels of insulin also promote the conversion of glycogen and protein to glucose.

gonadotropin

The female pattern of cyclic _______ release from the anterior pituitary develops in adulthood unless androgens are present in the body during the perinatal period.

Fraternal birth order effect.

The finding that the probability of a male being attracted to other males increases as a function of the number of older brothers he has.

Dynamic phase.

The first phase of the VMH syndrome, characterized by grossly excessive eating and rapid weight gain.

- distorted body images, seeing themselves as much fatter and less attractive than they are in reality. - patients seem to straddle the two diagnoses and cannot readily be assigned to one or the other categories, and many patients flip-flop between the two diagnoses - highly correlated with obsessive-compulsive disorder and depression

The following are other similarities that support the view that anorexia and bulimia are variants of the same disorder

- Brain levels of insulin were found to be positively correlated with levels of body fat - Receptors for insulin were found in the brain - Infusions of insulin into the brains of laboratory animals were found to reduce eating and body weight

The following findings supported the hypothesis that insulin serves as a negative feedback signal in the regulation of body fat:

minimize

The fuction of insulin during the absorptive phase is to _____ the increasing levels of bloodborne fuels by utilizing and storing them.

blood

The function of most hormonal feedback is the maintenance of stable ____________ levels of the hormones.

deactivate

The maternal immune hypothesis has been proposed to explain the fraternal birth order effect. This hypothesis is that some mothers become progressively more immune to masculinizing hormones in male fetuses, and a mother's immune system might ______ masculinizing hormones in her younger sons.

diet-induced thermogenesis. (DIT)

The mechanism by which the body adjusts the efficiency of its energy utilization in response to its levels of body fat has been termed ______

Destruction of the entire area abolishes sexual behavior in the males of all mammalian species. Medial preoptic area lesions do not eliminate the female sexual behaviors of females, but they do eliminate the male sexual behaviors.

The medial preoptic area (which includes the sexually dimorphic nucleus) is one area of the hypothalamus that plays a key role in male sexual behavior. What does the destruction of the entire area do in the males of all mammalian species that have been studied? What does the lesions of the area do in the females and in males?

lateral tegmental field

The medial preoptic area appears to control male sexual behavior via a tract that projects to an area of the midbrain called the ______. Destruction of this tract disrupts the sexual behavior of male rats.

The mesotelencephalic dopamine system in the human brain, consisting of the nigrostriatal pathway (green) and the mesocorticolimbic pathway (red)

The mesotelencephalic dopamine system in the human brain, consisting of the nigrostriatal pathway (green) and the mesocorticolimbic pathway (red)

Ventral tegmental area.

The midbrain nucleus of the mesotelencephalic dopamine system that is the major source of the mesoscorticolimbic pathway.

Substantia nigra.

The midbrain nucleus whose neurons project via the nigrostriatal pathway to the striatum of the basal ganglia; it is part of the mesotelencephalic dopamine system.

gonadotropin-releasing hormone, gonadotropins androgens, estrogens, progestins

The model of Gonadal Endocrine Regulation The brain controls the release of ______________ from the hypothalamus - into the hypothalamopituitary portal system > carries it to the anterior pituitary. - In the anterior pituitary, the gonadotropin-releasing hormone stimulates the release of ___________ , which are carried by the circulatory system to the gonads. In response to the gonadotropins, the gonads release _________, __________ and _____________which feed back into the pituitary and hypothalamus to regulate subsequent gonadal hormone release.

Testosterone.

The most common androgen.

Estradiol.

The most common estrogen.

intravenous (or IV),

The most dangerous route of drug administration is ______ injection.

no

The neural connections between the hypothalamus and the pituitary. All neural input to the pituitary goes to the posterior pituitary; the anterior pituitary has ___ neural connections

endorphins and enkephalins

The opioids exert their effects by binding to receptors whose normal function is to bind to endogenous opioids. The endogenous opioid neurotransmitters that bind to such receptors are of two classes:

Adrenal cortex.

The outer layer of each adrenal gland, which releases glucocorticoids in response to stressors, as well as small amounts of steroid hormones.

Posterior pituitary.

The part of the pituitary gland that contains the terminals of hypothalamic neurons.

Anterior pituitary.

The part of the pituitary gland that releases tropic hormones.

Cephalic

The phase of energy metabolism that is triggered by the expectation of food is the _____________ phase.

Fasting phase

The phase that ends with the beginning of the next cephalic phase

This encourages animals to take full advantage of times of abundance, which are all too rare in nature.

The phenomenon of sensory-specific satiety has two adaptive consequences. 1st, it encourages the consumption of a varied diet. - If there were no sensory-specific satiety, a person would tend to eat their preferred food and nothing else, resulting in malnutrition. 2nd, encourages animals that have access to a variety of foods to eat a lot; an animal that has eaten its fill of one food will often begin eating again if it encounters a different one Why?

Gonadotropin.

The pituitary tropic hormone that stimulates the release of hormones from the gonads.

Settling point.

The point at which various factors that influence the level of some regulated function (such as body weight) achieve an equilibrium.

Estrus.

The portion of the estrous cycle characterized by proceptivity, sexual receptivity, and fertility (estrus is a noun and estrous an adjective). a period of 12 to 18 hours during which the female is fertile, receptive (likely to assume the lordosis posture when mounted), proceptive (likely to engage in behaviors that serve to attract the male), and sexually attractive (smelling of chemicals that attract males)

The major tenet of the positive-incentive perspective on eating is that eating is controlled in much the same way as sexual behavior: We engage in sexual behavior not because we have an internal deficit but because we have evolved to crave it.

The positive-incentive perspective on hunger and eating. What is its major tenet?

History of Opium

The practice of eating opium spread: - Middle East sometime before 4000 B.C. - China, tobacco ban, smuggling by the British East India Company - morphine, isolated 1803, commercially in 1830s - hypodermic needles 1865 - early 20th legally available - cake, candy, wine ingredient

stomach

The primary function of the ____________ is to serve as a storage reservoir for undigested food.

methadone and buprenorphine.

The primary treatments for heroin addiction in most countries are ______ and _____. - both opioids with many of the same adverse effects as heroin. - produce less pleasure than heroin - until weaned

decrease diuretic

The red facial flush of alcohol intoxication is produced by the dilation of blood vessels in the skin; this dilation increases the amount of heat lost from the blood to the air and leads to a _____ in body temperature (hypothermia). Alcohol is also a _____; that is, it increases the production of urine by the kidneys.

circulating

The regulation of endocrine function by the anterior pituitary is not a one-way street. ________________- hormones often provide feedback to the very structures that influence their release: - the pituitary gland, the hypothalamus, and other sites in the brain.

Intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS).

The repeated performance of a response that delivers electrical stimulation to certain sites in the animal's brain. - administered by rats, humans, and many other species - pleasure centers

Relapse.

The return to one's drug taking habit after a period of voluntary abstinence.

sexual

The role of the hypothalamus in _____ behavior was driven by the discovery of a specific structural difference in the male and female hypothalamus. In 1978, Gorski and his colleagues discovered a nucleus in the medial preoptic area of the rat hypothalamus that was several times larger in males.

As the neurophysiological changes develop, tolerance increases; as they subside, the severity of the withdrawal effects decreases

The same adaptive neurophysiological changes that develop in response to drug exposure and produce drug tolerance manifest themselves as withdrawal effects once the drug is removed.

Opium.

The sap that exudes from the seed pods of the opium poppy. psychoactive ingredients: morphine and codeine

labia majora

The scrotum and the _______ develop from the same bipotential precursor

mamawawa

The simplistic, and seductive, but incorrect assumption that sexual differentiation occurs because male and female sex hormones trigger programs of development that are parallel but opposite to one another has been termed the _______.

gastrointestinal tract

The stomach and intestine as a functional unit.

Pituitary stalk.

The structure connecting the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland.

Gonadectomy.

The surgical removal of the gonads (testes or ovaries); castration

Gonads.

The testes and the ovaries.

Müllerian-inhibiting substance.

The testicular hormone that causes the precursor of the female reproductive ducts (the Müllerian system) to degenerate and the testes to descend into the scrotum.

Glucostatic theory.

The theory that eating is controlled by deviations from a hypothetical blood glucose set point.

glucostatic

The theory that hunger and satiety are regulated by a blood glucose set point is the ______________ theory.

effector

The three components of a set-point system are a set point mechanism, a detector and an

Incubation of drug craving.

The time-dependent increase in cue-induced drug craving and relapse. when a drug-associated cue is presented is an important determinant of its effects: - Cues presented soon after withdrawal are less likely to elicit craving and relapse than cues presented later.

- area that is known to play a role in habit formation and retention 2nd - likely relates to the loss of self-control that accompanies addiction These differences predispose an individual to that transition

The transition from initial drug taking to habitual drug taking: 1st - addicted individuals, striatal control of drug taking is shifted from the nucleus accumbens (i.e., the ventral striatum) to the dorsal striatum 2nd - impairments in the function of the prefrontal cortex

the exception proves the rule. Hence, the proverb means that the explanation of exceptional cases is a major challenge for any theory.

The truth of a rule is challenged by, not confirmed by, exceptions to it. and thus _____

androgens and estrogens

The two main classes of gonadal hormones are ___________ and ________

Pulsatile hormone release.

The typical pattern of hormone release: Hormones are discharged several times per day in large surges.

Finding 1: Hypothalamopituitary portal system. - theory suggesting an explanation as to how the hypothalamus prompted the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary with its own hormones.

The vascular network that carries hormones from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary.

relatively

The withdrawal effects triggered by abrupt termination of a cocaine spree are ____ mild. - negative mood swing - insomnia

"to test" - as in proving ground or printer's proof

The word proof comes from the Latin probare, which means ______,

Physical-dependence theories of addiction.

Theories holding that the main factor that motivates drug-addicted individuals to keep taking drugs is the prevention or termination of withdrawal symptoms. - early attempts to explain

Positive-incentive theories of addiction.

Theories holding that the primary factor in most cases of addiction is the craving for the positive-incentive (expected pleasure-producing) properties of the drug and not to escape or to avoid the unpleasant consequences of withdrawal

Incentive-sensitization theory.

Theory that addictions develop when drug use sensitizes the neural circuits mediating wanting of the drug—not necessarily liking of the drug.

differences

There are major ______ among humans both in basal metabolic rate and in the ability to adjust the metabolic rate in response to changes in the levels of body fat.

positive-incentive perspective

There are several different positive-incentive theories, and we refer generally to all of them as the _____

sodium

There are two mechanisms by which we learn to eat diets containing essential vitamins and minerals; one mechanism for _________ and another mechanism for the rest

exocrine glands and endocrine glands.

There are two types of glands:

nucleus accumbens

There is now general agreement that there are differences in the circuitry for wanting vs. liking, and that dopamine release in the _______ (via the mesocorticolimbic pathway) is more closely associated with the wanting of a drug, rather than the liking of it

aromatization hypothesis.

This 1960s modification of Pfeiffer's theory of brain differentiation to include the hypothalamus was consistent with the facts of brain differentiation as understood at that time, but subsequent research necessitated major revisions. The first of these major revisions became known as the _____________ ___________________

craving relapse

This devaluation of natural reinforcers poses a major problem for the treatment of addiction because it persists even after stopping the drug. Without the experience of pleasure from natural reinforcers, many abstinent drug users experience _____ for their drug and then ____.

Drug-addicted individuals.

Those habitual drug users who continue to use a drug despite its adverse effects on their health and social life and despite their repeated efforts to stop using it.

(1) initial drug taking (2) habitual drug taking (3) drug craving and repeated relapse. many will never take the drug more than once.

Three Stages in the Development of an Addiction

follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH)

Thyrotropin releasing hormone stimulates the release of both of the anterior pituitary's gonadotropins: ___________________ and _______________________

Conditioned drug tolerance.

Tolerance effects that are maximally expressed only when a drug is administered in the same situation in which it has previously been administered.

situational specificity of tolerance

Tolerance is greater in the presence of the usual associated cues since the brain has learned these cues and thus prepares the body for the drug

Metabolic tolerance.

Tolerance that results from a reduction in the amount of a drug getting to its sites of action.

Testosterone

Transplantation of ovaries had no effect on the pattern of hormone release. Pfeiffer concluded that the female cyclic pattern of gonadotropin release develops unless the preprogrammed female cyclicity is overridden by ____________during perinatal development.

comparable

Transsexualism is that there is no _____ condition in other species.

metabolic and functional.

Two categories of changes underlie drug tolerance:

1. Sex chromosome influence of the brain development can be independent of their effect on hormones 2. The role of estradiol receptor in brain development in female patter of brain development

Two factors that have proven to play little or no role in the sexual differentiation of the reproductive organs do play a role in the sexual differentiation of the brain. These two factors are?

neither procedure is effective unless patients change their eating habits.

Two surgical methods for treating extreme obesity: gastric bypass and adjustable gastric band. The gastric band can be tightened by injecting saline into the access port implanted just beneath the skin.

ignore

Unlike set-point theories, positive-incentive theories do not single out one factor as the major determinant of hunger and _____ the others.

Cocaine effects

Users report being swept by - a wave of well-being - self-confident - alert - energetic - friendly - outgoing - fidgety - talkative - less than their usual desire for food & sleep.

hypothalamic capillaries Finding 1: Hypothalamopituitary portal system.

Vascular Network that carries hormones from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary. In other terms, a network of ______ feed a bundle of portal veins that carries blood down the pituitary stalk into another network of capillaries in the anterior pituitary

(1) amino acid derivatives (2) peptides and proteins (3) steroids

Vertebrate hormones fall into one of three classes:

female, male

We are all genetically programmed - to develop__________ bodies - genetic males develop ______ bodies only when their female program of development has been overruled.

less

We do know that dopamine is ____ important for this aspect of drug taking than was once believed and that the structures involved only partially overlap with those that mediate the wanting of a drug

10 tends to occur at 10.5 years of age in females and at 11.5 years in males.

Western countries experience their first feelings of sexual attraction at about ____ years of age, whether they are heterosexual, bisexual, gay.

IV drug usage is dangerous because it speed makes it hard to counteract. e.g. an overdose, an impurity, or an allergy

What are some of the dangers of IV drug use.

the drug self-administration paradigm and the conditioned place-preference paradigm - showed that dopamine played an important role in the rewarding effects of addictive drugs and natural reinforcers

What are the 2 behavioral paradigms that are used extensively in the study of the neural mechanisms of addiction?

1. Role of Blood Glucose Levels in Hunger and Satiety 2. Myth of Hypothalamic Hunger and Satiety Centers 3. Role of the Gastrointestinal Tract in Satiety 4. Hunger and Satiety Peptides 5. Serotonin and Satiety 6. Prader-Willi Syndrome: Patients with Insatiable Hunger

What are the 6 prominent lines of research on the physiology of hunger and satiety?

Difficult to precisely regulate the dose of inhaled drugs, and chronic use damage to the lungs.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of the inhalation route?

Ease and safety Unpredictability due to absorption rate being regulated by the amount food in one's stomach.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of the oral route?

There are differences in the average of male and female brains -volumes of various cortical areas, nuclei and fiber tracts -in the numbers and types of neural and glial cells that compose various structures -in the plasticity of certain brain structures -in the numbers and types of synapses that connect the cells in various structures

What are the differences in the average of male and female brains?

Because marijuana produces tachycardia, single large doses can trigger heart attacks in susceptible individuals who have previously suffered a heart attack

What are the health hazards of marijuana use?

Development of Sex Differences in the Behavior of Humans 1. Some sex differences in human behavior appear to be sexual dimorphisms. 2. There is substantial overlap between most differences found in the behavior human sexes. 3. Differences in the susceptibility to behavioral disorders

What are the three general conclusions that have emerged about the development of behavioral differences in human females and males?

the cephalic, absorptive, and the fasting phase

What are the three phases of energy metabolism?

1. orchidectomy leads to a reduction in sexual interest and behavior 2. the rate and the degree of the loss are variable. - There were also body changes: a reduction of hair on the torso, limbs, and face; the deposition of fat on the hips and chest; a softening of the skin; and a reduction in muscle mass.

What are the two important generalization that can be drawn from Bremer's study? He reviewed the cases of 215 orchidectomized Norwegians. Many had committed sex-related offenses and had agreed to castration to reduce the length of their prison terms.

insulin and glucagon

What are the two pancreatic hormones that control the flow of energy during the three phases of energy metabolism?

In those species whose exposure to early sex hormones has been modified, it has not been uncommon to see males engaging in female-typical sexual behavior such as being mounted by other males. Nor has it been uncommon to see females engaging in male-typical sexual behavior such as mounting other females.

What has been found in species (e.g., rats, hamsters, ferrets, pigs, zebra finches, and dogs) exposure to early sex hormones?

The slight change that converts of one steroid hormone into another due to the influence of the enzyme aromatase. These changes can occur because all All gonadal and adrenal sex hormones are steroid hormones and thus derived from cholesterol and have similar structures.

What is aromatization? All gonadal and adrenal sex hormones are steroid hormones, and because all steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol, they have similar structures and are readily converted from one to the other. For example, a slight change to the testosterone molecule that occurs under the influence of the enzyme aromatase converts testosterone to estradiol.

The defining feature of sexual orientation is sexual preference. It is important because studies have used this to examined the effect of early hormone exposure on the sex of preferred sexual partners.

What is the defining feature of sexual orientation? Why is this important in how research has been conducted?

1st line of evidence - the study of bilateral amygdala lesions in male and female primates, including humans. - Such lesions have a variety of effects on primate behavior, which together have been termed the Kluver-Bucy syndrome. 2nd line of evidence - Everitt's (1990) classic study of bilateral amygdalar lesions in male rats. The lesions disrupted copulatory behavior, but this did not occur because the males had difficulty copulating. The deficit occurred because the males were incapable of responding to the olfactory and visual cues from receptive females. 3rd line of evidence - erotic images. Males are more likely than females to be sexually aroused by erotic images. The difference is reflected in differences in amygdalar activation.

What is the role of the amygdala and sexual activity? Where does the evidence comes from?

Unnatural Housing and Testing Conditions These findings suggest that human drug addiction might be prevented by improving the environment and life choices of those most vulnerable to addiction.

What would happen if the rats had more natural housing and testing conditions? When rats were either group housed, - enriched environments - provided with the opportunity to obtain nondrug reinforcers - housed in a large naturalistic environment -they were much less likely to self-administer drugs.

Transsexualism.

When a person has a gender identity that is inconsistent with their anatomical sex.

lower taste aversion

When compared to volunteers undergoing semistarvation, people with anorexia seem to have a ____ positive-incentive value of various tastes.

Sexual orientation seems to develop very early, and a child's first indication of their sexual orientation usually does not change as they mature.

When does sexual orientation develops and does it change over time?

- determine usefulness - their choice to continue taking that drug will depend on whether they find some use in it

When drugs are viewed as tools, or instruments, why people start taking them?

vasopressin and oxytocin

Which are the peptide hormones that are synthesized in the cell bodies of neurons in the paraventricular nuclei and supraoptic nuclei on each side of the hypothalamus?

The key to permanent weight loss is a permanent lifestyle change.

Why Are Weight-Loss Programs Often Ineffective? As predicted by the settling-point model, most of the lost weight is regained once the dieter stops following the program and the original conditions are reestablished

One reason may be that leptin levels are more closely correlated with subcutaneous fat, whereas insulin levels are more closely correlated with visceral fat

Why are there two fat feedback signals?

Since the adult human brain is plastic is capable of adaptation, there is no longer a logical imperative for the set-point regulation of eating.

Why set point system passed to be absolute? Set-point systems - necessary when the adult human brain was assumed to be immutable > couldn't change - energy resources / highly regulated.

cortical The areas often activated are the occipitotemporal, inferotemporal, parietal, orbitofrontal, medial prefrontal, insular, cingulate, and premotor cortices.

Widespread _____ activation has been routinely recorded during functional brain imaging studies of volunteers exposed to sexually arousing stimuli. In both males and females, what are the areas often activated?

- differences in basal metabolic rate - in the ability to react to fat increases by diet-induced thermogenesis. - NEAT

With respect to energy output, people differ markedly from one another in the degree to which they can dissipate excess consumed energy. These differences are:

convulsions insomnia

Withdrawal are virtually always opposite to the initial effects of the drug. anticonvulsant drugs often triggers ______ sleeping pills often produces _____ since they're opposite this suggests that withdrawal effects may be produced by the same neural changes that produce drug tolerance.

serotonin Serotonin agonists seem to increase short-term satiety signals associated with the consumption of a meal

_______ agonists have been shown to reduce food consumption in both human and nonhuman subjects, they have considerable potential in the treatment of obesity.

The 4 phazes of alcohol withdrawal

Withdrawal from alcohol -heavy drinking - produces a full-blown alcohol withdrawal syndrome - 4 phases 1st phase - 6 to 8 hours after the cessation of alcohol consumption - anxiety, tremor, nausea, and tachycardia 2nd phase - 10 to 30 hours after - characterized by hyperactivity, insomnia, and hallucinations. 3rd phase - occurs between 12 and 48 hrs after - characterized by convulsive activity. 4th phase - begins 3 to 5 days after and lasts up to a week - delirium tremens (DTs): hallucinations, bizarre delusions, disorientation, agitation, confusion, hyperthermia, and tachycardia. - The convulsions and the DTs produced by alcohol withdrawal can be lethal.

China

Written records of Cannabis use go back 6,000 years in ____, where its stems were used to make rope, its seeds were used as a grain, and its leaves and flowers were used for their psychoactive and medicinal effects.

10% 30%

___ for alcohol and _____ for heroin become addicted.

opioid

____ addiction is more prevalent among doctors, nurses, and dentists than among other professionals

Fat

____ is the primary mode of energy storage.

ovariectomized

_____ Castrated females, gonadectomized females

orchidectomized

_____ Castrated males, gonadectomized males

amenorrhea,

_____ Cessation of menstruation

adrenogenital syndrome

_____ Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, elevated androgen levels

abla penis

_____ David Reimer, destruction of penis

gynecomastia

_____ Enlargement of a male's breasts

hirsutism

_____ Excessive body hair in females

androgen insensitivity syndrome

_____ Genetic male, sparse pubic hair, short vagina

impotent

_____ Unable to achieve erection

Alcohol

_____ affects on brain function - it interferes with the function of second messengers inside neurons - it disrupts GABAergic and glutaminergic transmission -it leads to DNA methylation - it triggers apoptosis

Oral

_____ anabolic steroids have been shown to have adverse effects on the liver, including liver tumors. Less dangerous, but still disturbing, are the muscle spasms, muscle pains, blood in the urine, acne, general swelling from the retention of water, bleeding of the tongue, nausea, vomiting, and fits of depression and anger

Ramsay and Woods (1997)

_____ argue instead that the unconditional stimulus is the disruption of neural functioning that has been directly produced by the drug, and that the unconditional responses are the various neurally mediated compensatory reactions to the unconditional stimulus, which the experimenter may or may not be recording.

Ramsay and Woods (1997)

_____ criticize the common assumption that the unconditional stimulus in a drug-tolerance experiment is the drug and that the unconditional responses are the changes in physiology or behavior the experimenter happens to be recording.

Habitual

_____ drug use, a necessary component of an addiction, is not the inevitable outcome of taking a drug.

Amino acid derivative

_____ hormones and Peptide hormones affect gene expression less commonly and by less direct mechanisms

Tropic

_____ hormones' primary function is to influence the release of hormones from other glands - (tropic means "able to stimulate or change something").

Tobacco

_____ is a leading cause of preventable death around the world. It contributes to more than 5 million premature deaths a year—about 1 in every 10 deaths no 1 abuse drug.

Drug injection

_____ is common in medical practice because the effects of injected drugs are strong, fast, and predictable.

orchidectomy

_____ reduces the sexual behavior of both heterosexual and gay males, but it does not redirect it; and replacement injections simply reactivate the preferences that existed prior to surgery.

Buerger's

______ disease provides a compelling illustration of nicotine's addictive power.

Negative

______ feedback systems are common in mammals because they act to maintain homeostasis

Swiss

______ heroin users were among the first to legally receive heroin injections from a physician for a small fee.

Increases decreases

______ in the levels of body fat produce increases in body temperature, which require additional energy to maintain them—and ______ in the level of body fat have the opposite effects

heroin

______ is a semisynthetic opioid that penetrates the blood-brain barrier more effectively than morphine.

Ovariectomy ovariectomized

______ of female rats and guinea pigs produces a rapid decline of both proceptive and receptive behaviors. Furthermore, estrus can be induced in ______ rats and guinea pigs by an injection of estradiol followed a day and a half later by an injection of progesterone.

Hypothalamic

______ stimulation and lesion experiments quickly established that the hypothalamus is the regulator of the anterior pituitary,

Dr. William Steward Halsted

______, one of the founders of Johns Hopkins Medical School - brilliant surgeons, "the father of modern surgery." - addicted to morphine - only trouble attempting to reduce his dosage

amino acids

building blocks of proteins

Steroid hormones

_______ can influence cells in this fashion - are small and fat-soluble - readily penetrate cell membranes - can bind to receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus > directly influence gene expression - have the most diverse and long-lasting effects on cellular function.

Buprenorphine

_______ has fewer adverse side effects than methadone but is considered less effective than methadone

glycogen

_______ is the bodies preferred mode of energy storage.

Androstenedione

_______ is typically responsible for pubic and axillary hair growth in human females during puberty.

Drug tolerance.

___________ demonstrated in two ways: by showing that a given dose of the drug has less effect than it had before drug exposure or by showing that it takes more of the drug to produce the same effect. A shift in the dose-response curve

Lipolysis

___________ is the breakdown of body fat to create usable forms of energy

Settling point

____________ models are more consistent with the facts of body's weight regulation than are set point models

vas deferens

____________ through which the sperm cells travel to the seminal vesicles

Serotonin

____________is the monoaminergic neurotransmitter that seems to play a role in satiety.

Thermostats

________are to set points as leaky barrels are to a settling point

Kluver-Bucy syndrome

a condition, brought about by bilateral amygdala damage, that is characterized by dramatic emotional changes including reduction in fear and anxiety

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

a hypothalamic hormone that regulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone from the anterior pituitary

crack

a potent, cheap, smokeable form of cocaine.

transgenerational epigenetic effects

alcohol consumption has been shown to produce ______. For example, the offspring of alcohol-consuming male rats display impairments in spatial learning

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise - bingeing followed by purging.

Booth

appeared that signals from taste receptors produce an immediate decline in the positive incentive value of similar tastes and that signals associated with the postingestive consequences of eating produce a general decrease in the positive incentive value of all foods

same

the positive-incentive value of interacting with food is not necessarily the _____ as the positive-incentive value of eating food—and it is the positive-incentive value of eating food that is critical when considering anorexia nervosa

Digestion

the process of breaking down food by mechanical and enzymatic action in the alimentary canal into substances that can be used by the body.

Lipogenesis

the process that converts excess glucose into fat for storage

sensory-specific satiety

the reduced desire to continue consuming a particular food

sexually dimorphic nucleus.

the sexually dimorphic nuclei of male and female rats are the same size.

satiety

the state of being satisfactorily full and unable to take on more These signals depend on both the volume and the nutritive density (calories per unit volume) of the food.

same

the testes and ovaries release the very ____ hormones

lipostatic theory

the theory that eating is controlled by deviations from a hypothetical body-fat set The most frequently cited support for the theory is the fact that the body weights of adults stay relatively constant

puberty

the transitional period between childhood and adulthood during which fertility is achieved, the adolescent growth spurt occurs, and the secondary sex characteristics develop

fuse, labia minora

the urethral folds ______ in the male or enlarge to become the __________ _________ in the female

mamawawa thinking

thinking of "male" and "female" as mutually exclusive, opposite categories

ad libitum

typical _______ (free-feeding) levels of consumption are unhealthy

cut

virtually all have been ___ (stretched by the addition of some similar-appearing substance) to an unknown degree.

This puzzle was quickly solved with the discovery of a class of endogenous cannabinoid neurotransmitters: the endocannabinoids (see McPartland et al., 2014). The first endocannabinoid neurotransmitter to be isolated and characterized was named anandamide (see Piomelli, 2014), from a word that means "internal bliss"

why are there receptors for THC in the brain? They could hardly have evolved to mediate the effects of marijuana smoking.