nutr 2100 exam 2

short-chain fatty acids (scfa)

2-4 carbons

healthy individual HbA1c levels

4.5-5.7% hemoglobin glycosylated

amdr recommendation for carbohydrates

45-65% of total calories should come from carbohydrates (roughly half, or slightly more)

pre-diabetic HbA1c levels

5.7-6.4%

medium-chain fatty acids (mcfa)

6-10 carbon

diabetic HbA1c levels

6.5% or above

possible consequences of eating too much (or wrong types of) fat

- cardiovascular disease (leading cause of death in the US) - diabetes - cancer

digestion and absorption of proteins

- cells need amino acids to build protein - goal of protein digestion is to break proteins apart into amino acids

how energy is received from glucose

- cellular respiration - oxygen required! - occurs in mitochondria - produces lots of ATP

trans fats

- consumption increases risk for cardiovascular disease - amount of trans fat in a product must be on the food label if contains 0.5 grams per serving or more - smaller amount = <0.5 g per serving

what happens to remaining part of aa structure?

- converted to different aas - converted to energy/atp (extreme cases) - converted to fats to build energy stores

soluble fiber

- dissolves, forms a gel during digestion - slows absorption of sugar - delays stomach emptying (feel fuller longer) - can lower blood cholesterol

trans-fatty acids

- do not serve useful purpose in body - used in food production: -- resist rancidity, more resistant to oxidation -- firmer textured; more spreadable -- higher smoking point than unsaturated oils

insoluble fiber

- does not dissolve well in water - adds bulk to digestive tract - helps movement through gi tract - prevents or alleviates constipation

tips to increase fiber intake

- eat high-fiber foods - add fiber slowly- don't increase intake too quickly - avoid gi side effects- if you notice any, eat a little less fiber - drink water! allows gut bacteria time to adapt to change

lipid digestion in the small intestine

- emulsification by bile reduces droplet size - bile surrounds lipid molecules in aqueous/watery environment = micelles - bile made of cholesterol and phospholipids

functions of lipids

- energy reserve - padding organs - insulation (heat) - signal transduction - cell membrane structure and function - component of other compounds (eg. bile, vitamin D) - absorption and transport of fat-soluble vitamins

absorption of aas in small intestine

- enter intestinal cells by active transport - pass through enterocyte, enter blood - blood distributes to liver and other body organs

methionine

- essential - first aa incorporated into many proteins - major methyl group (+CH3) donor for dna methylation (regulates gene expression)

tryptophan

- essential - needed to synthesize serotonin (neurotransmitter) --> melatonin - can be converted to niacin (b vitamin) - found in turkey, tofu, peanuts, cheese, milk, chicken, eggs

specific types of fatty acids

- essential fatty acids - trans fatty acids

phenylalanine/tyrosine

- essential/non-essential - phenylalanine converted to tyrosine - tyrosine used to make epinephrine (fear response), melanin (skin pigment), thyroid hormone (growth, metabolism, sleep cycle) - fear hormone - freckles! - growth/metabolism

when does the body break down fats?

- fasting state = between meals or during exercise - body needs energy (and person doesn't respond to this need by eating) - pancreas releases glucagon which activates lipolysis and ATP energy production

normal blood glucose level

70-110 mg/dl

omega-6

- pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory - promote blood clotting - aka linoleic acid 1st double bond on 6th carbon from methyl end = omega 6

nutrients possibly limited in a vegan diet

- protein - calcium - iron - zinc - vitamin d - vitamin b12 - omega 3 fatty acids

protein digestion (mouth to stomach)

- proteins ingested in folded form (unless denatured by cooking before eating) - some mechanical digestion in mouth - protein/polypeptides travel to stomach- denatured by hci (released due to sight/smell/thought of food)

functions of carbohydrates

- provide quick energy - regulate blood glucose - spare protein - prevent ketosis - flavor, sweetening, anti-spoilage - regulate digestion (fiber) - feed gut bacteria (fiber)

functions of triglycerides

- provides energy = 9 kcal/g - allows body to store seemingly endless amounts of energy - pads internal organs - insulated the body

fermentability benefits

- provides energy for gut bacteria (not our bodies) - byproducts may provide us with health benefits - supports healthy gut microbiome

kwashiorkor

- results either from inadequate protein intake or severe infections - acute pem - occurs often in ages 1-3 years; often after birth of sibling - possible that energy (kcal) intake is adequate, thus some body fat may be present

effects of low blood sugar

- shaking - headache - sweating - hunger - fatigue (weak, tired feeling) - fainting - death

glycogen

- stores glucose molecules in muscle and liver cells in a dense structure - broken down to release glucose

essential amino acids

Phenylalanine Valine Threonine Tryptophan Isoleucine Methionine Histidine Leucine Lysine PVT TIM HLL --> Private Tim Hill obtained from diet

fluid balance and edema

proteins in blood, such as albumin, help maintain proper distribution of fluids in bloodstream and body tissues the heart forcefully pumps blood into arteries which creates pressure on artery walls. The blood contains proteins that pull water into the blood vessels from spaces between blood vessels and cells/organs. If there isn't enough protein to pull this water in, the water stays in those areas outside of cells/organs and bloodstream where it doesn't need to be - leads to type of swelling called edema

LDL transport

release cholesterol in bloodstream near tissues/organs that use cholesterol

heart disease

risk lowered with proper fiber intake, particularly "soluble" fiber

fats that increase cvd risk

saturated fats (increase ldl levels) trans fats (increase ldl and decrease hdl)

complex carbohydrates

several sugar molecules ex) starch

two types of carbs

simple and complex

lipid digestion in the stomach

small amount of digestion, mechanical clumping lingual lipase from mouth

is pectin soluble or insoluble?

soluble

2 main types of dietary fiber

soluble and insoluble

are soluble or insoluble fibers usually more fermentable?

soluble, but there are exceptions

plant sources of protein

soy/tofu/tempeh, quinoa, amaranth

carbs stored in plants as _____

starch/fiber

2 types of complex carbs in our diet

starches and fibers

starch digestion in small intestine

starches are broken down or digested by enzymes: pancreatic amylase

saturated fatty acid example

stearic acid

lipid digestion begins in the ______ and finished in the ______

stomach, small intestine

glucose + fructose

sucrose

sucrase

sucrose --> 1 fructose, 1 glucose

3 types of disaccharides

sucrose, maltose, lactose

examples of carbohydrates

sugar, starch, fiber, and glycogen

what happens to lipids after digestion?

they are absorbed into and transported by the lymphatic system

how do chylomicrons enter the bloodstream?

they are carried in the lymph vessels to an area of the bloodstream with bigger veins

what happens if someone eats too little protein?

they can develop protein malnutrition, which leads to protein deficiency diseases

hydrogenation and partial hydrogenation in food industry

used to convert liquid vegetable oils and solid or semi-solid fats which are preferred for baking

when vitamin/mineral supplements are needed

vitamin d - if you don't eat dairy or don't get 20 min/week of summer sun vitamin b12 - if you don't eat animal products or b12 fortified foods

dietary sources of fiber

whole grains, wheat bran, vegetables, and whole fruit

sources of cholesterol

you! (your liver) - ~95% of body levels animal food sources: - cheese - egg yolks - beef - pork - poultry - shrimp

what are phospholipids made by?

liver (not essential)

cells that take up glucose without insulin

liver cells, enterocytes

hypoglycemia

low bood glucose levels (<70 mg/dl)

benefits of a vegetarian diet

low in cholesterol, saturated fat - cholesterol is only from meat, eggs, dairy, fish high in fiber - whole grains, fruit, vegetables contains healthy fats - nuts, seeds, avocados less chronic disease - heart disease, cancer, diabetes, obesity

where are pancreatic amylase located in the small intestine?

lumen

triglycerides

major form found in foods main storage form of lipids in the body each triglyceride contains 3 fatty acids

glucose + glucose

maltose

maltase

maltose --> 2 glucose molecules

HbA1c

measure of the % of blood proteins (ex. hemoglobin) glycosylated in red blood cells

animal sources of protein

meat, fish, dairy, eggs

dietary recommendations for total fiber

men= 38 grams per day women= 25 grams per day

dietary sources of simple carbs

milk, fruit, honey, juice, syrups, and table sugar

2 types of simple carbs in our diet

monosaccharides and disaccharides

how much protein do americans typically eat?

more than they need - male: >56 g/day - female: >46 g/day body converts extra protein into fat and stores it

complementary proteins- what vegetarians need to consider

most vegetable source of protein are incomplete - exceptions: soy and quinoa must "complement" plant proteins - to receive all necessary amino acids - must be eaten within the same day grains and legumes - rice-bean casserole - split pea soup with bread grains and milk products - macaroni and cheese - cereal with milk seeds and legumes - middle eastern hummus - sesame seeds in bean soups

body proteins

mostly made in cells of body organs, like muscle cells, brain cells, etc ex: - tissues - enzymes - hormones - antibodies

path of fibers through gi tract

mouth --> esophagus --> stomach --> small intestine --> large intestine --> anus m e s s l a (my elephant said stop lounging around)

translation

mrna base code used to build a protein by guiding order of amino acids added to peptide chain

cells that require insulin for glucose intake

muscle cells, fat cells, etc

are lipids soluble in water?

no

can a single type of lipid perform all of the functions?

no

hyperactivity

no link between high sugar diets and hyperactivity

can we get kcals from fiber? why or why not?

no, it is not digested or absorbed

trans fat recommendation

none

monounsaturated fatty acid example

oleic acid

fats that decrease cvd risk

omega 3 fatty acids (may reduce blood pressure and inflammation)

where is fiber found?

only in plant foods

(lipid) digestion inside micelles

pancreatic lipase - made in pancreas - active in small intestine - breaks bonds between fatty acids and glycerol backbone (tg)

dietary sources of complex carbs

peas, beans, whole grains, and vegetables

phytosterols

plant sterols can block the absorption of dietary cholesterol found in nuts and vegetable oil

seizure disorders, Alzheimer's

possibly improved with low-carb diets

diverticulitis

prevented with proper fiber intake, particularly "insoluble" fiber

exogenous

produced outside the body

complex carbohydrates in foods

- polysaccharides - nutritive - not sweet - rich food sources

food sources of omega-3

- poultry - eggs - avocado - nuts - cereals - whole-grain breads - vegetable oils

polysaccharides

10+ monosaccharides bound together (e.g., starches, fiber)

AI for omega 6

12 g/d (women), 17 g/d (men) -or- 5-10% of daily kcals

long-chain fatty acids (lcfa)

12-24 carbons

sources of trans fatty acids

- baked goods (cakes, cookies) - biscuits - crackers - breads - margarine - "partially hydrogenated"

glucose

- basic unit of many sugars - primary energy source for all cells, including muscle and brain - aka "dextrose" or "blood sugar"

amino acids

- basic unit of proteins - 20 total -- 9 essential -- 11 non-essential

gestational diabetes

- can form during pregnancy - often resolves after giving birth - may increase mother's risk of developing type 2 diabetes - increases risk of birth defects and negative birth outcomes --- high birth weight --- miscarriages --- stillbirths --- premature deliveries

lipids are absorbed into:

- capillaries --> only short-chain fatty acids - lacteals --> all other fats and fat-soluble vitamins

when does the body need to make proteins?

- body doesn't store proteins- just makes each protein when it's needed - when a protein is needed, the gene encoding that protein is turned on - after a protein is used, amino acids can be reused! - when a protein is not needed, the gene is turned off - concept of turning genes on or off is part of epigenetics and is important for many body processes such as fetal development - genes can be turned on and off using molecules/signals from diet and/or environment

types of insoluble fiber

- brown rice - wheat - rye - vegetables (peels/skins)

chylomicrons

(cm) carry absorbed lipids through the lymph and eventually the blood, too type of lipoprotein made in enterocytes of SI transport triglycerides that we eat through lymph, then blood to body organs and cells for use or storage

polyunsaturated fatty acids (pufa)

- 2 or more double bonds - liquid at room temperature or refrigerated - usually of plant origin - food source: corn oil, safflower oil - shape is bent at each double bond

phospholipids

- 2 regions: hydrophilic head (interacts with water) and hydrophobic tail (repels water) - can associate with water and lipids - important for lipid digestion, absorption, and transport!

protein recommendations

- 5.5 oz total protein daily for 2000 kcal diet - 8 oz from seafood weekly - 5 oz from nuts/seeds/soy products weekly - RDA: 0.8 grams per kg body weight per day - AMDR: 10-35%

step 3 of building a protein (folding into a protein)

- aas interact w each other in peptide chains - interactions cause peptide to fold into protein - folded protein is active and has specific function - each protein has a unique aa sequence

disaccharides

- aka table sugar - found in milk, yogurt, ice cream - found in grains, barley

nonessential amino acids

- alanine - arginine - asparagine - aspartic acid - cysteine - glutamic acid - glutamine - glycine - proline - serine - tyrosine made using essential amino acids that we eat

unsaturated fatty acids

- all have double bonds - not full of hydrogens

omega-3

- anti-inflammatory, mostly - prevent blood clotting - aka linolenic acid 1st double bond on 3rd carbon from methyl end = omega 3

type 1 diabetes

- autoimmune disease- causes unknown - involves damage to beta cells in pancreas - little or no insulin produced or secreted - glucose can't enter tissues - glucose remains in bloodstream - normal diet + insulin - proper ratio of insulin to carbs - hypoglycemia

lacto-ovo vegetarian

- avoids: meat, fish, and poultry - eats: eggs and dairy - most common type in us and canada

where are lipids in the body?

- fat tissue (adipose) = triglycerides (for energy storage, mostly) - cell membranes = mostly phospholipids, some cholesterol - small intestine = fats you ate including fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids (from foods and as bile), cholesterol (all contained within micelles) - enterocytes = fats that were absorbed including fatty acids, triglycerides remade from the absorbed fatty acids, phospholipids, cholesterol (all packaged into chylomicrons) - liver = cholesterol, phospholipids (in bile), triglycerides made from excess glucose or protein that you ate - bloodstream = triglycerides you ate and reformed from fatty acids after they were absorbed, de novo triglycerides (all contained within chylomicrons) and cholesterol (most is NOT chylomicrons)

food sources of omega-6

- fatty fish - human milk - fortified eggs - oils/seeds: -- flaxseed -- walnut -- canola -- soybean

when does the body store fats?

- fed state = soon after a meal - body has excess energy molecules (carbs, protein, fat) - blood glucose levels rise (from eating carbs/absorbing glucose) - pancreas releases insulin which activated lipogenesis and lipid storage in adipose tissue

functions of fiber

- feeds gut bacteria - reduces blood cholesterol - slows glucose absorption - reduces constipation - prevents diverticulitis

roles of phospholipids

- forms basic structure of cell membranes (forms lipid bilayer) - allows proper functioning of nerve cells - facilitates transport of fat-soluble nutrients - emulsification

saturated fatty acids

- full of hydrogens - only single bonds - usually of animal origin; doesn't include coconut oil or palm oil

cvd risk factors

- high bp - high ldl cholesterol - smoking - diabetes (blood vessel damage) - overweight and obesity - poor diet (high fat, high cholesterol) - physical inactivity - excessive alcohol use

health conditions associated with carb intake

- hyperactivity - diverticulitis - heart disease - seizure disorders, Alzheimer's

symptoms of marasmus

- impaired growth, muscle wasting - little or no subcutaneous fat - slowed metabolism/lowered body temperature - impaired brain development/learning - impaired immunity, poor wound healing

marasmus (chronic malnutrition)

- inadequate food/energy intake - generally same as "starvation" - chronic pem (develops after a long period of starvation)

lactovegetarians

- include milk and milk products - exclude meat, poultry, fish, seafood, and eggs from their diets

how trans fatty acids are made

- incomplete conversion of ufa to sfa - partial hydrogenation - have flipped double bonds

effects of high blood sugar

- increased thirst - headache - trouble concentrating - blurred vision - frequent urination - fatigue (weak, tired feeling) - long-term complications (diabetes, heart disease, etc)

possible consequences of eating too little fat

- infertility (due to decreased estrogen and testosterone) - amenorrhea (menstruation cessation) - decreased bone density (increases risk of osteoporosis) - poor cognitive development and concentration - decreased immunity and growth - poor vision

lactose intolerance

- lactase enzyme level - cannot digest lactose completely - not an allergy - undigested lactose enters large intestine- fermentation! (symptoms: bloating, cramping, gas, diarrhea) - more prevalent in certain ethnic groups: African, Asian, Eastern European - yogurts and aged cheeses sometimes tolerated

heart disease facts

- leading cause of death for both men and women - abt 630,000 americans die from heart disease each year- that's 1 in every 4 deaths - in the us, someone has a heart attack every 36 seconds; 2,380 deaths cvd/day - each minute, someone in the us dies from a heart disease-related event - heart disease alone costs the us $200 billion each year

type 2 diabetes

- many related factors (high blood sugar, obesity) - beta cells produce and secrete insulin - cells don't respond to insulin (aka insulin resistance) - glucose can't enter tissues/cells - glucose remains in bloodstream - consistent carbohydrate intake - pay attention to what foods spike blood sugar - medications can help- diet is still important - chronic hyperglycemia

step 2 of building a protein (building a peptide)

- mrna code leaves the nucleus, enters cytosol, and binds to ribosome - ribosome matches rna code w amino acid (translation) - ribosomes create peptide bond btw amino acids to lengthen peptide chain - completed peptide released from ribosome

the body's "fuel tanks" (aka where energy is stored)

- muscle - liver - adipose tissue - blood

symptoms of kwashiorkor

- muscle wasting - edema (swelling) - fatty liver (bulging belly and alters liver function) - poor wound healing/patchy, scaly skin - loss of pigment in hair

fructose

- naturally found in fruits, honey, and some vegetables - tastes sweeter than glucose - component of high-fructose corn syrup (food additive) - converted to glucose in the body

galactose

- not commonly found in foods, except milk (including breastmilk) - component of lactose (milk sugar)

types of soluble fiber

- oat bran, oatmeal - beans, lentils - apples, bananas, citrus fruits - carrots - psyllium seeds, barley

food sources of lipids

- oils, spreads (mayo) - dairy (milk, butter, cheese) - fatty fish (salmon, tuna) - avocados - nuts, nut butters

essential fatty acids

- omega 3 and omega 6 - long-chain, polyunsaturated (pufa) - must obtain from the diet (aka essential) - body converts into molecules that function in: -- cell communication -- inflamation -- blood clotting

monounsaturated fatty acid (mufa)

- one double bond - liquid at room temperature, but will become solid if refrigerated - food sources: olive oil, canola oil, peanut oil, sesame oil - shape is bent at double bond

who is at risk for pem?

- people with wasting diseased such as cancer or aids - people with anorexia nervosa - children in impoverished nations - us homeless - children of the working poor

functions of proteins

- structure and movement - molecule/nutrient transport -- hemoglobin protein carries oxygen -- albumin protein carries several nutrients -- glucose transporter proteins bring glucose into cells - facilitate chemical reactions -- most enzymes made of protein - support immune system - allow bodies to adapt to environment, respond to stimuli, regulate blood pressure, growth, etc, through production of hormones -- insulin and glucagon regulate blood glucose levels -- renin and angiotensin regulate blood pressure -- some hormones regulate hunger and feeling of fullness - maintain fluid balance

fiber

- supportive structures in plants - most are not digestible by the human body - includes cellulose, pectin, lignins, etc - 5g per serving is considered a very good source

starch fragments produced by amylase reactions

- the disaccharide, maltose - shorter polysaccharides and oligosaccharides - possibly a few glucoses

how atp is used as energy for cells

- transporting nutrients (active transport) - catalyzing reactions (enzymes) - moving nutrients - making cellular components - exporting compounds - building and breaking down energy stores - making more energy

types of lipids

- triglycerides - fatty acids - sterols - phospholipids

refined sugars

- type of sugar to limit - food sources: sodas, chips/snacks, cookies, etc. - less nutritional value - many vitamins and minerals removed

protein digestion in stomach

-stomach cells secrete gastric juices: hcl and pepsin - hcl denatures proteins into polypeptides -small polypeptides remain after digestion and enter small intestine

structure of triglycerides

1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids

components of phospholipids

1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids, 1 phosphate group, 1 nitrogen group

protein structure

1+ polypeptides linked and folded into 3d structure - most proteins 100-300 aa in length - most need all 20 aas to be made - human proteins range 100-1000 aa or more

simple carbohydrates

1-2 sugar molecules ex) glucose/sugar and sucrose single sugar molecules (mainly glucose) are broken apart by cells and that energy stored in its chemical bonds is converted to ATP aka "sugars" or "simple sugars" aka "nutritive" sweeteners- provide us with 4 kcal/gram

how carbs are stored in the body

1. as glycogen -- process of forming glycogen is called glycogenesis 2. as fat/lipid -- process of forming lipids from non-lipid sources is called lipogenesis

starch digestion

1. digestion starts in mouth (enzyme: salivary amylase breaks bonds in starch) 2. breakdown products enter stomach (salivary amylase inactivated and churning occurs) 3. starch fragments (in chyme) enter small intestines (major site of carbohydrate digestion and absorption)

step 1 of building a protein (getting instructions)

1. genes contain codes of dna bases that are protected in the nucleus and copied (transcription) so they can safely leave the nucleus 2. transcription machinery locate gene of interest and make a copy

steps of monosaccharide absorption

1. glucose/fructose absorbed (transported) through intestinal cells called enterocytes 2. enter bloodstream 3. some goes into liver to be: --- used for energy (ATP) --- stored for later (glycogen, fat)

regulation of high bg

1. high bg stimulates pancreas 2. pancreas releases insulin via beta cells 3. fat cells take in glucose from blood 4. bg levels return to normal

protein energy malnutrition (pem) types

1. kwashiorkor 2. marasmus

regulation of low bg

1. pancreas senses low levels 2. alpha cells of pancreas release glucagon 3. liver releases glucose into blood 4. normal bg levels are reached

how insulin helps cells take in glucose

1. pancreas senses rise in levels of glucose in bloodstream 2. pancreas releases insulin into blood 3. insulin travels to cells and helps glucose enter cells 4 cells use glucose to make ATP, glycogen, or fat

unused/extra aas

1. picked up by liver 2. liver removes amino group that contains nitrogen (process called deamination) 3. liver converts amino group into urea and puts into blood 4. blood takes urea toward kidney 5. kidney cells take in urea and add to urine for excretion

AI for omega 3

1.1 g/d (women), 1.6 g/d (men) -or- 0.6-1.2% of daily kcals

energy in lipids

9 kcal

excessive protein intake

>2.0 g/kg/day associated with: - obesity - high cholesterol - cancer - chronic dehydration - osteoporosis (bone loss)

cholesterol is carried through blood by

LDL lipoproteins (bad cholesterol) and HDL lipoproteins (good cholesterol)

amino acid structure

R group (aka functional group)- different for every amino acid; gives unique chemical properties carbon skeleton=structure without amino group amino acids are our major dietary source of nitrogen

endogenous

a substance produced in the body (remember the nervous system is a part of your body).

galactose + glucose

lactose

lactase

lactose --> 1 galactose, 1 glucose

what organ makes most cholesterol?

liver diet contributes little to body levels

building proteins from amino acids

aas bound together by peptide bonds to form proteins

fermentability

ability to be fermented (aka eaten) by gut bacteria

hydrogenation

adding hydrogen atoms to unsaturated fats to eliminate double-bond liaison and make them into partially or complete saturated fats

protein digestion in small intestine (si)

additional proteases (not pepsin) finish breaking all peptide bonds, resulting in free amino acids

atp

adenosine triphosphate

fat eaten is delivered in form of triglycerides to _______ cells

adipose/fat (aka adipocytes)

polyunsaturated fatty acid example

alpha-linolenic acid

HDL lipoproteins

any cholesterol that remains is picked up by HDL and carried back to the liver when made, they are empty so they can fill up with cholesterol

digestion of lipids requires ______

bile

distribution and use of aas

blood delivers aas to body organs in body organs, aas are: - used to build proteins - used to make other aas - converted to fat and urea if not needed to make proteins

foods rich in complex carbs

breads, wheat, rice, barley, oats, corn, squash, beans, peas, potatoes, etc

lipolysis

breakdown of fat molecules

glycogenolysis

breakdown of glycogen to form glucose

atherosclerosis

buildup of fats, cholesterol, and other substances in and on artery walls (forming "plaques"), restrict blood flow

edema

buildup of fluid in interstitial space (between blood and cells), leads to swelling

side effects of fermentation reactions, usually minor

can cause gas, bloating, etc

what are proteins made of?

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen (which comes from amino acids)

carbs are made of what?

carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen

fatty acids

chains of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

genetic mutations

change dna base code, which changes mrna base code, which changes amino acid order, which changes folding/shape of protein

LDL lipoproteins

cholesterol not needed by liver is packages in ldl carry cholesterol away from liver to other organs for use such as ovaries, gonads, adrenal glands, numerous cell types

cardiovascular disease

collection of diseases that affect the heart or blood vessels characterized by blood vessels clogged with excess lipids, damaged vessels, or other heart issues examples: - heart attack - stroke - heart failure

carbohydrates are stored in plants and animals as _____

complex carbohydrates

nutritive definition

contributes energy to our foods

partial hydrogenation

converts a part of cis-isomers into trans-unsaturated fats instead of hydrogenating them completely

what changes a protein's function?

denaturation: disruption of 3d shape of a protein (aka unfolding)

disaccharide enzymes

digest disaccharides into monosaccharides (or simple sugars)

carbohydrates are first ___ then ___

digested, absorbed

the pancreatic amylase enzyme in carbohydrate digestion breaks down starch into ________

disaccharides or monosaccharides

transcription

dna base code copied into mrna base code

saturated fatty acid recommendation

dri/dga: low as possible, <10% of daily kcals american heart association (aha): limit to 5-6% of daily kcals (for adults who would benefit from lowering blood cholesterol)

total fat recommendation

dri: amdr is 20-35% of daily calories

cholesterol recommendation

dri: minimize intake within context of a healthy diet dga: no recommendation

glycosylation

excess glucose in bloodstream binds to proteins

how much energy is stored in adipose tissue?

fat ~100,000 kcal!

lipids are digested into ______

fatty acids and glycerol

in proteins, structure dictates _____

function, need correct sequence and folding pattern to function properly

body's preferred energy source

glucose uses carbs then fat then protein to make energy

how much energy is stored in blood?

glucose ~40 kcal

3 types of monosaccharides

glucose, fructose, galactose

carbs stored in animals and humans as ______

glycogen

how much energy is stored in muscle?

glycogen ~2000 kcal triglyceride (fat) ~4000 kcal

how much energy is stored in liver?

glycogen ~300 kcal

some soluble fiber is fermented/used/eaten by ______

gut bacteria- energy source for bacteria

what causes denaturation?

heat, light, acids, chemicals

chronic hyperglycemia

high blood glucose over long period of time -- causes complications (may damage blood vessel, etc) -- common issue in patients with type 2 diabetes

why isn't fiber used for energy?

humans lack enzymes to break bonds in fiber

are cellulose and lignings soluble or insoluble?

insoluble

where are brush border enzymes located in the small intestine?

intestinal cell membrane

how does the body store fat

it uses fatty acids to build triglycerides that are stored in fat (adipose) tissue/cells when energy is needed, fatty acids are released and then broken down to make atp

functions of cholesterol

keeps cell membrane flexible (creates space between phospholipids) used to make: - bile- helps emulsify lipids during digestion - vitamin d- helps you absorb calcium for strong bones - steroid hormones (eg. estrogen and testosterone)- allows for reproduction, etc - adrenal hormones (adrenal glands are on top of the kidneys and release hormones in response to stress, such as cortisol)