plsc 354 final - semi-refined

Desertification and Land Degradation Regime

"Desertification" means land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities(UN Convention to Combat Desertification, Part I, article 1, section a.). Desertification causes land and ecosystems that are already suffering from water scarcity, low productivity and fragility, to lose what little productive potential they have. Desertification makes land agriculturally unproductive and unable to support local communities.

HFCs(hydrocholorocarbons: compound of hydrogen, fluorine and carbon)

- Another substitute for CFCs; it does not have significant ozone depleting effects but is a greenhouse gas.

uses of cadmium

- Batteries; metal alloys; coating and plastics; new solar cell technology

Health consequences of exposure to certain POPs

- Skin irritation; disruption of hormonal balance and the reproductive system (that is why PCBs also belong to the category "endocrine disruptors") **** ,damage to the brain, the immune system and - possibly - cancer. Dioxins have been found in breastfed babies who had received the chemical from their mothers. **** especially important for the exam

PCBs - name

polychlorinated biphenyls

PCDD

polychlorinated dibenzodioxins

Surface water includes:

streams, rivers, ponds, lakes and wetlands.

which is the only country that did not a party to the CBD

the US

Pro ban/lead states

the US and the EU, joined by Australia and New Zealand

Halons (aka BFCs, compounds of bromine, fluorine and carbon)

- Used as fire suppressants

At the 1992 EARTH SUMMIT IN RIO...

...the parties agree to a CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ("1992 CBD").

2014 more rigorous standards for "research" whaling

At the 2014 annual meeting of the ICW, the Commission agreed to impose more rigorous standards for the issuance of scientific whaling permits. The criteria are tailored around past abuses of such permits and are intended to prevent them from reoccurring.

what percent of wetlands have been destroyed over the last century?

Between 64% and 71% of existing wetlands have been destroyed over the last century.

ENDANGERED SPECIES REGIME

Convention on international trade in endangered species (of wild fauna and flora) The protection of endangered species was on the international agenda and on the mind of the fast growing environmental movement already in the 1960s. These efforts culminated in the 1973 CITES

LEAD states of Whaling Regime

European Union, the US, Australia and New Zealand

Fossil fuel extraction, processing and combustion is still, by far, the principal source of....

GHG emission, air, water and soil contamination.

Greenhouse gases

Greenhouse gases are gases which trap heat in the atmosphere and to contribute to global warming and climate change.

main ANTHROPOGENIC sources of the key GHG Nitrous oxide (N2O):

Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, as well as during combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste.

Ozone (as polluter)

Ozone is a PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANT. Its molecule is formed by three atoms of oxygen. It is identified by the chemical symbol O3.

Dioxins and dioxin-like substances (PCDDs, PCDFs and PCBs).

PCDDs, PCDFs and PCBs are examples of "PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS" (POPs). The above include the following three categories of substances: - PCDD polychlorinated dibenzodioxins - PCDFs: polychlorinated dibenzofurans. - PCBs: polychlorinated biphenyls

Paris Climate Agreement: "Peer pressure" and "naming and shaming"

Peer pressure and naming and shaming are already used in other international regimes: human rights regime, international labor agreements, corporate social responsibility institutions.

IV - What is the international community doing about climate change:

The GLOBAL GOVERNANCE of climate change The IPCC

THE RATCHET MECHANISM OF THE "PLEDGE AND REVIEW" APPROACH: articles 3 and 4(3)

The parties agree to be as ambitious as possible (article 4(3)) and to make pledges that "represent progression over time" (article 3). To raise the level of ambition, the pledges are reviewed in advance and are discussed among the parties. This periodic review process ("pledge and review" approach) "makes transparency a key regulatory instrument aimed at building trust" and makes it possible for all parties to somehow comment on the other parties' existing pledges as well as their periodic updating.

BIOLOGICAL CONTAMINATION OF WATER:

The pathogens present in human wastewater cause very serious, often transmissible diseases. The main ones (and the ones causing the most severe effects on poorer populations) are diarrhea, cholera, typhoid fever, stomach flu.

Lead (Pb)

The toxicity of lead has been acknowledged since the 1920s.

Why isn't the whaling ban working?

Whaling for profit was banned in 1986, however, Japan, Iceland and Norway continue to kill fin, minke and sei whales every year. All three nations believe they have a right to hunt whales: Japan claims its objective is scientific research, while Norway objects to the ban and Iceland hunts under a dubious 'reservation' to the whaling ban.

The Kigali Amendment of 2016

adds HFCs to the list of ODS to be phased out

AQUIFERS

are underground storehouses of freshwater.

VETO states of Whaling Regime

led by Japan, Norway and Iceland

Each of the following actions interferes (often radically) with the natural flow (or state) of bodies of water:

levees; dikes; dams (reservoirs, fish ladders); aqueducts; river diversion; desalinization plants. Each has advantages: (irrigation, production of electricity, etc.) and disadvantages: (disruption of flow of water, changes in temperature and/or composition, harm to ecosystems, flooding of areas whose inhabitants are forced to relocate, etc.).

NO RESERVATIONS allowed - art. 27

no reservations allowed for the Paris Agreement

The four crises that are currently plaguing the OCEANS - Global warming/climate change:

o Acidification of the oceans o Coral reef dying o Weather disruptions o Habitat disruption

Oceans (SALTWATER):

oceans' saltwater represents 97.22% of all water.

Two types of aquifers:

unconfined and confined

NATURAL SOURCES of greenhouse gases

volcanic eruptions, natural decomposition (that produces methane, one of the GHG), digestion by animals, denitrification, evaporation, etc.

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (RES)

ways of producing electricity that are renewable - the resource that is producing the electricity cannot be used up Renewables represented ONLY 13.7% of the world's Total Primary Energy Supply ("TPES") in 2016

Consequences of exposure to mercury for humans:

- Harm to unborn babies and infants - Neurological impairment and stunted development - In Japan, in the 1950s, thousands of young people who were exposed to methylmercury suffered brain damage, paralysis, delirium, blurred speech.

the WTO needed to find ways to distinguish "legitimate" restrictions and regulations imposed on a foreign good (i.e., genuinely motivated by health and safety concerns) and illegitimate trade barriers (protectionist measures) camouflaged as health and safety regulations Hence the signing of:

- The SPS Agreement (Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Agreement), and - the TBT Agreement (Technical Barriers to trade Agreement).

The GLOBAL GOVERNANCE of climate change Key IGOs:

- The UNEP (now rebranded "United Nations Environment") - The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)

WITHDRAWAL - articles 28(1) and 28(2)

A party can withdraw, three years after the agreement has entered into force for that party, by giving written notice. The withdrawal takes effect one year after receipt of that written notice. The prevailing view is that, in the case of the US government, it can give written notice of its desire to withdraw no earlier than November 4, 2019 (3 years after it entered into force) and the notice would have effect one year later, November 4th2020. That is the day after the 2020 elections.

The harmful health and environmental effects of coal:

A - THE EXTRACTIONOF COAL harms the miners and poisons and destroys the environment: B - COAL COMBUSTIONis one of the principal producers of "criteria pollutants" (including Particulate Matter, Sulfur Oxides, lead), in addition to arsenic, mercury, greenhouse gases, the ingredients of acid rain and photochemical smog. C - COAL ASH/SLUDGE

The current status of the whaling regime - The special case of Greenland:

After much arguing, in 2014, Greenland (an autonomous region of Denmark) obtained the right to a quota of whales as "Aborigine subsistence hunt". Whale hunters from Greenland were granted an annual quota of 207 whales for four years.

1994 Southern Ocean Sanctuary: The Antarctic whale sanctuary (aka SOS, or Southern Ocean Sanctuary)

In 1994 the IWC majority voted for the establishment of a Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary, i.e., a no-catch area below 40° latitude south which further restricts whale hunting in that area. The Sanctuary hurt, in particular, the Japanese whaling fleet which hunts in those Antarctic waters. There has been some degree of defiance from the big whaling countries in the face of the new Sanctuary restriction.

Australia sues Japan at the ICJ (World Court) and wins

In 2010 Australia sued Japan before the World Court (the International Court of Justice, or ICJ) Australia accused Japan of violating the obligations and the restrictions under the ICRW by abusing the "scientific whaling exception." In 2015, the ICJ issued its decision and found that Japan's scientific research program masked a commercial venture. It ordered Japan to stop.

what is arctic amplification

Note that as a result of climate change, temperature rises faster in the Arctic than does the global average temperature. The Arctic is warming at twice the rate of the global average temperature. The estimates point to a temperature rise in the Arctic of 4 to 7 degrees centigrade by the year 2100. The effects of this rise include: - Less albedo effect (reflecting less sunlight) with the shrinking of the light-reflecting ice cap (less albedo means more global warming); - Faster rise in sea levels in the area; - Disruption of local species location and migration; - Arctic coastal communities exposed to more frequent and more severe storms; - Accelerated exploitation and pollution of the areas freed from ice: more transportation/shipping, more coastal construction, more drilling, more exploration and exploitation of seabed resources, etc.

The Paris Agreement is a carefully crafted document:

Notice the subtle differences between legal obligations, recommendations and statements of intent: - The use of the words "shall" or "are to": indicates a legally binding commitment/obligation to do something; - "Should," "are encouraged to:" recommendations; - "Will" or "recognize (the importance of )"or "establish the goal" or "acknowledge": a declaration of intent or opinion or acknowledgment Flexibility and vagueness were necessary to ensure inclusion of all parties - Some parties would have resisted mandatory emission reductions dictated from above, due to domestic political opposition (including in the US); - The flexibility and vagueness also avoided the distributional conflict over how to allocate the burden of CC mitigation.

OIL (PETROLEUM)

Oil is composed of hydrocarbons, water and sulfur. Rarely used for electricity production, oil is mostly used as transportation fuel

Ranking fossil fuels in terms of GHG emissions

Ranking fossil fuels in terms of the amount of GHG (Greenhouse Gas) emissions they produce when burned (the combustion of fossil fuels): 1) COAL produces the most GHG(as well as many other pollutants) when burned. 2) OIL (produces roughly 85% of the GHG produced by coal) 3) NATURAL GAS (roughly 60% of the GHG produced by coal).

Acid deposition

SO2 (sulfur dioxide) and NOx (nitrogen oxides) are released into the air by various sources including vehicle engines, coal-fired power plants, etc. Once released in the air, SO2 and NOx combine with oxygen and water and form acid substances which can be carried far and return to earth in dry form or as precipitation (snow, rain, etc.). They increase the acidity levels of the surfaces they land on: forests, agricultural land, rivers, lakes and seas, etc. The higher acidity harms the flora and fauna as well as humans, and damages (corrodes) buildings and other human made structures.

smog

Smog (smoke and fog) tends to form as a result the interaction of NOx (nitrogen oxides), SO2 (sulfur dioxide) and VOC (volatile organic compounds) in sunlight. Smog is harmful to human beings, plants, animals and destroys/corrodes certain materials.

The Key provisions of CITES

States that have signed and ratified the CITES are subject to a number of obligations. The key provisions are: - the agreement by member states on which species require protection and the agreement to ban or restrict their trade; and - the implementation at the national level of the measures required to protect the listed species and the creation of specialized national bodies to carry this out.

The sea is divided into SIX areas/sections/zones: each gives different rights to the COASTAL STATE, and to third parties:

Territorial waters: up to 12 miles from the "baseline" (low-tide watermark) Contiguous zone: up to 24 miles from the baseline Exclusive economic zone (EEZ) (up to a maximum of 200 miles) Continental shelf (up to the "drop" or shelf break), up to a maximum of 350 miles High Seas: the water beyond the EEZ Deep sea bed: the sea bed beyond the continental shelf.

The 1989 Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (aka the 1989 Basel Convention)

The 1989 Basel Convention "is the most comprehensive global environmental treaty on hazardous and other wastes. It aims to protect human health and the environment against the adverse effects resulting from the generation, management, transboundary movements and disposal of hazardous and other wastes." LEAD coalition: - The Organization for African Unity (the predecessor of the African Union) pressured the rest of the parties to agree to a total ban hazardous waste transfer to developing countries and an assumption of liability by the exporting countries for any damages caused by any illegal shipment of hazardous waste. VETO coalition: - The US and other exporting countries formed a veto coalition. They proposed that the only obligation of the exporting state be the prior informed consent (PIC) of the importing state. This approach was ideologically motivated by concerns about freedom of trade but also by skepticism about the practical difficulty of enforcing more stringent standards. The agreement that was eventually reached in Basel in 1989 reflected the preferences of the wealthier nations. Instead of a total ban on North-South waste trade, the treaty imposed more limited restrictions as well as an obligation to inform waste recipients of the risks involved.

1998 ROTTERDAM CONVENTION ON P.I.C.

The 1998 Rotterdam Convention on the PRIOR INFORMED CONSENT Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (aka the 1998 Rotterdam Convention on PIC - Prior Informed Consent), regulates "pesticides and industrial chemicals that have been banned or severely restricted for health or environmental reasons".

1972 Stockholm Conference (UNCHE - The UN Conference on the Human Environment)

The first trulyglobalconference fully dedicated to addressing environmental problems The three key achievements of the Stockholm Conference: - The Stockholm Declaration (soft law); - The Action Plan (soft law; it includes 109 Recommendations); - The participants in the 1972 Conference recommended the creation of the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP).

The GLOBAL GOVERNANCE of climate change

The international climate change regime comprises various agreements, IGOs, NGOs and other actors.

International regime on hazardous waste and toxic chemicals

The international community has developed an international regime to regulate the extraction, processing, manufacturing, sale, transportation, use and disposal of these chemicals. This international regime includes the following key components: - Global, legally binding conventionsagreed to by most states in the world: - international governmental organizations (IGOs)dedicated to monitoring, facilitating and promoting the responsible management of hazardous substances, - soft law initiatives including codes of conduct, declarations of intent, general safety standards, etc.; - private initiatives and partnerships among businesses to promote the safe processing, use, sale and/or disposal of hazardous chemicals.

The Governance Structure of the International Whaling Regime: the ICRW and the IWC

The international whaling regime is "anchored" to an international Convention, the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW). The ICRW member states designated the International Whaling Commission (IWC) as the Convention's ruling body. The IWC works substantially as an equivalent of the "Conference of Parties" used in other conventions. The IWC meets every 2 years. It's at these periodic meetings that member states propose new restrictions and whaling quotas and vote on them. Typically, it takes a ¾ majority of the IWC to approve these proposals. The IWC is supported by a Scientific Committee that is supposed to supply and update the scientific information necessary to the IWC to make its determinations

two types of ozone

Tropospheric ozone ("bad" ozone): Low altitude/ground level (troposphere) Ozone is harmful to humans and other living organisms as well as to objects. It forms in the presence of NOx, oxygen and sunlight. Volatile organic compounds also play a role in the formation of tropospheric ozone. Stratospheric Ozone ("good ozone"): in the stratosphere (16 km to 50 km of altitude) ozone is actually beneficial. It forms a layer (the ozone layer) that shields the earth from harmful Ultra Violet sunrays.

How are whales and dolphins killed?

Using exploding harpoon cannons mounted on the bows of vessels, whales are pursued and shot with explosives designed to burst when they penetrate into the flesh of the whale. However, not all whales die instantaneously, requiring a second shot from the cannon, or sometimes a round of rifle fire. Some whales suffer inhumanely for up to 25 minutes before they finally die. Small cetaceans may be killed with harpoons, rifles, nets or even driven to shore where hooks are inserted in the blowholes and spinal cords are severed while the animals are still alive.

Nuclear energy

electricity production zero GHG emissions non-renewable: it is using up the radioactive material (the material is readily available tho)

FRESHWATER:

fresh water only represents 2.78% of all water.

NATURAL GAS

it is usually composed of 80-95% of Methane(CH4), combined with ethane, propane and butane. Underground deposits of natural gas are often found "associated" with oil deposits. The largest use for natural gas is ELECTRICITY, followed by industrial uses and residential uses (house heating, cooking, water heaters).

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

signed in 1992 and came into force on December 29th, 1993. 153 parties signed it at the time. Now, 196 parties have ratified it. The United States: it is not a party to the CBD. It originally signed it but the US Senate did not ratify. The US Senate refused to ratify the CBD after President Bill Clinton signed it in 1993. The US is THE ONLY MEMBER OF THE UN who is not a party to the CBD.

main human activity that emits CO2

the combustion of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil) for energy and transportation, although certain industrial processes and land-use changes also emit CO2.

The 2000 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety:

"The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international agreement which aims to ensure the safe handling, transport and use of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health." The Cartagena Protocol was signed in 2000, and came into force in 2003. Unfortunately, many producers of (genetically modified) grain did not join the Protocol. Only Uruguay ratified it among the largest grain producers. The veto coalition was mostly composed of large grain producers who stayed out of the Protocol: the United States, Argentina, Australia, Canada and Chile.

2013 MINAMATA CONVENTION ON MERCURY

"The Minamata Convention on Mercury is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from the adverse effects of mercury."It was adopted in 213 and came into force in 2017. A powerful factor in the initial stages of the development of the Mercury regime was the tragic experience of the Japanese residents in Minamata. In the 1950s, thousands of people were found to have developed severe health problems as a result of having eaten seafood and fish from the shores of the local Minamata bay. Many of them were children. The investigation showed that a local company had consistently released large quantities of mercury in the ocean. The Japanese government enacted measures to address the issue and, some half a century later, the international community did the same. The name of the Convention is to remind us of the mercury victims of Minamata.

THE 2001 STOCKHOLM CONVENTION ON PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS

"The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants adopted in 2001, aims to protect human health and the environment from highly dangerous, long-lasting chemicals by restricting and ultimately eliminating their production, use, trade, release and storage. Article 6, paragraph 2 of the Stockholm Convention mandates its Parties to cooperate closely with the appropriate bodies of the Basel Convention on common issues of relevance."

LIMITING TEMPERATURE INCREASES - article 2(1)(a)

"[The parties agree to] Holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels." Pursuant to pressure from pacific island states and NGOs, the following was added to the clause:"and pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels."

Fossil fuels

(oil, coal, natural gas) derive from biomass accumulated over millions of years. They are made of organic matter which has accumulated in an anaerobic environment (i.e., absence of free oxygen) for millions of years. It was not decomposed by fungi, bacteria or other organisms ("decomposers") because of the lack of oxygen. Pressure, time and heat turned this accumulated organic material into solid, liquid or gas compounds that burn easily.

confined aquifer

(surrounded by a layer of impermeablerock that prevents regular recharge from precipitation): o Confined aquifers need an opening at the land's surface to serve as a recharge area. o Artesian wells are used to draw water: the water is under pressure and there is no need for electric pumps; o Confined aquifers recharge very slowly (10,000-20,000 years).

unconfined aquifer

(surrounded by permeablerock) Groundwater recharge is mainly from precipitation that filters through the soil and replenishes the aquifer. o The Ogallala Aquifer (or High Plains Aquifer) is the largest aquifer in the US, one of the largest in the world, covering more than 170,000 square miles, and several states from South Dakota to Texas. It is being depleted because the natural recharge is unable to keep up with the rate of withdrawals from it (figure 9.4, page 218 of EES).

COP21 and the 2015 Paris Climate Change Agreement Participation:

- 195 states and one major regional IGO (the European Union) participated in the event. - 100 heads of state attended. - The meeting lasted almost 2 weeks: from November 30 to December 12, 2015.

Environmental Global Conferences (2)

- 1972 Stockholm Conference: soft law such as the Stockholm Declaration with a list of 26 Principles and an Action Plan with 109 recommendations - 1992 Rio Earth Summit: 2 treaties came out of it (UNFCCC and UNCBD - and then two years after came the UNCCD which was going to come out of this conference but negotiations fell through) ALSO soft laws such as the Rio Forest Principles

Ozone Depletion Regime Treaties (3)

- 1985 Vienna Convention - 1987 Montreal Protocol - The Kigali Amendment of 2016 that adds HFCs to the list of ODS to be phased out

Desertification Regime Treaty (2)

- 1994 UNCCD: UN Convention to Combat Desertification - SDG 15 (Sustainable Development Goal 15)

The advantages of coal:

- Abundance - Easy to mine, transport and store safely, with little risk of combustion or explosion - Not much processing and refining needed - It would be very cheap (except for the costly regulatory requirements imposed on its use)

The Paris Climate Change Agreement - Will it "solve the problem"?

- According to the UNFCCC Secretariat, with the current pledges to reduce GHG emissions made pursuant to the Paris Climate Agreement, the global temperature will still rise by 2.7°C compared to the pre-industrial era. So, much more work needs to be done.

The main provisions of the Antarctic Treaty are:

- All claims to sovereignty are temporarily suspended; no new ones are allowed; - Antarctica can only be used for peaceful purposes - No weapons testing is allowed - Scientific cooperation is required - Continuous monitoring: Observers are nominated by each party to monitor compliance with the Treaty and they must be granted access to do their job - Collective decision making: A Consultative Parties body proposes recommendations which can affect how the member states manage the region.

"bad" ozone

- Bad ozone is the ozone found at ground level, aka TROPOSPHERIC OZONE. o Ground level ozone is harmful to humans, animals and plants. o Ground level ozone is produced by the interaction of sunlight with emissions from power plants, engines or other sources (emissions include nitrogen oxides and Volatile Organic Compounds): § Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) + nitrogen oxides (NOx) + sunlight = Ozone

Why do developing countries accept to receive hazardous waste from wealthier countries?

- Because their waste disposal companies (and often their government officials) profit from selling their waste processing and disposal services; - Because they may recycle some of the waste (for example, e-waste) and produce, at cheaper cost, finished, recycled goods; - These countries can offer waste disposal services at lower cost because: o Environmental and health regulations in developing countries are more relaxed or more inconsistently enforced; o labor and other costs are lower and thus profit margins are higher.

the principal "natural resource protection" regimes (10) plus one weird one

- Biological diversity regime: to preserve biodiversity (, - The endangered species regime: protecting endangered species, - Forest protection regime: protecting and restoring forests, - Regime to combat desertification: stopping and reversing desertification, - Ozone Layer Protection Regime: stopping ozone layer depletion, - Air Pollution Mitigation Regime: reducing and mitigating air pollution, - Water Pollution Regime: reducing and mitigating water pollution, protecting water from pollution and scarcity, and protecting freshwater and marine environments, - Climate Change Regime: stopping extensive changes and setting limits on them as well as protecting the globe from massive climate changes, - Hazardous Waste Regime: control of disposal and movement of hazardous waste so that it does not cause harm to the environment or humans - The whaling regime: protecting whales and regulating whale hunting, - the weird one is the Energy Regime: not environmental and just contains info on all the types of energy sources that there are (fossil fuels, REW, etc)

Anthropogenic sources of cadmium:

- By-product of zinc mining; cadmium recovered from used batteries and scrap metals; - Mining, smelting, fossil fuel burning, landfill batteries' leakage, burning of waste, fertilizers.

COAL COMBUSTIONis one of the principal producers of "criteria pollutants" (including Particulate Matter, Sulfur Oxides, lead), in addition to arsenic, mercury, greenhouse gases, the ingredients of acid rain and photochemical smog.

- CCS (Carbon Capture and Sequestration technology) has been heralded by many as the solution to coal's harmful environmental effects by reducing the CO2 emissions associated with coal. CCS technology is still under development, very expensive and its efficacy uncertain. "Clean coal" at this stage is an aspiration not a concrete option.

The five types of Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) we need to be familiar with:

- CFCs, - Halons, - HCFCs, - Methyl Bromide and - HFCs.

The SIX CRITERIA AIR POLLUTANTSidentified and regulated by the EPA are:

- CO: Carbon monoxide - SO2: Sulfur dioxide - NOx: Nitrogen oxides - PM: Particulate Matter - Lead - O3: Ozone

The main greenhouse gases are (in addition to water vapor):

- Carbon dioxide (CO2) 82% - Methane (CH4) 10% - Nitrous Oxide (N2O) 5% - Fluorinated gases such as CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons), HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons) and HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons) 3% o CFCs and, to a lesser extend, HCFCs are also Ozone Depleting Substances (i.e., they tend to destroy the "good" ozone layer in the stratosphere) - Ozone (O3) (ground level or "bad" Ozone) o Ozone at the ground level is harmful o Ground level Ozone can be produced by NOx reacting with Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) in sunlight.

A few BASIC FACTS about climate change: F - Climate change is already happening:

- Climate change is already producing visible effects on our environment (melting of ice caps and mountain glaciers, droughts, flooding, extreme weather patterns, ocean warming, sea level rise, proliferation of invasive alien species).

The main anthropogenic sources of Mercury are.

- Coal mining and coal burning. *** - Gold mining, especially small scale operations: they are responsible for most of the anthropogenic mercury releases, second only to coal mining. *** - Metal processing and cement production. - Industrial production involving chlorine (synthetic rubber, solar cells, vinyl floor covering) - Products that contain Mercury and their waste: batteries, paint, lamps, cosmetics and electronic devices. *** are the especially important for the exam

COAL ASH/SLUDGE

- Coal-fired power plants and other industries use emission filters and other "pollution control technology". These filters separate and accumulate large quantities of toxic waste and sludge. Where to store and how to dispose of the growing quantities of toxic ash and sludge? - According to the EPA, 130 million tons of coal ash and sludge were produced in 2014 alone in the US. Most of it is stored in ponds and pits usually owned and managed by the electric utility companies themselves. - Sludge ponds and pits are exposed to the risk of flooding in severe weather. In 2008, a billion gallons of toxic ash sludge broke out of a storage pond, flooding the city of Kingston (TN) and miles of a nearby river.

Longer term objectives (GHG emission reductions): articles 4(1) and 4(19)

- Commitment to "peak" (i.e., stop the increase of GHG emissions) as soon as possible; - Commitment to reach, within this century, an equilibrium between anthropogenic GHG emissions (the GHG emitted from human activity) and the removal of GHG by GHG sinks (forests, etc.). Article 4(1): "In order to achieve the long-term temperature goal set out in Article 2, Parties aim to reach global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible, recognizing that peaking will take longer for developing country Parties, and to undertake rapid reductions thereafter in accordance with best available science, so as to achieve a balance between anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases in the second half of this century, on the basis of equity, and in the context of sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty."

Exposure to cadmium:

- Construction and waste management work; smelters. About 300,000 workers are exposed to cadmium in the US alone. **** - residing near mines, smelters, waste processing plants. **** - Cadmium accumulates in the soil and can be found in food exposed to contaminated soil (produce or meat). It can also be carried by wind and travel far from the source. **** especially important for the exam

Biodiversity Regime Treaties (3)

- Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) - The 2000 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety - The 2010 Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing ("ABS")

Problems associated with hydroelectric power

- Disruption of natural water flows and ecosystems (dams in particular cause significant disruptions)

key negative impacts of natural gas extraction/production:

- Drilling operations and transportation system disturb vegetation and soil, often over large areas; - The drilling disturbs subsurface geology and makes it unstable; - air and water pollution is increased by the drilling activity itself as well as the transportation and storage of waste water, brine, as well as oil and gas. - Methane leaks are significant from drilling, refining and storage operations. Methane is a powerful green house gas (worse than CO2). - CO2 emissions are produced from the flaring of gas at wells. - see also other negative impacts described specifically with respect to FRACKING OPERATIONS, below.

Ways humans usually exposed to mercury:

- Eating animals which have absorbed mercury. Fish being the most common form of mercury contaminated food. - Mercury in freshwater bodies and the sea becomes an organic compound called methylmercury. This is one of the most poisonous forms of mercury. Fish are exposed to water contaminated by methylmercury and humans who eat the fish absorb the methylmercury.

A few BASIC FACTS about climate change: C - Higher GHG concentrations cause a warming of the atmosphere

- Experiments and environmental observations have demonstrated the "greenhouse effect" ever since the end of the 19thcentury (1896 demonstration by Swedish scientist and Nobel Prize Winner Svante Arrhenius)

Human exposure to POPs such as dioxins:

- Exposure is usually from contaminated food or water (plants and animals can absorb the chemicals from the soil or water) as well as inhalation of contaminated air (backyard burning).

FIVE stages of the "chemicals' life cycle":

- Extraction of the raw materials: raw materials such as coal, oil, biomass, gas, minerals and metals, etc. are extracted (often from underground deposits) and stored in view of further processing; - Processing the raw materials: These raw materials are processed, i.e., separated, combined and eventually transformed into different types of chemicals that are used in the chemical industry (e.g., benzene, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, etc.). These include "organic chemicals" (compounds containing carbon and hydrogen) and inorganic chemicals. There are a dozen compounds that are considered the "building blocks" for thousands of chemicals. These building blocks include: methanol, ammonia, toluene, ethylene, etc. - Manufacturing of finished goods: the organic and inorganic chemicals are then further processed to manufacture a variety of finished products such as paint, pesticides, fertilizers, cosmetics, fibers, dies, building products, electronic components, batteries, toys, medical equipment, etc. - Use of the finished products: the fertilizer and pesticides, the cosmetics and the pharmaceuticals, the paints and the glues, the plastic containers and the electronic equipment, are shipped, stored and used. - Disposal of the used product: Eventually these products are disposed of. They become waste: hazardous waste is waste that is corrosive, explosive, or contains toxic elements or compounds.

Human exposure to lead:

- For many decades the most significant exposure was from leaded gasoline. It has been banned in the US since the 1980s after years of legal struggles and lobbying resistance by the automotive and oil industries. The car and oil industries opposed measures to ban lead in gasoline primarily by disputing the scientific findings about the human health risk. **** - Professional risk and exposure to lead occurs in o industrial processing of substances mixed with lead, mining, smelters, heavy lead glass and ceramics production; o applying and removing lead paint, in construction and demolition work. - Food can be contaminated by lead, e.g. food raised or harvested on lead-contaminated soil (due to nearby smelters or mines) - Drinking water can absorb lead from water pipes and fittings; **** - Air inside homes can be contaminated by lead: paints, workers' clothes, toys containing lead. **** **** especially important for the exam

A few BASIC FACTS about climate change: A - Greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere (CO2, Methane, Nitrous oxides, etc.) has been rising at an unprecedented rate:

- Humans have been releasing more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere over the past decades than ever before in human history. - In 1950, man made emissions of CO2 were 5 billion tons. By 2016 they rose to 35 billion tons per year. o For example: between 2000 and 2010 we have emitted more than the double amount of greenhouse gases than between 1970 and 2000. - Today, CO2 concentration in the atmosphere is at 410 ppm. The last time the earth experienced a concentration of CO2 above 400 ppm was more than a million years ago. For more than 400,000 years, CO2 concentrations never exceeded 300 ppm. - In addition to CO2, two other greenhouse gases, N2O (nitrous oxide) and CH4 (methane) have seen their concentration increase significantly over the past 200 years.

International Whaling Regime Treaties (3)

- ICRW/ (International Convention on Regulation of Whaling): did not start off as an environmental treaty but after LEAD states against whaling entered into the treaty they took over majority of the group and therefore has voting power - /IWC (International Whaling Commission): commission for the ICRW, where the new LEAD states have the greatest power - (kinda) 1982 Moratorium on whaling by the IWC: only lasts for 5 years and has been renewed every 5 year cycle since and it is a temporary prohibition of whaling--- or at least places a lot of regulations on whaling--- does not officially ban it - The 1994 Southern Ocean Sanctuary (aka Antarctic Sanctuary).

Freshwater sources:

- Ice and glaciers (very difficult/sometimes impossible to use): 77.28% of all fresh water - Underground water 22.22% - Surface water bodies: streams, rivers, ponds, lakes and wetlands: 0.47% - Atmospheric water/vapor: 0.03%

A few BASIC FACTS about climate change: G - The future consequences of climate change can be catastrophic:

- If unchecked, climate change will cause catastrophic consequences down the road. - The consequences of global warming on the environment and on living organisms are described in EES: read carefully pages 353-356 of EES.

key obligations under the Rotterdam Convention

- Importing parties, once they receive all the relevant information about a dangerous product, are to communicate to all parties whether they consent or notto its introduction in the country. - Exporting parties are to provide all relevant informationabout the dangerous product and assist the importing party to ensure it can manage the product safely.

Methyl Bromide(bromine, carbon and hydrogen)

- It is a very widely used (until recently) fumigant (insecticide, pest control, weed and worm prevention, etc.). Used in agriculture and in shipping to prevent deterioration of agricultural products.

COP21 and the 2015 Paris Climate Change Agreement The French government learned the lesson of Copenhagen 2009:

- It kept expectations intentionally low; - It maximized the participation of non-state actors such as NGOs (more inclusive); - There was a greater effort at ironing out some of the issues in advance, through several, carefully organized, preparatory meetings before the parties convened in Paris.

key provisions of the 1989 Basel Convention

- It obliges exporting state to provide all the necessary informationto the importing state about the waste being shipped; - It requires the written consent of the importing state; - It obliges all states to limit as much as possible the shipment of hazardous waste and encourages states to process and dispose of their own waste domestically to the extent possible; - It requires all states to ensure the safe managementof hazardous waste and the monitoring of all hazardous waste movements; - It prohibits hazardous waste imports from and exports to non-parties(with some exceptions); - Allows more latitude with respect to the shipment of waste that is destined for RECYCLING (the so-called "Recycling loophole")

Key provisions of the Montreal Protocol:

- It recognized and applied the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibility (CBDR): o Wealthier countries are primarily responsible for the accumulation of ODS over the decades; o Wealthier countries have greater economic resources, technological knowhow and political/administrative capacity. o Wealthier countries share an obligation to assist the developing countries meet the obligations of the Ozone Layer Protection regime. - The parties agreed to create two "control schedules" (the name given to the 2 lists of ODS to be restricted and the timetable for the reduction or phase-out of each ODS). Consistent with the principle of CBDR, the two schedules contain different timetables for wealthy and developing countriesin terms of which ODS to phase out and how fast to phase them out. - Scientific and Technology Assessment Panels were set up to continue to gather facts, conduct research and monitor developments; - Meetings of the Parties (MOPs) were to be organized yearly in which a variety of updates, amendments, expansions of the regime would be discussed. The MOPs were granted significant authority to carry out these tasks and strengthen the regime.

The FIVE key accomplishments of the 1987 Montreal Protocol:

- It was the first MEA (multilateral environmental agreement) to address a GLOBAL environmental problem with a GLOBAL agreement; - The first MEA to fully apply the PRECAUTIONARY Principle and create obligations in the absence of conclusive scientific findings about the causal nexus between the environmental harm (ozone layer depletion) and the substances being regulated (CFCs and Halons); - The agreement was reached notwithstanding the fact that restricting/regulating the production of those substances would have caused significant economic impact on the EU as well as on developing countries like India and China; - The Montreal Protocol became a model for future global environmental regimes. - It provided for effective and rather quick means to update and strengthen the regime through its MOPs. This means that the MOPs of the Montreal Protocol were granted significant power/discretion to take decisive action to expand and strengthen the Ozone regime.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF FRACKING

- Landscape destruction: there are between 1.2 million and 1.7 million fracking wells in the US. - Water depletion: each well consumes between 2 million and 20 million gallons of water. - Groundwater contamination due to drilling through aquifers. Methane and the chemicals used in the extraction can migrate from gas wells into underground aquifers. - Surface water and ground water contamination from release of wastewater containing a variety of toxic substances used in the extraction process (the so called "brine"). - Surface spill of chemicals that contaminate soil and surface water. - Methane leaks into the air, as well as CO2 emissions when this methane is flared. - Seismic activity that may be triggered by the large number of controlled underground explosions provoked by fracturing, and by the underground injection of high pressure liquids. Injection is used to enhance the fracturing of the rock (the hydraulic fracturing itself) and also to dispose of some of the "used" waste water that flows back from the well. - Intense industrial traffic (hundreds of trucks working around the clock around the wells). - Incessant noise and pervasive smells. - Social disruptions and uncertainty caused by large number of transients moving into a previously isolated community.

Uses of lead:

- Lead is used in pipes, paints, glaze, glass, ceramics, etc. For a long time it was used in leaded gasoline.

The advantages of Oil.

- Liquid: great for mobile combustion engines (cars, trucks, trains, ships, planes, etc.) - It produces less pollutants than coal (including less GHG) but more than natural gas.

Four key hazardous substances of "major public health concern:"

- Mercury (Hg) - Lead (Pb) - Cadmium (Cd) - Dioxins and similar substances

THE EXTRACTIONOF COAL harms the miners and poisons and destroys the environment:

- Miners' are constantly exposed and fall victim to black lung disease (there are recent reports of an increase in black lung disease cases). - The coal extraction methodsdestroy natural habitats and landscapes and release pollutants that contaminate the air, water and soil: o SURFACE MINING including strip mining (more than 2/3 of all mines in the US are surface mines) is highly destructive of the landscape and ecosystems involved § In the US alone, 1.5 million acres have been devastated by surface mining (I million are abandoned mines, producing large abandoned swaths of lunar landscape); 1,000 additional acres are disturbed each week for mining purposes. o MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL (10% of mines in the US use this technique): § This mining method involves "blasting the top of mountains to get to the coal beneath it". § Pollutes waterways and drinking water with heavy metals, sulfuric acid and other mine contaminants. § Causes devastating effects on the ecosystems affected by the destruction, such as streams and the wildlife therein. § Forests are destroyed.

Anthropogenic sources of lead:

- Mining in general; zinc, silver and copper mining in particular; smelting and refining of metals; - lead is emitted in the air, water and soil during the extraction, processing and disposal of products or materials containing led. - About 50% of all lead produced is used in batteries.

key challenges of regulation of hazardous waste and toxic chemicals

- Multinational chemical industries are very large and influential: over the last six decades, the chemical industry has grown rapidly and has become a very influential actor at the domestic and international level: "global chemical output (produced and shipped) was valued at US$171 billion in 1970. By 2010, it had grown to $4.12 trillion." Chemical industries are important economic players and influential political actors. They tend to resist the imposition of environmental restrictions and limitations. - Too many chemicals are invented every year: There are simply too many chemicals already on the market and too many new ones entering the market each year. A report of the European Union mentions the existence of more than 140,000 chemicals on the market in 2012. - Testing these chemicals takes a long time and many resources: Government agencies do not have the resources to test all of these chemicals, thus very few chemicals are fully tested before production and sale. This is in large part due to the fact that the effects of each of these chemicals are very difficult to ascertain and demonstrate. The effects may manifest themselves only after years from the first exposure to the chemical. In addition, the risk of harm to the environment and human health from each chemical depends on too many variables: how the chemicals are used, where, at what temperature, in combination with which other chemicals, the type and duration of exposure, the age/health/size of the living organism (including people) exposed to them, etc.: "Of the tens of thousands of chemicals on the market, only a fraction has been thoroughly evaluated to determine their effects on human health and the environment." - Cooperation from the chemical industry is required: Given their limited resources, and the chemical industry's deep knowledge of their own chemicals, national and international regulators are necessarily dependent on the cooperation of the chemical industry to identify risks associated with chemical exposure. The governments and the IGOs need scientific data for each chemical that only the industry has or can assemble promptly. Chemical industries are not always very forthcoming with their data. They are concerned with protecting industrial secrets but also with revealing too much about their knowledge of the risks associated with certain chemicals. They fear such disclosures may be used against them in future law suits.

Energy Regime What are the main environmental issues tied to "energy"?

- Natural resource depletion (coal, oil, gas, water, land use and crops harvested as biofuels): o We need to extract less and use less of these resources. o We need to rely more on renewable energy sources that do not run the risk of running out in the short to medium term: nuclear energy, hydroelectric, wind, solar. o We need to develop more efficient technologies (engines, machinery, plants, etc. that use less energy) and more efficient sources of energy (that produce more energy with smaller amounts of energy source). - Environmental impact of energy source extractionand use: o Air pollution from the extraction (coal mining, oil and gas extraction including fracking, etc.) and combustion (transportation, power plants) of fossil fuel: § GHG emission (CO2, Methane, etc.) § Acid rain § PM (Particulate Matter), smog, etc. o Water pollution: § Oil spills, oil leaks; § Water contamination from coal, oil and gas extraction (including fracking); § Acid precipitation/deposition (from fuel combustion) in bodies of water; § Intensive use of water in coal power plants, fracking operations, etc. o Soil, water and air pollution/contamination from waste: § Coal ashes § Coal sludge from scrubbers/filters § Coal, oil and gas processing waste. o Ecosystem disruption and destruction: § Coal mining (strip mining, mountain top removal); § Oil and gas rigs (onshore and offshore), drilling equipment, oil and gas pipelines. § Oil exploration (sound burst techniques) that endanger marine fauna; § Hydroelectric power plants' disruption of ecosystems. o Landscape degradation and destruction: § Coal extraction (strip mining and mountaintop removal) § Intensive/large scale oil and gas operations o Geological instability caused by large scale fracking operations. - Workers' and nearby residents' health: o Coal mining (lung diseases afflicting miners, including black lung disease) o Diseases afflicting residents in areas where the air, water and soil are contaminated by nearby power plants, etc. no treaties for this regime - just information arguably the conventions dealing with pollution of fossil fuels

Sources and uses of PCDDs and PCDFs:

- Natural sources: PCDDs and PCDFs can be released through natural processes such as volcanic eruptions and forest fires. - Anthropogenic sources of PCDDs and PCDFs: o these two groups of substances are UNINTENDED BY-PRODUCTS of other activities. They are not intentionally produced or purchased and sold. **** o They are byproducts of the manufacturing of chlorinated herbicides and fertilizers **** ; the bleaching of paper pulp; burning wood, coal or oil; waste incineration; smelting. **** especially important for the exam

Consequences of lead exposure:

- Neurological disorders ****;blood, cardiovascular and gastrointestinal problems; chronic diseases such as anemia and headaches; miscarriage and other birth complications. **** especially important for the exam

Advantages of hydroelectric power, solar and wind energy:

- No GHG emissions, no pollutants released in the atmosphere. - Substantially no risk of depleting natural resources.

advantages of nuclear energy

- No serious risk of depletion of natural resources; - No GHG emissions or other air pollutant - Makes a country self-sufficient without resorting to importing fossil fuels - No landscape or marine environment destruction

The advantages of natural gas:

- No sulfur emissions or Particulate Matter - It only emits 60% of the GHG emitted by coal, and a little less than those emitted by oil.

FOUR KEY problems that hinder the further expansion of NUCLEAR POWER as an alternative to fossil fuels and renewable energy sources are:

- Nuclear weapon proliferation risk: The risk that the radioactive material (fissile material) may be used to build nuclear weapons instead of producing electricity - The extremely high economic costsof building new nuclear power plants or of fully refurbishing old ones. Very large investments are needed up front, though the regulatory approval process and the construction itself take many years. That is one of the reasons national governments have historically been so significantly involved in financing nuclear projects. - Safety concernswith respect to accidents and malfunctions but also terrorist or other criminal threats to power plant. The nuclear accidents in Three Mile Island (Pennsylvania, in 1979), Chernobyl (Ukraine, 1984) and Fukushima (Japan) in 2011, have re-ignited these concerns. o The nuclear meltdown at Three Mile Island, in Pennsylvania in 1979: 140,000 people evacuated for a few weeks. o The Chernobyl disaster of 1986 in the USSR: an explosion and release of large amounts of radioactivity caused large scale evacuations and about 30 dead (not counting longer term consequences); o The Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan, in March 2011. The earthquake and tsunami severely damaged the Japanese nuclear facilities in Fukushima causing the evacuation of 100,000 people. - Nuclear waste management problems: The impossibly complicated and enormously expensive task of storing and disposing nuclear waste is probably the key problem with nuclear energy. This is the ultimate example of NIMBY problem (not in my back yard). Radioactive material remains hazardous for many, many years. There are thousands of tons of highly radioactive waste temporarily stored around the world, waiting for a final disposal.

The debate over the mineral exploitation of Antarctica:

- One group of states (and multinationals) wants to keep mineral exploitation an open option for the future; - Another group of states wants to make Antarctica into a permanent natural reserve; - The compromise was the 1991 "PROTOCOL ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TO THE ANTARCTIC TREATY". The main provisions of the 1991 Protocol are: o Any activity regarding mineral resources must be for scientific research purposes only; o This restriction could be modified or lifted fifty years after the Protocol (in 2041) or through a special decision making procedure.

The four crises that are currently plaguing the OCEANS

- Overfishing - Ocean pollution and destruction of marine habitats - Aquatic invasive species that are causing the disappearance of preexisting species - Global warming/climate change

Water Protection Regime Treaties (6 treaties + soft law)

- RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands - Antarctic Treaty Systems: - Antarctic Treaty of 1959 - 1991 Environmental Protocol - stop fossil fuel exploration - 1982 UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea) - Conventions against ocean pollution o The London Convention on Marine Pollution from all sources; o The MARPOL Convention for the prevention of pollution from ships - Arctic Council and AEPS (Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy) - soft laws - OTHER conventions that are not specifically aimed at water protection but in part contribute to support the protection of freshwater and marine environments. Each of the following conventions contains some provisions that regulate and restrict (air and) water-polluting activities: o 1973 CITES (Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species); o 1992 UN Convention on Biodiversity; o 1994 UN Convention on Combating Desertification; o International Regime for the protection of Forests, which is based on several soft law documents. o UNFCCC and its protocols (Climate change)

High Seas: the water beyond the EEZ

- Res communis omnium --> common heritage of man

Deep sea bed: the sea bed beyond the continental shelf.

- Res communis omnium --> common heritage of man - The International Sea Bed Authority (ISA)has been created to facilitate and coordinate the exploitation of the deep sea bed in a sustainableandfairwar. The ISA established a system which is intended to allow countries who do not have the technological or financial capability to exploit the deep sea bed to share in some of the profits from its exploitation. The ISA and its mechanisms are still a work in progress.

Contiguous zone: up to 24 miles from the baseline

- Significant control by the coastal state, mostly as an aid to allow the coastal state to exercise enforcement actions over violators that have exited its territorial waters

Main renewable energy sources

- Solid biofuels: Wood, charcoal, animal waste (manure), municipal waste, plant remains; - Liquid biofuels: ethanol and biodiesel - HYDROELECTRIC POWER (dams, etc.): run-of-the-river and water impoundment (dams) variants - SOLAR ENERGY: solar heating (the solar panels heat water) and photovoltaic (the solar panels produce electricity) - WIND

The main arguments against a total ban on whaling (they are made by the VETO coalition comprising whale hunting countries):

- Sovereignty: the sovereign rights of the whaling countries should be respected; - Culture: whaling restrictions put at risk deeply rooted cultural traditions of entire whale hunting communities; and - Economic consequences: the economic wellbeing of coastal communities who are completely dependent on whale hunting should not be threatened by restrictions imposed by international bodies.

HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons: hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine and carbon)

- Substitutes for CFCs with less ozone depleting impact than CFCs - They also are greenhouse gases (contribute to global warming)

Endangered Species Regime Treaties (1)

- THE 1973 C.I.T.E.S. (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species - of Wild Fauna and Flora)

The 1994 UNCCD: UN Convention to Combat Desertification SIX KEY PROVISIONS of the UNCCD:

- The "Affected Parties" (i.e., the countries experiencing desertification and land degradation) must DEVELOP NATIONAL ACTION PLANS(NAPs) to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought, in accordance with criteria and priorities set out in the Convention and its annexes: o "The purpose of national action programmes is to identify the factors contributing to desertification and practical measures necessary to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought. .... National action programmes shall specify the respective roles of government, local communities and land users and the resources available and needed". UNCCD art. 10(1) and (2) - The Affected Parties must ensure the DIRECT INVOLVEMENT AND PARTICIPATION OF LOCAL POPULATION and communities in the development of the national action plans. The parties are to follow a "bottom-up" approach to planning. The UNCCD was one of the first global environmental conventions to make local community participation such an important priority. o "[The National Action Programmes shall] provide for effective participation at the local, national and regional levels of non-governmental organizations and local populations, both women and men, particularly resource users, including farmers and pastoralists and their representative organizations, in policy planning, decision-making, and implementation and review of national action programmes." UNCCD art. 10(2)(f) - WEALTHY COUNTRIES must provide "substantial financial resources" to developing countries to better fight desertification. - WEALTHY COUNTRIES must share technologywith developing countries to support their efforts. - AFRICA is a top priority: o "In implementing this Convention, the Parties shall give priority to affected African country Parties, in the light of the particular situation prevailing in that region, while not neglecting affected developing country Parties in other regions." UNCCD art. 7 - The COP (Conference of the Parties) IS THE SUPREME DECISION MAKING ORGAN of the Convention. COPs meet every two years and can make a variety of decisions, including the adoption of amendments to the Convention. The last COP (COP14 of the CCD) was held in New Delhi (India) in September 2019.

Air Pollution Mitigation Regime Treaties (2)

- The 1979 CLRTAP (long range air pollution) - The 1991 Canada-US Air Quality Agreement (aka Acid Rain Treaty between the US and Canada) Technically these treaties also apply to the air pollution regime: - The 1985 Vienna Convention and the 1987 Montreal Protocol (Ozone Layer) - The 1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) - The 1997 Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC - The 2015 Paris Climate Agreement - Hazardous waste and toxic substances conventions (Basel on Hazardous waste movement and trade, Rotterdam on PIC and Stockholm on POPs)

Hazardous Waste Regime Treaties (5)

- The 1989 Basel Convention on hazardous waste movement and disposal - The 1998 Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent (PIC) in the international trade of hazardous substances - The 2001 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - The 2013 Minamata Convention on Mercury - The WTO/GATT (the World Trade Organization and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) also addresses trade restrictions on chemicals and other substances for environmental and health reasons

The GLOBAL GOVERNANCE of climate change Key international treaties (MEAs):

- The 1992 UNFCCC (President H W Bush signed for the US; ratified by the US Senate) - The 1997 Kyoto Protocol (Pres. Clinton signed, the Senate refused to ratify; President George W Bush withdrew the US) - The 2015 Paris Climate Agreement (Pres. Barack Obama signed; no need for ratification)

THREE main problems with the implementation 1982 Moratorium:

- The Norwegian "reservation":In connection with the Convention (the ICRW), the Norwegian government added a "reservation" which, according to the Norwegians, grants them the right to substantially ignore the moratorium (while formally still complying with the other provisions of the ICRW). The Norwegian whalers continue to hunt whales commercially. Sometimes they top off their catch by adding whales allegedly hunted for "scientific research" purposes. Since the moratorium, the Norwegians have killed about 600 whales per year. - Japan abuses the "scientific research" loophole: Japan has exercised its rights under the exception for whale hunting "for purposes of scientific research" (the so-called Article VIII exception) to continue to hunt whales aggressively (minke whales especially). Japan has killed about 500 whales per year since the Moratorium, claiming it did so for scientific research purposes. - Iceland all but ignores the moratorium: Iceland quit the IWC in 1992 in protest over the renewal of the 1982 Moratorium, then rejoined in 2002 but essentially continues to hunt whales (about 50 per year).

The THREE KEY OBJECTIVES of the biodiversity regime and the CBD (from art. 1 of the CBD: "Objectives"): THE FOUR KEY OBLIGATIONS of the parties to the CBD (the obligations of the parties) are the following:

- The conservation of biological diversity - The sustainable use of its components - The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. - Develop and publish national strategies, plans and programs for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity (National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans: NBSAPs). The NBSAPs are "the principal instruments for implementing the Convention at the national level." - incorporate conservation and sustainable development concepts into the country's economic development policies. - Inventory and monitor biodiversity within the country. - Preserve indigenous conservation practices.

Exclusive economic zone (EEZ) (up to a maximum of 200 miles)

- The costal state does not have the same, very broad political/jurisdictional rights over the EEZ that apply to its territorial waters, but it has very broad commercial rights. The coastal state has the exclusive right to exploit the EEZ, including the sea (and all the creatures living in it, thus it has exclusive fishing rights) and the seabed (soil and subsoil, thus it can drill for oil and gas, mine for minerals, etc.).

Territorial waters: up to 12 miles from the "baseline" (low-tide watermark)

- The costal state has almost complete control/jurisdiction over its territorial waters Contiguous zone: up to 24 miles from the baseline - Significant control by the coastal state, mostly as an aid to allow the coastal state to exercise enforcement actions over violators that have exited its territorial waters

Continental shelf (up to the "drop" or shelf break), up to a maximum of 350 miles

- The costal state has the right to exploit the deep sea bed (no special right over the ocean waters)

A few BASIC FACTS about climate change: E - Anthropogenic factors are primary causes of climate change:

- The earth's climate and average temperatures are affected by natural and human-made (anthropogenic) causes. The maincauses of the climate changes seen in the past few decades are anthropogenic, i.e., human made, in particular the increase in greenhouse gas emissions (especially CO2) caused by fossil fuel combustion, farming/agriculture and other CO2 intensive activities. - Already a few years ago, even the key US government agency, the NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), confirmed that "it is extremely likely that human activities, especially emissions of greenhouse gases, are the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-twentieth century."

challenges of NATURAL RESOURCE PROTECTION regimes

- The economic and political interestsand therefore the priorities of the various countries are very different and this hinders cooperation and engenders conflict; - There tend to be disagreements about the appropriateness of the application of the precautionary principleto natural resource protection regimes; - Similar disagreements arise about the application of the CBDR principle(common but differentiated responsibilities): developed countries tend to resist the view that they are responsible for the poor management of natural resources in developing countries; - In many cases, the resources being protected are located within a state and that raises issues of (A) sovereigntyand (B)transboundary externalities(when activity or failure to act in one state harms others outside that state). How far can the international community go in restricting a state's rights to exploit or manage its own resources? Here are some examples of the difficult choice between sovereignty rights and the rights of the international community as a whole: o Should states have unlimited rights to harvest their forests even if the forests provide valuable ecosystem services to the entire world, such as harboring precious biodiversity or mitigating GHG emissions (acting as carbon sinks)? o Should states be under an obligation to responsibly manage their biodiversity because biodiversity loss harms the entire world (e.g., preempting the possibility of discovering new drugs or cures)? o Should individual states have unfettered control over endangered species inhabiting their territory, event though their extinction is a global concern? o Should the international community be able to impose its ethical perspective on selected countries with respect to the inhumane treatment of specific species of animals, such as whales, elephants or turtles? o The location of the natural resources to be protected creates particular complications. How do you protect resources: § That are exclusively located inside one country (sovereignty issue); § that straddle different countries or link faraway states (e.g., migratory species of birds and marine animals); § that are beyond the territorial boundaries of any state, in the so called "commons," such as the high seas and the resources located therein (res communis omnium).

A few BASIC FACTS about climate change: B - There is a strong correlation between atmospheric GHG concentrations and the expansion of industrialization and human production and consumption:

- The increase in CO2, N2O and CH4 concentrations in the atmosphere correlates very closely with the spread industrialization (18th-21stcentury) and, in particular, with the dramatic increase in the amount of fossil fuel extracted and used over the past 7 decades.

Problems associated with Solar

- The manufacturing of solar panels has a large carbon footprint - The solar panels are made of complex materials and substances that can pollute the environment when disposed of - Electricity production depends on there being the sun (production declines during cloudy weather and nighttime)

Problems associated with wind power

- The manufacturing of these giant wind mills has a large carbon footprint - The operation of the wind farms can cause harm to birds. - The production of electricity depends on there being wind.

The relationship between GHG, global warming and severe consequences

- The measurements so far carried out show that the global warming cannot be ascribed to an increase in solar radiation because the larger increases in temperature are recorded during colder months, at higher latitudes and during the night (when GHG capture the heat, preventing heat loss). This was the conclusion of the 2007 IPCC report. - Predictions: climate models suggest that given our very limited willingness/ability to slow down/reduce GHG emissions, temperatures are likely to rise more than the 2°C maximum allowed under the Paris Agreement. Estimates suggest increases in global average temperature between 1.8 and 4°C (3.2°F-7.2°F) by the year 2100. If these increases occur, the very large majority of climate scientists predict very severe consequences. (See, e.g., the most recent predictions in the IPCC's 2018 Special Report: the press release/summary is posted on Sakai).

key provisions of the Stockholm Convention

- The parties agree to share information confirming POPs and promote awareness as to the risks associated with them and the precautions necessary to minimize these risks; - The parties agree to classify POPs into 3 different categories, and apply different restrictions/requirements to the each set of POPs: o Annex A POPs: these are substantially banned. The prohibition applies to their production, use and trade. o Annex B: these are not fully banned but are restricted in their production and use. o Annex C: these are chemicals that are sometimes leaked/emitted/released unintentionally. For these, the parties are to: § Monitor the emissions and evaluate the consequences; § Develop substitutes for these dangerous chemicals.

A few BASIC FACTS about climate change: D - The planet is warming at an unusual rate

- The planet has been warming faster (global warming) over the past few decades than it ever did over at least the last 1,000 years. - the data shows an increase in average global temperatures of 0.8°C or 1.4 Fahrenheit since 1880 - the NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, which is part of the US Department of Commerce) ranks years based on average global temperatures: o it has been 41 years since we had a colder than average temperature (average over the 1976 to 2017 period); o during the eight years going from 2010 to 2017 we had the six warmest years on record o 2017 was a third warmest year on record (the second according to NASA) o temperatures over the past 40 years have been the highest in over 2000 years.

The whaling regime is an example of the substantial transformation and "strengthening" that a global environmental regime can go through

- The whaling regime is anchored by a 1946 global convention, the ICRW (International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling). The ICRW was originally meant to maximize the benefits for the whaling nations, by facilitating coordination among them. The members agreed to limit their annual catch in order to preserve the whale stock. Initially, the whaling regime only imposed weak and very generous limitations on whaling. The priority was to facilitate the rational, long term exploitation of the resource. - In the 1970s the regime changed into one principally aimed at conservation through the imposition of stricter limits on whale hunting. - In 1982, the parties to the ICRW passed a GLOBAL MORATORIUM ON COMMERCIAL WHALING (which came into force in 1986). - In 1994, the parties established a SOUTHERN OCEAN SANCTUARY which further restricted whale hunting in the Antarctic.

Climate Change Regime Treaties (3)

- UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) - Kyoto Protocol - Paris Climate Agreement (know how the Copenhagen Accord relates to this and how they it is built off of it AND know the key provisions - articles)

CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons: compounds of chorine, fluorine and carbon)

- Used in air conditioning, refrigeration, foams, aerosol products - These are among the most powerful ODS - They also act as greenhouse gases (contribute to global warming)

THREE ADDITIONAL AIR POLLUTANTSthat are a threat to human health and the environment and which the EPA has been monitoring closely include.

- Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) - Mercury (Hg) - Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Natural sources of Cadmium:

- Volcanic eruptions and rock erosion.

Natural sources of lead:

- Volcanic eruptions and soil erosion; given the higher quantity of lead in the soil from human activities, the reemission of lead can carry high concentrations of the heavy metal.

Naturalsources of mercury releases are:

- Volcanic eruptions; - Reemissions, i.e., the dispersal into the air (for example by forest fires) of mercury that had deposited in water or soil.

key GREENHOUSE GASES that contribute to the greenhouse effect

- Water vapor - CO2 Carbon Dioxide - CH4 Methane - N2O Nitrous Oxide - CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) and other fluorinated gases

The main arguments in favor of a total ban on whaling (made by the LEAD states who oppose whale hunting):

- Whales are special: The whale is a very special animal which recent research shows is endowed with peculiar sensitivity, intelligence, memory and social behavior. - Whales are endangered: Whale hunting is threatening the survival of entre species of whales such as the blue whale, the largest animal ever to live on this earth. - Biodiversity loss: The loss of biodiversity that accompanies the decline in whale populations is a global concern. - The brutality of the killing: whales are killed in very brutal ways that offend our ethical principles as well as basic principles of respect for the living beings we share this planet with. - No substantial economic benefit: Any economic benefits from whale hunting are small and limited to a very small group of businesses and workers, while the biodiversity loss it causes and the ethical issues it raises are more serious.

The current status of the whaling regime - The key arguments made by Japan:

- Whales should be managed just like any other living marine resource. "Conservation" makes sense, but preservation, i.e., banning whale hunting altogether goes too far; - Opposition to whaling is contrary to the purpose of the ICRW. Among the ICRW's purposes is "the orderly development of the whaling industry," not its abolition; - The Antarctic Sanctuary restriction is invalid because it has been adopted without the benefit of a scientific report from the IWC Scientific Committee.

Major highlights of the Minamata Convention

- a ban on new mercury mines, [and] the phase-out of existing ones, - the phase out and phase down of mercury use in a number of products and processes, - control measures on emissions to air and on releases to land and water, and - the regulation of the informal sector of artisanal and small-scale gold mining. The Convention also addresses interim storage of mercury and its disposal once it becomes waste, sites contaminated by mercury as well as health issues."

Fossil fuels are still by farthe preferred source of energy for:

- electricity generation (primarily coal and gas-fired power plants) and - transportation (on land, sea and air)

How much does each GHG affect global warming? This depends on THREE FACTORS:

- how much of it is in the atmosphere (concentration levels)? - how long does it persist in the atmosphere? - How strong is its global warming potential (GWP)?

Disadvantages of Oil:

- it produces GHG when burned (approximately 85% of the CO2 produced by coal) as well as other harmful pollutants such as sulfur and traces of toxic metals (arsenic, mercury, lead), though it can be refined to lower sulfur content (more expensive process) - Leaks and oil spills cause large scale and long lasting environmental damage; - "Continuous" soil and water contamination from runoff from land and rivers, small boats and personal watercraft, etc. - Offshore exploration (hunting for oil under the seabed) is carried out through very disruptive techniques. Deep penetration seismic air guns and high frequency sound waves are routinely used on large swaths of ocean for days on end. The marine ecosystem is severely affected, fish and marine mammal populations distressed and disoriented, etc. - Oil extraction also releases some natural gas into the atmosphere. Methane (CH4) is a very powerful greenhouse gas. Most of it is eventually flared but the flaring also contributes to GHG emissions. - The refining process involves contamination/leak/accident risks in order to produce the various final products of crude oil: gasoline, diesel fuel, kerosene, tar, etc.

Consequences of exposure to cadmium:

- kidney damage and other possible ailments including lung and cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis

Fresh water scarcity and pollution

- there is very little of it. Less than 3% of all the water in our planet is freshwater. The rest is saltwater. And more than two thirds of all freshwater is in frozen form. - Climate change is a key contributor to water scarcity o Water scarcity is affecting our rivers, glaciers, lakes and aquifers. o The accelerated melting of glaciers means loss of frozen fresh water that flows into the ocean becoming saltwater - Pollution contributes to water scarcity as contaminated fresh water cannot be used in that state for most purposes: o agricultural runoff washing pesticides and fertilizers and depositing them in rivers and lakes; o fertilizers, pesticides, other toxic and waste residues percolating into the underground aquifers o air carried pollutants deposited in lakes, rivers, etc.

THREE unique aspects to the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD)

A - One could say that the CCD is both an economic developmentand an environmental treaty: - The CCD very openly promotes sustainable economic development and the fight against poverty, while also supporting environmental protection. The very close association between poverty and desertification is emphasized. B - The CCD is very advanced in terms of democratic legitimacy: - It adopts a decentralized approach to decision-making and promotes the participation of local communities including indigenous communities; - It takes into consideration "traditional knowledge" (as well as scientific knowledge) in addressing desertification and its possible causes and solutions and in preparing NAPs (National Action Plans); - It encourages and facilitates large participation by NGOs in the decision-making process: it sets aside funds to support their participation in international meetings (500 civil society organizations have observer status); C - The UN CCD has a very active "interventionist" secretariat: - the CCD's Secretariat, based in Bonn (Germany) takes a very active role in negotiation, promoting novel issues, and in supporting the sustainable economic development agenda. This distinguishes it from other Secretariats who take a more passive, purely administrative approach.

The CLRTAP Convention and its achievements

A common framework for transboundary cooperation on air pollution The Convention has substantially contributed to the development of international environmental law and has created the essential framework for controlling and reducing the damage to human health and the environment caused by transboundary air pollution. It is a successful example of what can be achieved through intergovernmental cooperation. Emission reductions - The result of this collective effort has been remarkable: emissions of a series of harmful substances have been reduced by 40 to 80% since 1990 in Europe.

GREENHOUSE EFFECT

Among the principal causes of global warming (in particular) and climate change (in general) are "GREENHOUSE GASES" (GHG). These are gases that trap the sun's energy and warm the atmosphere. As the concentration of these GHG (greenhouse gases) increases, so does the global warming effect. We use the term "GREENHOUSE EFFECT" because this phenomenon roughly reminds us of the warming that occurs in a greenhouse exposed to sunlight. The greenhouse effect is where certain gases, including carbon dioxide, water vapor, etc., absorb most of the Earth's outgoing infrared radiation and reemits a portion of the absorbed radiation in IR downward warming Earth's surface. This keeps the planet warm, if not for the greenhouse effect the average temperature of the Earth's surface would be 59°F colder.

Ozone Depletion Regime

Arguably the most successful environmental regime. Focused on the protection of the ozone by removing sources of Ozone Depleting Substances (ODSs) The Ozone Layer protection regime has been very successful so far, in part thanks to the expansion and strengthening of the regime through the FOUR important amendments that were agreed to during the MOPs (Meetings of Parties) that came after the Montreal Protocol. These amendments include new restrictions on new Ozone Depleting Substances (ODSs).

The current status of the whaling regime:

Aside from a handful of countries, whale hunting has been abandoned all over the world. The ICRW has been transformed from a commercial treaty to promote the orderly exploitation of whale stocks to a global convention aimed at conservation and environmental protection. Japan has repeatedly threatened to leave the ICW. Finally, in 2018, Japan announced its decision to leave the IWC and resume commercial whaling starting July 2019. Japan's decision to leave the ICRW and the IWC is a big blow to the international whaling regime.

The 1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (aka the 1973 CITES)

CITES was signed in the US (in Washington, DC) in 1973, during the NIXON ADMINISTRATION. CITES also works as the key component of an "umbrella regime" with several sub-agreements covering specific species or groups of species. The business of illegally capturing, killing and trading endangered species is a very large one and is estimated at more than $100 billion per year. Hundreds of millions of plants and animal specimen are illegally traded each year. The number of species involved is estimated at 5,600 species of animals and 30,000 species of plants. A very large part of the international trade of endangered species is concerned with illegal logging and illegal fishing.

Carbon dioxide - affect as a GHG

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the primary greenhouse gas emitted through human activities. In 2016, CO2 accounted for about 81.6% of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions from human activities. Carbon dioxide is naturally present in the atmosphere as part of the Earth's carbon cycle (the natural circulation of carbon among the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants, and animals). Human activities are altering the carbon cycle-both by adding more CO2 to the atmosphere and by influencing the ability of natural sinks, like forests, to remove CO2 from the atmosphere. While CO2 emissions come from a variety of natural sources, human-related emissions are responsible for the increase that has occurred in the atmosphere since the industrial revolution.

main ANTHROPOGENIC sources of the key GHG Carbon dioxide (CO2):

Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil), solid waste, trees and wood products, and also as a result of certain chemical reactions (e.g., manufacture of cement). Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere (or "sequestered") when it is absorbed by plants as part of the biological carbon cycle.

Carbon dioxide and the anthropocene sources and sinks

Carbon dioxide is constantly being exchanged among the atmosphere, ocean, and land surface as it is both produced and absorbed by many microorganisms, plants, and animals. However, emissions and removal of CO2 by these natural processes tend to balance. Since the Industrial Revolution began around 1750, human activities have contributed substantially to climate change by adding CO2 and other heat-trapping gases to the atmosphere. In the United States, since 1990, the management of forests and other land has acted as a net sink of CO2, which means that more CO2 is removed from the atmosphere, and stored in plants and trees, than is emitted. This carbon sink offset is about 12 percent of total emissions in 2016 and is discussed in more detail in the Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry section.

ADAPTATION IS ADDED TO MITIGATION AS A GLOBAL GOAL - articles 2(1)(b), 7(1) and 7(2)

Climate change "mitigation" means to slow down and eventually prevent climate change from happening, usually through a reduction of GHG emissions. Adaptation refers to minimizing the consequences of climate change by preparing ourselves to deal with them in the most effective way. Improving "adaptation" means to "increase the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and foster climate resilience" In Paris, the addition of a specific focus on "adaptation" was strongly advocated by developing countries. Adaptation policies too are subject to the five year reporting and review requirement. The parties agree to assist and support the developing countries' adaptation efforts, assist with information, advice, technology as well as financially. This commitment makes reference to the 2013 Warsaw International Mechanism for "loss and damage from climate change": "At COP19(November 2013) in Warsaw, Poland, the COP established the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts (Loss and Damage Mechanism), to address loss and damage associated with impacts of climate change, including extreme events and slow onset events, in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change."

III - The consequences of climate change

Climate change is already producing visible consequences. As climate change increases in intensity, it is expected that these consequences will become more severe. Among the effects of climate change are: - Melting of glaciers, sea level rise; inundation of coastal areas and low lands, especially in developing countries. - Ecological disruption and urban dislocations from coastal flooding. - Desertification and deforestation from temperature and weather pattern disruptions. - Agricultural production disruption, food scarcity and related societal impacts. - Extreme weather patterns of increasing frequency and severity.

I - WHAT IS CLIMATE CHANGE?

Climate change refers to the variability of the mean state of the climate persisting for an extended period of 30 years or more. - It is different from the WEATHER, which is here and now. Climate change refers to significant changes in weather patterns (temperature, humidity, winds, rainfall, etc.) over a period of years and decades and usually over large regions or the entire globe. - One aspect of climate change is GLOBAL WARMING: the rising temperature of oceans, the land mass and the atmosphere. - Other aspects of climate change include changing patterns in PRECIPITATION and in the FREQUENCY AND ENERGY OF EXTREME WEATHER.

The main uses of coal:

Coal is used primarily to: - produce heat and cook in domestic environments, - produce electricity in coal-fired power plants and, - to produce steel by combining it with iron.

Whale and Dolphin Conservation (WDC):

Commercial whaling is banned. Yet every year, Japan, Norway, and Iceland kill around 1,500 whales. Over 100,000 dolphins, small whales, and porpoises (small cetaceans) are killed in drive hunts each year.

Why are small cetaceans killed in drive hunts?

Despite it being illegal in most countries, over 56 species of dolphins, porpoises and other small whales are killed in over 40 countries across the globe. They are killed for food, their body parts, and to be used as bait in other fisheries . Arguably the most notorious and bloody hunts take place in Taiji, Japan and the Faroe Islands where dolphins and small whales are driven onto beaches or into coves, before being slaughtered., In Taiji, some of the young animals are removed and sold into a life in captivity. The Taiji hunt and the method of slaughter is so controversial that the hunters set up a curtain across the shoreline to hide their activities from the public.

FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE TO DEVELOPING COUNTRIES - articles 2(1)(c), 4(5), 9(1).

Developed countries agree to raise funds to be used starting in 2025 to support climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts of developing countries (articles 2(1)(c), 4(5), 9(1). All countries are encouraged to add their contributions to the extent they have the capacity.

B - Implementing the CITES restrictions at the national level:

Each member state has to adopt domestic laws and regulations necessary to achieve the objectives of CITES. In particular each state has to establish two bodies: - The Management Authority: issues the trade permits for the regulated species on the basis of the advise received from the Scientific Authority; and - The Scientific Authority: monitors the relevant species and advises the Management Authority.

main sources of CO2emissions in the United States

Electricity. Electricity is a significant source of energy in the United States and is used to power homes, business, and industry. In 2016 the combustion of fossil fuels to generate electricity was the largest single source of CO2 emissions in the nation, accounting for about 34 percent of total U.S. CO2 emissions and 28 percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. The type of fossil fuel used to generate electricity will emit different amounts of CO2. To produce a given amount of electricity, burning coal will produce more CO2 than oil or natural gas. Transportation. The combustion of fossil fuels such as gasoline and diesel to transport people and goods was the second largest source of CO2 emissions in 2016, accounting for about 34 percent of total U.S. CO2 emissions and 27 percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. This category includes transportation sources such as highway vehicles, air travel, marine transportation, and rail. Industry. Many industrial processes emit CO2 through fossil fuel combustion. Several processes also produce CO2 emissions through chemical reactions that do not involve combustion; for example, the production and consumption of mineral products such as cement, the production of metals such as iron and steel, and the production of chemicals. Fossil fuel combustion from various industrial processes accounted for about 15 percent of total U.S. CO2 emissions and 12 percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2016. Note that many industrial processes also use electricity and therefore indirectly cause the emissions from the electricity production.

THE INTERNATIONAL FOREST PROTECTION REGIME

Even in the absence of a legally binding global convention on forests, there is an international regime on forest protection. It is not anchored to a legally binding global convention for the protection of forests but it does include a variety of soft laws, commodity trade agreements, IGOs and other actors that contribute to regulate what states and other actors do with respect to forests and their conservation.

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CONTAMINATION OF WATER:

Examples of chemical and physical water pollutants include: - Lead, arsenic, mercury - Acid deposition (acid rain) - Acid from underground mine drainage - Synthetic organic compounds (fertilizers, pesticides, electronic waste PCBs, etc.) - Solid waste, sediment and heat pollution - Oil pollution

The 1992 Rio Earth Summit (UNCED - UN Conference on Environment and Development)

FIVE IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS were agreed to at the Rio Earth Summit of 1992: two Global Conventions and three soft law documents: - the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC); - the 1992 UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD); - the Rio Declaration on the Environment and Development; - "Agenda 21" (an Agenda for the 21stcentury); - the Rio Declaration on Forest Principles. The 1992 Earth Summit also prepared the way for the negotiation and signing - 2 years later - of the United Nations Convention to Counter Desertification (UNCCD). The participants in the Rio Summit included the "desertification" issue in Agenda 21 and agreed to start negotiations for a global convention asap. These negotiations ended in 1994 with the signing of the UNCCD.

"good" ozone

Good ozone, aka STRATOSPHERIC OZONE, exists at approximately 16 to 30 km of altitude, in a layer located in the stratosphere. o This ozone is essential for the wellbeing of the planet. The stratospheric ozone layer creates a protective shield that stops substantially all of the sun's high-energy, ultraviolet radiation (UV-C and UV-B). This radiation is harmful to humans, plants and animals. o Humans manufacture a variety of gases that, once they reach the stratosphere, contribute to destroying the ozone layer. Among these Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) are: CFCs, HCFCs, Halons, Bromides. These substances were or are used in the manufacture of air and water coolant machinery (air conditioning, refrigerators, etc.), aerosol products, fire fighting compounds, etc.

main ANTHROPOGENIC sources of the key GHG Fluorinated gases:

Hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride are synthetic, powerful greenhouse gases that are emitted from a variety of industrial processes. Fluorinated gases are sometimes used as substitutes for stratospheric ozone-depleting substances (e.g., chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons). These gases are typically emitted in smaller quantities, but because they are potent greenhouse gases, they are sometimes referred to as High Global Warming Potential gases ("High GWP gases").

FOUR key questions about Climate Change

I - What is climate change? II - What are its causes? III - What are the consequences? IV - What is Global Environmental Politics doing to address the problem (climate change governance)?

Emotions run deep in the debate over Whaling

ICRW member states have very strong views about whaling. Those who want to ban it completely include the European Union, the US, Australia and New Zealand (LEAD states). Those who oppose a total ban on whaling (the VETO coalition) are led by Japan, Norway and Iceland. Often, the main arguments at meetings of the International Whaling Commission (IWC) barely touch on science and instead center on profound philosophical, ethical and cultural disagreements. This makes agreement and compromise difficult.

The 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW)

In 1946, a convention on the regulation of whaling was agreed among a small group of countries, mostly involved in whale hunting. The Convention (ICRW), which is still in force today, does mention conservation as one of its goals. Originally however, the ICRW and the International Whaling Commission (IWC which is the Convention's ruling body) served a "club" for whaling nations who were trying to regulate the whaling industry in ways that would maximize the profitability and long term survival of the business. The Preamble to the ICRW specifically states that the Convention is designed "to provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks and thus make possible the orderly development of the whaling industry."

The GLOBAL GOVERNANCE of climate change The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change):

In 1988, the IPCC was formed under the auspices of the UNEP (UN Environment Programme) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). The IPCC includes hundreds of world-renowned scientists. The IPCC is the single most competent, authoritative and representative global scientific organization dealing with climate change issues. It is the most respected (by scientists worldwide) source of scientific information concerning the problem. The IPCC does not carry out original scientific research. The IPCC collects and analyzes data and peer-reviewed research carried out by the scientific community. The IPCC collates and organizes the vast volume of research carried out by thousands of climate scientists and publishes climate change reports based on it. The main, full-blown reports are published every five to eight years. The first of these "Assessment Reports" (First Assessment Report, or FAR) was published in 1990. The last full-blown report so far was the Fifth assessment report, published in 2014. The IPCC also publishes "special reports" on specific climate change issues. One such special reports was published in 2018. The IPCC's 2018 "special report" assessed the likely consequences of a small increase in temperature (1.5°C) over the average temperature of the pre-industrial era. The small island states, who are the most immediately exposed to the consequences of global warming (sea level rise, flooding, etc.), where among those who promoted the idea of a report that would focus on smaller temperature increases. The report is titled: - Global Warming of 1.5 °C: an IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty. The IPCC reports are meant for the general publicand for policymakers. Reports usually come with a "Summary for Policymakers." The reports describe the current situation and the most recent scientific findings, present forecasts about how conditions will develop over the coming century, and propose mitigation and adaptation solutions. - "The IPCC was created to provide policymakers with regular scientific assessments on climate change, its implications and potential future risks, as well as to put forward adaptation and mitigation options." By laying out a broadly shared scientific basis, IPCC's reports facilitate public debate and democratic participationon an issue as vital as climate change.

Whaling "Regime Transformation" starts in the late 1960s and 1970s

In the US, the late 1960s and early 1970s are years of great environmental awakening. In the US, the 1969 Endangered Species Act is substantially rewritten and expanded under the Nixon Administration in 1973. The US declares 8 species of whale endangered. At the UN Conference for the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972, the US presses the other countries to adopt a global, immediate moratorium on commercial whaling. Lots of countries support the idea, but the proposal is defeated in the IWC "club," by a vote of 6 against, 4 for (with 4 abstained). Several pro-whale-ban countries, led by the US, decide to join the ICRW and the IWC so as to garner a majority of the votes there to support a ban on whaling. The pro-ban states(i.e., LEAD states) engage the VETO statesin a drawn out battle for the necessary votes in the IWC. - Pro ban/lead states: the US and the EU, joined by Australia and New Zealand; - Veto states: Japan, Norway, Iceland, the three leading whale hunting countries. The two coalitions systematically engage in aggressive lobbying of other states. In 1982 the lead states succeed in assembling a majority of the votes in the International Whaling Commission (IWC) and they pass a five-year GLOBAL MORATORIUM ON COMMERCIAL WHALING that takes effect in 1985/86 and has been renewed several times since. The Moratorium is still in force today.

THE ARCTIC (NORTH POLE REGION):

It is made of permanent ice, temporary ice, some small islands and seawater. There is no treaty equivalent to the one for Antarctica (see below). Parts of the Arctic are deemed to be outside the jurisdiction of any country and are thus considered res communis omnium, and part of the high seas. Most of the arctic, however, falls under some sort of national jurisdiction as part of the EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone) of Arctic coastal states such as Russia, Denmark (Greenland is part of Denmark), the United States (Alaska), Canada, Scandinavian countries.

The Basel Convention was a step forward but left some issues unresolved:

It left a large loophole for the shipment of waste marked as "recyclable": - the RECYCLING LOOPHOLE of article 4(9)(b) can be easily abused. Would be violators tend to claim that the materials they are shipping are meant for recycling even when they are not. - Distinguishing between recyclable and non-recyclable waste is sometimes very difficult. - Even if waste is truly meant for recycling, the problem is simply postponed by a few months or one or two years. The planned obsolescence of modern electronic products guarantees that the "recyclable" e-waste will end up in a developing country's landfill soon thereafter.

Was the 2015 Paris Climate Change Agreement an important accomplishment?

It was "A monumental triumph for people and our planet" according to UN Secretary General Ban Ki Moon.

anti-ban/Veto states

Japan, Norway, Iceland, the three leading whale hunting countries.

The main provisions of the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement

LIMITING TEMPERATURE INCREASES - article 2(1)(a) Longer term objectives (GHG emission reductions): articles 4(1) and 4(19) VOLUNTARY PLEDGES (NDCs): articles 4(2) and 4(9) THE RATCHET MECHANISM OF THE "PLEDGE AND REVIEW" APPROACH: articles 3 and 4(3) ALL STATES ARE INVOLVED, INCLUDING DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: articles 2(2) and 4(4) ADAPTATION IS ADDED TO MITIGATION AS A GLOBAL GOAL - articles 2(1)(b), 7(1) and 7(2) FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE TO DEVELOPING COUNTRIES - articles 2(1)(c), 4(5), 9(1). NO RESERVATIONS allowed - art. 27 WITHDRAWAL - articles 28(1) and 28(2)

A - Listing endangered species and banning/restricting their trade:

Member states elaborate three Appendixes in which species are categorized according to their risk of extinction and are subject to different types of restrictions. In order to be added to Appendix 1 or 2, a species must be approved by the COP (Conference of Parties): o Appendix 1: species threatened with extinction. These species are subject to a trade ban. There are limited exceptions for scientific, cultural or other uses. Often these exceptions to the global bans are limited to specific countries and are valid for limited amounts of time. o Appendix 2: species that are not in danger of extinction but require protection. Appendix 2 species must be specifically approved by the relevant national "Scientific Authority" (see below) before their export is allowed. o Appendix 3: contains species that are listed voluntarily by states (no COP approval required) who seek the cooperation of other states in regulating the international trade of that species.

Mercury (Hg)

Mercury is a highly toxic chemical and causes significant harm to the environment and to human health. 5,000 to 8,000 tons of Mercury are released in the air, water and soil each year. 30% of all mercury released is from human activity.

main ANTHROPOGENIC sources of the key GHG Methane (CH4):

Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions also result from livestock and other agricultural practices and by the decay of organic waste in municipal solid waste landfills.

The MONTREAL PROTOCOL of 1987

More scientific data about Ozone Depleting Substances became available immediately after the signing of the Vienna Convention. The causal nexus between certain substances and the depletion of the ozone layer became clearer, though still not 100% certain (thus, once again, the Precautionary Principle was applied). The additional findings convinced the parties to the Vienna Convention to meet again and sign a "Protocol" to the Vienna Convention, which we now call the 1987 Montreal Protocol. It contains specific obligations and timetables for the regulation of a few ODS (Ozone Depleting Substances). Among these obligations, is the commitment by all parties to reduce their reliance on CFCs and Halons. Wealthy countries would reduce CFCs and Halons by 50% by the year 2000, while developing countries were given more time.

Oils spills:

Oil spills often serve as a visually powerful reminder of the harm we inflict on our planet. After a major oil spill we usually witness an increase in environmental sensitivity on the part of the public and, consequently, a surge of environmental initiatives by policymakers: - 1969: Santa Barbara, oil rig blowout, 11 million liters of oil spilled into the ocean. - 1989: Exxon Valdez oil tanker runs aground in Prince Williams Sound, Alaska, 42 million liters. - 2010: BP Deepwater Horizon, oil rig blowout, Gulf of Mexico, 780 million liters.

II - WHAT ARE THE CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE?

One of the key causes is the GREENHOUSE EFFECT Each gas's effect on climate change depends on THREE MAIN FACTORS

Persistent organic pollutants

PCDDs, PCDFs and PCBs are examples of "PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS" (POPs). POPs are hazardous compounds that, once absorbed, persist in the body and remain in the atmosphere for long periods of time. That also allows them to travel long distances. POPs bio-magnify throughout the food chain and bio-accumulate in organisms. The highest concentrations of POPs are thus found in organisms at the top of the food chain. Consequently, background levels of POPs can be found in the human body.

The Key obligation of the Cartagena Protocol is:

Parties are to take precautionary measures to prevent Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) from causing harm to human health and the environment.

The evidence of climate change and its correlation with increased levels of GHG (greenhouse gases)

Read EES carefully at pages 345-346: - Describe the IPCC and explain what it does. - The temperature data, including KEELING's first observations, starting in the 1950s. - The reasons for the seasonal variations in CO2 concentrations: see page 346. Data shows a clear, upward trend in global average temperature due to (i) increased emissions from fossil fuel combustion and (ii) increased destruction of forests and other vegetation (which would have absorbed part of the excess CO2). The different experience and responsibilities of wealthy and developing countries with respect to GHG emissions. (see page 346 of EES)

main components of the Forest Protection Regime

THERE IS NO LEGALLY BINDING TREATY regarding the protection and sustainable management of forests BUT..... there are soft laws and other types of agreements - The 1992 Rio Forest Principles: The parties subscribed to a document with a very long title: "Non-Legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of All Types of Forests", aka as the Rio Forest Principles - Agenda 21: The Chapter 11 (titled "Combating Deforestation") of the Agenda for the 21stCentury (aka Agenda 21). - SDG 15: This goal sets a series of targets to improve forest management, protect biodiversity and combat desertification - ITTA (International Tropical Timber Agreement): a commercial agreement among producers and importers of tropical timber. it is legally binding (it is an international treaty) but not an "environmental" treaty, it is not an MEA. It is primarily a commercial agreement among states that produce or import tropical timber, aimed at supporting and expanding the industry and facilitate the international trade of tropical timber. - 2007 UN General Assembly Resolution: It is a UN General Assembly Resolution and, as such, is not legally binding but has significant influence on states' behavior. It is a soft law instrument that addresses forest management and conservation, setting long term goals and standards of behavior. - IAF (International Arrangement on Forests): This is the collective name given to a set of agreements and organizations, sponsored by the UN, dealing with forest conservation and management: - UN Forum on Forests (UNFF): to facilitate meeting, sharing of information, negotiation and coordination among states - non-forest specific global conventions: Many global environmental conventions (MEAs) such as the ones on Biodiversity (CBD), on endangered species (CITES), on climate change (UNFCCC), on desertification (UNCCD) contain provisions that are relevant to forest management and conservation - REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation): It is a system agreed to by the states who have signed and ratified the UNFCCC. This mechanism creates economic incentives for developing countries to preserve forests and manage them sustainably: "The basic concept is simple: governments, companies or forest owners in the South should be rewarded for keeping their forests instead of cutting them." (from red-monitor.org)

The CLRTAP of 1979 (convention on long-range transboundary air pollution) aka "Air Pollution Convention".

The 1979 CLRTAP has been in force since 1983. It is an important regional - quasi-global - environmental convention (it does not cover the southern hemisphere). It has been ratified by most states of EUROPE and NORTH AMERICA. The CLRTAP has been updated and strengthened by EIGHT PROTOCOLS, each of which added new compounds/substances to the list of restricted air pollutants (e.g., sulfur emissions, nitrogen oxides, Volatile Organic Compounds, etc.).

Limitations imposed by the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW)

The 1982 Moratorium substantially outlawed any commercial (i.e., for- profit) whale hunting and allowed limited whale hunting for research purposes. It was voted and approved by the IWC in 1982 and came into effect in 1985/1986. Here are some of the key terms of the 1982 Moratorium: - It was meant to remain in force for 5 years. It has been renewed several times since and is still in force today; - It banned all forms of for-profit/commercial whaling; - It allowed limited whaling for scientific purposes( loophole that will cause a lot of heartache, bad blood and arguments); - Allowed limited whaling if carried out by specifically identified indigenous communities("Aborigine Subsistence Whaling" or ABS):

The Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Agreement (SPS Agreement)

The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (the "SPS Agreement") entered into force with the establishment of the World Trade Organization on 1 January 1995. It concerns the application of food safety and animal and plant health regulations.

THE ANTARCTIC (SOUTH POLE REGION)

The Antarctic is located in the SOUTH pole and is made of a large continent (land) covered by ice, temporary ice and permanent ice, some of it expanding past the edges of the continent. There are several claims of sovereignty over Antarctica: - Three partially competing claims by the UK, Argentina and Chile; - Other claims: France, Australia, New Zealand and Norway.

Further strengthening the international whaling regime:

The Antarctic whale sanctuary (aka SOS, or Southern Ocean Sanctuary) Australia sues Japan at the ICJ (World Court) and wins 2014 more rigorous standards for "research" whaling

The Arctic Council and the AEPS

The Arctic Council was created in 1996 to implement the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS) that was agreed a few years earlier (1991) by eight Arctic coastal states. These states had a particular interest in managing the economic and political rivalries over the region as well as exploiting its resources in a sustainable way. The Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS) is NOT A LEGALLY BINDING ENVI CONVENTION. It does create a set of standards of behavior designed to guide the member states to achieve several shared goals including the following: - Protect the marine environment and the arctic ecosystem; - Restore environmental quality while engaging in the sustainable utilization of resources; - Protect to the extent possible the interests of indigenous people; - Closely monitoring the state of the arctic environment; - Reducing and eventually eliminating air and water pollution of the Arctic. The Arctic Council is a "FORUM" that facilitates cooperation among member states in order to achieve the goals described above. It is a high level intergovernmental forum where state representatives can share information and technology, discuss issues, propose solutions, agree to take measures to reduce pollution, banning the use and or release of certain dangerous chemicals, to create protected areas, etc.

The 1991 Canada-United States Air Quality Agreement (aka Acid Rain Treaty):

The Canada-United States Air Quality Agreement was signed by Canada and the United States in 1991, to address transboundary air pollution leading to acid rain. Both countries agreed to reduce emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), the primary precursors to acid rain, and to work together on acid rain related scientific and technical cooperation. The Ozone Annex was added to the Canada-United States Air Quality Agreement (December 2000) to address the transboundary air pollution leading to high air quality levels of ground-level ozone, a major component of smog. Bi-lateral agreement (btwn 2 countries/parties: the US and Canada)

Cadmium (Cd)

The European Chemical Agency admitted that knowledge about the health and environmental risks associated with the extraction, processing, use and disposal of cadmium were known more than 25 years ago but that authorities have been slow in taking action. It recommends seeking alternatives to cadmium.

The lesson of the Kyoto protocol on the Paris Agreement

The Kyoto Protocol had aimed at stricter obligations, hoping to achieve "greater impact" that way, but ultimately became less "inclusive" - The US signed under President Clinton and VP Gore, but the US Senate did not ratify; eventually President George W Bush pulled out; - Canada failed to meet its emission reduction target and then pulled out; - Russia and Japan refused to extend their participation in future emission reductions; - With so many defections, the countries now bound by and in compliance with the Kyoto Protocol only cover 15% of global emissions.

The Technical Barriers to Trade Agreement (TBT)

The Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Agreement aims to ensure that technical regulations, standards, and conformity assessment procedures are non-discriminatory and do not create unnecessary obstacles to trade. At the same time, it recognises WTO members' right to implement measures to achieve legitimate policy objectives, such as the protection of human health and safety, or protection of the environment. The TBT Agreement strongly encourages members to base their measures on international standards as a means to facilitate trade. Through its transparency provisions, it also aims to create a predictable trading environment. The Technical Barriers to Trade Agreement (TBT) tries to ensure that regulations, standards, testing and certification procedures do not create unnecessary obstacles.

1982 UN CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF THE SEA (UNCLOS)

The UNCLOS is the most important global convention regulating access to and use of the sea. Among other things, the UNCLOS recognizes the twin obligations of: - "CONSERVATION OF MARINE RESOURCES" and - "PROTECTION OF THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT." These two obligations apply to all signatories but are also broadly deemed to have become customary international law and thus apply to all states, whether they ratified UNCLOS or not.

The 2014 US-China Joint Announcement on Climate Change

The US-China Joint Announcement on Climate Change was a key facilitator of the success of the Paris conference. The chances for a productive conference in Paris in 2015 increased after the US and China, the world's largest GHG emitters, issued the "US-China Joint Announcement on Climate Change," from Beijing in November 2014: ... President Barack Obama and President Xi Jinping reaffirmed the importance of strengthening bilateral cooperation on climate change and will work together, and with other countries, to adopt a protocol, another legal instrument or an agreed outcome with legal force under the Convention applicable to all Parties at the United Nations Climate Conference in Paris in 2015. They are committed to reaching an ambitious 2015 agreement that reflects the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, in light of different national circumstances. 3. Today, the Presidents of the United States and China announced their respective post-2020 actions on climate change, recognizing that these actions are part of the longer range effort to transition to low-carbon economies, mindful of the global temperature goal of 2℃. The United States intends to achieve an economy-wide target of reducing its emissions by 26%-28% below its 2005 level in 2025 and to make best efforts to reduce its emissions by 28%. China intends to achieve the peaking of CO2 emissions around 2030 and to make best efforts to peak early and intends to increase the share of non-fossil fuels in primary energy consumption to around 20% by 2030. Both sides intend to continue to work to increase ambition over time.

United States Air Quality legislation: The Clean Air Act of 1970 (and its 1977 and 1990 Amendments)

The United States has a relatively advanced legislation on air quality and pollution. It has served as a model for other countries. The federal Clean Air Act of 1970 (CAA) delegated the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to identify pollutants which "may reasonably be expected to endanger public health or welfare" and "are emitted in the air by numerous or diverse mobile or stationary sources." The EPA identified 6 such "CRITERIA AIR POLLUTANTS."

The VIENNA CONVENTION of 1985

The VIENNA CONVENTION was signed in 1985. It took about five years of negotiation (1980-1985) under the auspices of the UNEP and the active encouragement of its Executive Director, Mostafa Tolba. The parties eventually reached an agreement on how to restrict Ozone Depleting Substances notwithstanding some residual scientific uncertainties and the reluctance of the veto states. The Precautionary Principle was applied in the absence of complete scientific certainty as to how the ozone depletion process worked and which substances were responsible for it. One of the reasons for this success is the fact that the Vienna treaty is, for all intents and purposes, a "framework convention," which means it does not contain too many substantial, detailed commitments and obligations. It leaves the latter to future, further negotiations. You could say that the Vienna Convention is an example of "framework convention." Its vagueness and flexibility made the Convention more palatable to veto states (and thus more inclusive).

The World Trade Organization (WTO)

The WTO is a global IGO whose main goal is to promote FREE TRADE and fight PROTECTIONISM. - Free trade: ensuring goods and services produced anywhere in the world can be easily sold and bought anywhere in the world; - Protectionism: impeding the importation of foreign goods so as to protect the locally produced goods from foreign competition.

How Nuclear Energy Works

The electricity is produced by using nuclear (radioactive) material to warm water that creates steam which is directed against a turbine that turns a generator which generates electricity. The difference among power plants is the fuel they use to warm the water to produce the steam: coal, gas, oil (rarely) or radiation from nuclear material. Uranium pellets are placed in fuel rods and the rods are inserted into the "core," where the radioactivity from the rods warms the water and produces high pressure steam. A neutron (a subatomic component of the Uranium atom) strikes another uranium atom splitting it. This is called a nuclear fission. The fission produces particles which then strike other atoms and split those. These fissions release large amounts of energy and the surrounding water warms up. For this chain reaction you need radioactive material (the uranium) and you need to be able to control the chain reaction. This is done by surrounding the rods with "moderators" such as water and coolants, by carefully calculating how many rods of uranium to place together, and by adding "control rods" of substances like barium or cadmium that slow down the reaction by absorbing some of the neutrons. The process requires a "controlled chain reaction." If the reaction is out of control the consequence can be catastrophic: a melt-down and radioactive leak, fires, explosions. (Splitting elements which creates heat energy (fission); mostly Uranium because it splits easily; when the uranium is split the heat created boils water to create this steam which then turns the turbine connected to a generator producing electricity.)

ALL STATES ARE INVOLVED, INCLUDING DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: articles 2(2) and 4(4)

The principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) remains (article 2(2)), but it is interpreted differently from the way it was in the Kyoto Protocol. Developed countries agree to pursue absolute emission reduction targets, while developing countries agree to continue to enhance their mitigation efforts: "Developed country Parties should continue taking the lead by undertaking economywide absolute emission reduction targets. Developing country Parties should continue enhancing their mitigation efforts, and are encouraged to move over time towards economy-wide emission reduction or limitation targets in the light of different national circumstances."(article 4(4))

Air Pollution Mitigation Regime

The regime has substantially contributed to the development of international environmental law and has created the essential framework for controlling and reducing the damage to human health and the environment caused by transboundary air pollution. It is a successful example of what can be achieved through intergovernmental cooperation.

The 2010 Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing ("ABS")

The tenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP10) of the Convention on Biological Diversity was an eventful one. In addition to the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, the parties also agreed on a new protocol: "The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization" to the Convention on Biological Diversity (aka Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing). Developing countries had been demanding for some time the right to share in the benefits derived from the exploitation of genetic resources found in their territory. Genetic resources from plants, animals and microorganisms can be exploited by research laboratories, technology companies, chemical and pharmaceutical companies for research purposes, to produce cosmetics, medicines and other consumer products. Examples are the tree latex ingredients that may help with HIV or cancer, and the appetite suppressant derived from a South African plant. The Nagoya Protocol aims to curb what is often referred to as "BIOPIRACY," the unauthorized exploitation of genetic material found in developing countries by pharmaceutical, cosmetics and other businesses and researchers from wealthier countries.

how does the warming of the atmosphere affect the arctic?

The warming of the atmosphere and of the oceans has accelerated the melting of the ice in the Arctic region. This has opened up new shipping routes and new opportunities for easier/cheaper exploitation of the seabed resources (fossil fuels, minerals) in the region. This has fueled competition among states and multinational corporations (energy, mining and shipping especially) to exploit these opportunities. The melting of the ice caps has also made the region of even greater strategic, military interest than it already was.

key provisions in the Nagoya Protocol

There are three typesof obligations under the Nagoya Protocol: - ACCESS: Provider nations (those where the natural resources are located) must set up a system for the fair and transparent regulation of access to the natural resources; - THE SHARING OF BENEFITS: the parties must ensure that benefits are fairly shared with the provider country and the relevant indigenous communities; - COMPLIANCE obligations: all parties must take action to facilitate the implementation of these provisions by cooperating to prevent or punish illegal use of genetic resources. This includes monitoring, tracking and enforcement activities.

"NATURAL RESOURCE PROTECTION REGIMES"

These regimes have a different focus from other regimes such as air pollution, ozone layer depletion, water pollution, energy (depletion and pollution), climate change, hazardous waste and toxic chemicals. One could think of the latter regimes as international efforts primarily aimed at mitigating, stopping or preventing noxious activities. The natural resource protection regimes, on the other hand, aim at preserving and restoring valuable natural resources and the ecosystems they depend on.

VOLUNTARY PLEDGES (NDCs): articles 4(2) and 4(9)

This was one of the most important departures from the Kyoto approach which stressed mandatory emission reduction targets and timetables. The voluntary pledges referred to in the Paris Climate Agreement are called "Nationally Determined Contributions" (NDCs). They are made voluntarily by each party according to its capacity (article 4(2)). They are to be renewed, possibly escalating the commitment, every five years (article 4(9)). This approach sidesteps the distributional conflicts that had plagued discussions in previous global meetings.

The Antarctic Treaty of 1959 and its 1991 Environmental Protocol

To better manage the competing claims to sovereignty over the Antarctic and to protect its resources and ecosystem, several interested states joined together and signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959. It is a legally binding international treaty. Together with its 1991 Environmental Protocol, it establishes the Antarctic Treaty System (or ATS).

international shipment of hazardous waste for processing and disposal

We produce more hazardous waste than ever, several billion tons per year. The increase in hazardous waste is the result of several factors: - An steady increase in consumption and production of goods in general, the manufacturing, use or disposal of which, creates/releases hazardous waste; - A marked increase specifically in the use of chemicals in the productive process and in the ingredients of these goods. Most waste stays in the country where it is produced. But large amounts are shipped to other countries who offer waste processing and disposal services. Large quantities of waste are shipped among developed countries (so-called North-North waste trade, or N-N waste transfer). Environmental and health regulation in developed countries makes it challenging and expensive to process and dispose of hazardous waste. Thus a significant portion is shipped to developing countries. We called this North-South waste trade (or N-S).

Why does whaling continue?

Whaling is illegal in most countries, however Iceland, Norway, and Japan still actively engage in whaling. Over a thousand whales are killed each year for their meat and body parts to be sold for commercial gain. Their oil, blubber, and cartilage are used in pharmaceuticals and health supplements. Whale meat is even used in pet food, or served to tourists as a 'traditional dish'.

Hydraulic fracturing (aka FRACKING)

a particular way of extract either natural gas or oil (especially gas). FRACKING is very commonly used today to extract petroleum and natural gas trapped within sedimentary rock formations ("shale") deep underground. This method has benefited from technological advances over the past couple of decades. In the US it is the fastest growing sector of oil and gas exploitation. The fracking boom is a key driver behind the fast rise in oil and gas production which is diminishing US dependence on fossil fuel imports.

Environmental aid

financial aid distributed by wealthiercountries to developingcountries to assist them develop and implement environmentally friendly policies. This helps developing countries comply with MEAs and makes it more likely that they will sign on to such MEAs. Financial aid for environmental purposes has become a key tool of global environmental regimes, and several key MEAs contain environmental aid provisions.

One of the main problems with North-South waste trade (and some South-South waste trade as well)

is that developing countries often lack the technologyto perform waste disposal services safely, the financial resources necessary to carry out the disposal in a safe manner, as well as the administrative capacity to monitor waste management companies and enforce local or international regulation. See, for example, the infamous case of the Khian Seacargo ship. In 1988 it dumped 4000 toxic slush on the beach of Haiti (telling the Haitian authorities it was fertilizer) and then 10,000 more tons in the Indian and Atlantic Oceans. *Please make sure you review carefully the Khian Seacase study at page 243 and 244 of Stevenson.

1947 GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade)

most countries after WWII agreed to promote free trade and to not engage in protectionist and other practices that would hinder it. They did not, at first, create an IGO that would administer this global treaty. In 1995 they finally agreed on a the creation of a global organization, the WTO, that would administer the global trade treaty and take an active role in monitoring its implementation, resolving trade disputes, enforcing treaty obligations, etc.

GHGs based on how long does it persist in the atmosphere

o 1) CO2: 50% of it stays around for 30 years; 30% for centuries; 20% for thousands of years. o 2) Fluorinated gases: 55 to 500 years o 3) Nitrous oxide: more than a hundred years o 4) Methane CH4: about 12 years o 5) water vapor: varies, but very little time @9 days Each of these gases can remain in the atmosphere for different amounts of time, ranging from a few years to thousands of years. All of these gases remain in the atmosphere long enough to become well mixed, meaning that the amount that is measured in the atmosphere is roughly the same all over the world, regardless of the source of the emissions.

GHGs based on how strong is its global warming potential (GWP)

o 1) Fluorinated gases: up to 10,000-13,000 times the GWP of CO2 o 2) Nitrous oxide: 300 times the GWP of CO2 o 3) Methane CH4: up to 23 times the GWP of CO2 o 4) CO2: the GWP of CO2 is used as the unit of analysis = 1 o 5) Water vapor: a fraction of the GWP of CO2 Some gases are more effective than others at making the planet warmer and "thickening the Earth's blanket." For each greenhouse gas, a Global Warming Potential (GWP) has been calculated to reflect how long it remains in the atmosphere, on average, and how strongly it absorbs energy. Gases with a higher GWP absorb more energy, per pound, than gases with a lower GWP, and thus contribute more to warming Earth.

GHGs based on how much of it is in the atmosphere (concentration levels)

o 1) water vapor; o 2) CO2: 410 ppm, the highest it has been in many hundreds of thousands of years); o 3) CH4 Methane: 1.8 ppm; o 4) nitrous oxide: 0.3 ppm; o 5) fluorinated gases (such as CFCs and HFCs): 1 ppb Concentration, or abundance, is the amount of a particular gas in the air. Larger emissions of greenhouse gases lead to higher concentrations in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gas concentrations are measured in parts per million, parts per billion, and even parts per trillion. One part per million is equivalent to one drop of water diluted into about 13 gallons of liquid (roughly the fuel tank of a compact car). To learn more about the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, visit the Climate Change Indicators: Atmospheric Concentrations of Greenhouse Gases page.

The four crises that are currently plaguing the OCEANS - Overfishing

o Current technologies allow large factory ships to harvest up to 50,000 lbs. of fish a day. o Huge trawl nets cause the kind of havoc in the ocean that strip mining cause on land

The four crises that are currently plaguing the OCEANS - Ocean pollution and destruction of marine habitats

o Garbage, debris, plastic, etc. o Oil leaks and oil spills; o Intentional oil dumping o Agricultural runoff

What are the very important ecological services of Wetlands?

o they are a source of drinking water; o fish nurseries habitats; o natural irrigation for agriculture; o water cleansing systems; o biodiversity reservoirs; o they provide critical protection against floods and storms; o they are natural sinks for CO2.

PCDFs

polychlorinated dibenzofurans.

The biodiversity protection regime aims at

preserving biological diversity at different levels: from genetic material, microorganisms, plants, animals, all the way up to ecosystems and landscapes. Approximately 1.5-1.75 million species have been identified but the estimates are that there are probably between 8 and 13 million in total. These species live in and depend on ecosystems as diverse as forests, mountains, wetlands, deserts, rivers and oceans.

Water Protection Regime

protection of water from pollution and scarcity, and the protection of freshwater and marine environments

Floodplains:

the land adjacent to a river where the floodwaters deposit rich sediment.

key task of the WTO

to regulate the import and export of goodsamong countries so as to limit the most harmful effects of "trade barriers". The WTO attempts to minimize the national governments' interference with free trade by monitoring and regulating government policies with respect to imports and exports of goods. Typical "trade barriers" used by governments to favor domestic goods over imported goods are: - establishing import quotas:that set limits on the amounts of specific categories of foreign goods that can be imported into the country, usually to favor domestic goods; - imposing tariffs and other custom dutieson specific categories foreign goods: these tariffs make the foreign good more expensive to the local consumers and make locally produced foreign goods more competitive; - Granting subsidies to local producers: supported by government subsidies, the locally produced goods can be sold at lower prices than foreign goods. - Banning the importation of certain categories of foreign goods; - Imposing strict regulations and burdensome oversight processeson foreign goods that hinder their importation and distribution locally.