P/S

What is the frustration aggression hypothesis?

not personality based, but more emotional. o Ex. Someone getting frustrated can lead to prejudice. When someone's frustrated, frustrations turn to aggressive impulses, and direct that towards the employer. But you may lose your job, so you keep bottling up the aggression - and rechanneled it somewhere else. Often towards minorities. o Display aggression towards other people - scapegoating. Often seen in times of economic hardship.

What are the distinct stages of stress? (General Adaption Syndrome (GAS))

o 1. Alarm phase - stress reaction kicks in, heart races, resources mobilized - "Ready for fight or flight" o 2. Resistance - fleeing, huddling, temperature elevated, BP high, breathing rate high, body bathed in cortisol.o 3. Exhaustion - if resistance isn't followed by recovery, our body's stress resources are depleted, our tissues become damaged and our dampened immunity can make us susceptible to illness. Negative impact of long term stress. • We are equipped to short-term stress. But if we have them daily, but there will be serious negative consequences if they are maintained daily/long term.

What is a monarchy?

o Monarchy - government embodied by single person, king/queen is the figurehead.

What is medicalization?

occurs when human conditions previously considered normal get defined as medical conditions and are subject to studies, diagnosis, and treatment. Ex. mental health type issues (sadness/attention), and physical issues like birth. People are over diagnosed (depression/ADD). Sad =/= depressed and can't focus =/= ADD. Birth - women and doctors plan C-section instead of natural births. § "concept of medicalization refers to the process in which something, usually a behavioral problem (such as, for example, alcoholism) becomes described and treated as a medical condition when it was not previously conceived in that way.

What is Cluster A of personality disorders?

odd/eccentric paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal

What is dis-assortative mating?

opposite of assortative mating - situation where individuals with individuals with different or diverse traits mate with higher frequency than with random mating.

What is prejudice?

preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience

Temporal Lobe

sound, Wernicke's area

What is the theory of differential association?

states that deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others whom violate norms and laws - learn from observation of others. Rejects norms/values and believes new behavior as norm. o Relationships a person forms are very important - if strong relationship to someone deviant (whom provides constant exposure to violated norms), the person is more likely to learn deviance than someone not. Converse is true as well, if they form relationships with someone who follows norms they are less likely to learn deviant behavior. o Known as: "as money sees, money do" Money accepts deviant behavior as normal.

What is conversion disorder?

"Neurological symptoms" (paralysis, blindness) that are not explainable by a medical condition

Out-Group

"THEM" a group of people we're not associated with, group of people you do not feel connected to.

Total Population Decrease

(#death + # Emigration)/1000. Multiply Rate by population and you get the population decrease

What is a token economy?

system of behaviour modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behaviour, reinforcers are "tokens" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers (ex. Prizes).

What are the 2 main foraging strategies?

1) Solitary foraging - animal looks for food by itself. Ex. Tigers do this. o 2) group foraging - animals look for food in groups. Hunting based on both your behavior and those around you. Can lead to competition within a group if food is scarce. Benefit of this strategy is that animals can take down larger/more aggressive prey and everyone can benefit. ex. Lions do this. • Foraging behavior is driven strongly by genetics, but can also be gained through learning, ex. young primates copy adults and this is how they learn to forage. This teaches them how to hunt and what kinds of things they should be hunting.

What is cultural imperialism?

the deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture.

What is the principle of aggregation?

the effects of an attitude become more apparent when we look at a person's aggregate or average behavior than when we consider isolated acts

What is a spontaneous recovery?

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

How do antidepressants function? (4 ways)

1. Increasing production of neurotransmitters within the presynaptic neuron 2. Promoting release of neurotransmitters from the axon terminal into the synaptic cleft. 3. Blocking reabsorption (reuptake) of neurotransmitters into the presynaptic neuron (SSRIs) 4. Decreasing breakdown of neurotransmitters within the presynaptic neuron (MAOIs)

What are tips to improve self-control?

1. change environment 2. operant conditioning 3. Classical conditioning 4. deprivation

Max Weber Characteristics of Bureaucracy

1. division of labor 2. hierarchy of organization 3. written rules and regulations 4. impersonality 5. employment based on technical qualifications

What are the agents of socialization?

1. family 2. school 3. peers 4. mass media

Overt orienting

A Person turns all or part of the body to alter or maximize the sensory impact of an event.

What waves characterize awake, relaxed state?

Alpha Waves

What are some effects and examples of stimulants?

Amphetamines, cocaine Speeds up CNS function, elevates mood

MDMA (ecstasy)

Can be a stimulant or hallucinogen.

What is inter-generational mobility?

Change in social class between generations, ex. Parent is working class and son is working class.

What is a meta-analysis?

Data from multiple studies are statistically combined and analyzed.

Compare and contrast dissociative identity disorder and dissociative amnesia. Both are dissociative disorders which are characterized by disruptions to memory and identity.

Dissociatie identity disorders are characterized by the presence of two or more distinct personalities and amnesia. Whole dissociative amen is the inability to recall important autobiographical information.

What is distress?

Distress is a negative type of stress that builds over time and is bad for your body. It happens when you perceive a situation to be threatening to you some way (physically or emotionally) and your body becomes primed to respond to the threat.

What three institutions play a fundamental role in society?

Education, Family, Religion

Feminist

Examines gender inequality in society Perspectives: Macro or Micro

Ear (external/middle/outer)

External/outer ear: from pinna to tympanic membrane Middle ear: From malleus to stapes (three ossicles) Inner ear: Cochlea and semicircular canals

What is somatic symptom disorder?

Extreme concern regarding one or more physical symptoms (fatigue, pain)

What are the Gestalt Principles?

Figure-ground Closure Similarity Proximity

Suckling Reflex

How a baby will suck on any object that is placed in its mouth. Disappears at 3-4 months

Tonotopical Mapping

Idea that primary auditory cortex can map pitch based on basilar tuning

What are the two types of long-term memory?

Implicit and Explicit

Norepinephrine

In the CNS, enhances alertness, attention, and memory formation.

Social Networks

Informal ties between people (facebook friends)

Fixed Mindset for Intelligence

Intelligence is biologically set and unchanging

Describe Social Identity.

It describes how one's self-concept is shaped by group membership. The major social identities are sex/gender, sexuality/race, SES, age, family stus, and occupation. Social identities define individuals in relation to others and allow for social groupings.

Define auto communication.

It occurs when a message sender is also the receiver. For example, dolphins echolocate by perceiving how the click sounds they have emitted echo back to them.

Mneumonic devices

Link what you're trying to learn into previously exist long-term information that is already in your memory.

Taboos

Most deviant, there are the most serious punishments, (like incest or suicide)

Social Sanctions

Penalties for breaking rules or laws.

Emotional Intelligence

Perceive, understand, and manage and use emotions in interactions with others

Information Processing Model

Porpopses are brains are similar to computers. We get input from the environment, process it, and output our decisions. Doesn't describe where things happen in the brains. Input-->process--> output. It is a bottom-up or stimulus driven model. It assumes limited storage capacity. It assumes serial processing as opposed to parallel processing.

Content Analysis

Qualitative technique used to examine the text and images involved in human communication. It is used to assess one-on-one verbal communication, such as interview transcripts, or more widespread forms of communication, such as online content. Not always involved in observing individuals in their social environment.

What is social stratification?

Refers to a system of inequality in society whereby individuals are grouped into hierarchal social categories that have differential access to resources, opportunities, and life outcomes.

Sensation

Requires a physical stimulus to be converted into a neural impulse.

What is variable-interval?

Responses are reinforced after a variable amount of time has passed, regardless on amount Ex. bonus can come randomly on different days. VR is most effective (acronym: produces a Very-Rapid response)

Occipital Lobe

Responsible for processing visual information from the eyes, including color, shape and motion.

Rote Rehearsal

Simply repeating information. It requires the least amount of cognitive effort.

Fovea

Special part of macula. Completely covered in cones, no rods. *Rest of retina is covered in primary rods. Almost all cones are centered in the fovea!

How is sexual orientation "scored"

The Kinsey scale! With 0 being completely heterosexual and 6 being exclusively homosexual, even though it is perceived to be dichotomous (being homosexual or heterosexual).

Distal Stimuli

The distal stimulus is an object which provides information for the proximal stimulus. The proximal stimulus registers, via sensory receptors, the information given by the distal stimulus. An example would be a person looking at a shoe on the floor. The shoe itself is the distal stimulus.

Transmission

The electrical activation of one neurons by another neuron.

Theory of Multiple Intelligence

Theorist: • Howard Gardner § Summary: Expanded ideas of what can be included in intelligence. Gardner divided into 7 then 9 independent intelligence (they don't depend on each other and hence intelligence in 1 area does not predict intelligence in another); logical-mathematical intelligence, verbal-linguistic, spatial-visual, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, musical. Later 2 added: naturalist, and existential intelligence. § Strength/Evidence: You can have different strengths independently. Intelligence is more than just "book smarts." § Problems: No way to test this theory (not supported by research). Intelligence vs. talents/abilities (but maybe this is just a labeling)

What is the theory of primary mental abilities?

Theorist: • L.L. Thurnstone § Summary:• 7 factors of intelligence: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial reasoning, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and memory. § Strength/Evidence: Breakdown seems intuitive Ex. Possible to have high inductive skills w/o high verbal comprehension § Problems: How can scores vary together statistically (suggests underlying intelligence factor)? Limited in what it considers to be intelligence.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Theorist: • Robert Sternberg § Summary:• 3 independent intelligences 82 • based on real world success: analytical (problem solving ability), creative intelligence, and practical intelligence. § Strength/Evidence:• Reliable, easy to study by research. § Problems: Research shows that scores of all intelligences vary together. Are these 3 sides of the same coin?

Differential Association Theory

Theory that individuals learn deviance in proportion to number of deviant acts they are exposed to or interacted with

What are the three categories of personality disorders?

There are 10 personality disorders which are split up into three clusters. Cluster A (odd and eccentric traits), Cluster B (dramatic, emotional, erratic traits), and Cluster C (anxiety and fearful). There is an overlap between the clusters. One person might have one or more types of personality disorders out of the 10 that there are. How to memorize: A= 3, B=4, C=3. A= weird, B = wild, C = worried. A= PSS acronym, B/C = ABHNADO - gibberish words that work for me)

Discrimination

Unequal treatment of individuals or groups on the basis of group membership

Heritability

Variability of traits can be attributed to differences in genes Heritability increases in following: As environments becomes more controlled, differences in behavioral traits are tied to heritability. Secondly, more genetic variation leads to greater heritability. § ex. Fraternal quadruplets, w/ way more different phenotypes. the differences are tied to the genes/heritability as well if environments is kept constant

Fixed/Variable Ratio/Interval

Variable ratio= think on average... Fixed interval= Behavior rewarded after a consistent amount of time, regardless of how many behaviors have occurred. Like my pay check! Variable interval= Behavior rewarded after an inconsistent amount of time Fixed=consistent variable= inconsistent ratio= Number of responses interval=time

Pegword System

Verbal anchors link words that rhyme with the number - EX.1 is bun, 2 is shoe, 3 is tree, 4 is door, 5 is skydive, 6 is sticks, 7 is heaven, etc. Then you pair list to each of the words you are trying to remember using imagery (another mnemonic technique) like Broccoli looks like a tree so it's 4th on the list

What is Bipolar II disorder?

When the depression remains hypomania and one major depressive episode

What is hypoventilation disorder?

When we are not able to ventilate our lungs fully and remove all CO2. Results in a buildup of CO2, and a decrease in O2. Can occur due to medications that repress respiratory functions (narcotic pain killers such as opioids) or if there is a problem with the lungs or chest wall. A common occurrence is due to obesity. High CO2 can cause right sided heart failure Low O2 effects all organs/tissues of bodies. Cognitive impairment, heart problems (arrhythmias - abnormal heart rhythms), and polycythemia (elevated RBC in blood)

What is the reality principle?

When we become mature, you need to sacrifice short term reward and replace it with long term gratification. Not always going to get what you want and the outside world might tolerate your behavior. You have to play by the roles of the real world and might have to compromise. "Play your role in the real world" o Ex. taking candy may get you in trouble.

Explain the Reward Pathway in the Brain.

When you first experience happiness/reward (compliment, hug, cake, etc.), your brain says "this is good", lets do this again". In response to that positive stimulus, our brain releases a neurotransmitter called dopamine which is produced in the ventral segmental area. VTA sends dopamine to parts of the brain that have dopamine receptors- the amygdala (controls emotions) and thinks that that stimulus is enjoyable. The hippocampus (involved in memory formation), remembers everything about this environment so that it can be done again, and the nucleus accumbent (controls motor function), says let's physically take a bite (or whatever action is), to enjoy more of this! The nucleus accumbens, amygdala, and hippocampus are part of the mesolimbic pathway, and the prefrontal cortex (responsible for attention and planning), puts attention on whatever the pleasurable stimulus is. When dopamine goes up, serotonin goes down (which controls satiation), so high levels of dopamine leave you wanting more and more. IT really impacts rational choices! An addicted rat will continue to consume the substance it is addicted to, even if it makes him "sick", because he still needs the "reward" of whatever that addictive substance gives.

Where is our blind spot?

Where optic nerve connects to the retina, and there are no cones or rods.

Does nature vs nurture influence intelligence?

Yes!

Can you "pay back" sleep deficits?

Yes, have to pay back "sleep dept" with more sleep.

Selective Attention

You selecting one thing at a time to focus on. It's like flashlight on your attention, you can move it around at any spot. At any given moment illuminating one area of interest. only have the ability to focus on one thing at the exclusion of everything else.

Define Alertness

You're awake, aware of who you are, what's going on in the environment, focus your attention, engage in conformation, code info to memory.

What is stranger anxiety?

Young Babies are happy to be passed around, but then around 8 months: stranger anxiety (the fear of strangers) sets in. o ex. If baby doesn't see grandma often, they might not want to be held by even her. Child ends up being wary of strangers and even people they know. Some don't have stranger anxiety though, and some babies don't have a strong bond with their caregiver.

What is learned helplessness?

a condition in which a person suffers from a sense of powerlessness, arising from a traumatic event or persistent failure to succeed. It is thought to be one of the underlying causes of depression. Therefore, uncontrollable bad events can lead to a perceived lack of control, which leads to general helpless behavior.

Extrinsic Motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

What is a confederate?

a person who is given a role to play in a study so that the social context can be manipulated

What are modernization theories?

all countries follow similar path of development from traditional to modern society. With some help traditional countries can develop similarly to today's developed countries did. o Looks at internal social dynamics as country adapts to new technologies o Looks at political and social changes that occur during adaptation as well.

What are norms?

are standards for what behaviours, set by groups of individuals, are acceptable, and which are not. Rules that dictate how person should behave around certain group of people - and are defined by that group and usually guided by some sort of moral standard or ethical value that is easily understood and internalized by all members of the group. Provide structure and standards of how people can behave. o Norms vary/are dependent on context, physical locations, culture and by country. Can change with time as individual's attitudes shift or circumstances change to allow certain types of behaviors to be valued. § Ex: At a baseball game you stand up and yell very loudly when your team gets a homerun. At a meeting at work, you do the same thing (yell loudly) - a behavior in this context with those individuals would probably not be acceptable.

What is the incentive theory?

behavior is motivated by desire to pursue rewards & avoid punishments. It is different from drive reduction theory because the DR theory is based on a negative reinforcement (removing the need), while incentive theory is adding a reward.

What is a partial reinforcement schedule?

behavior is reinforced only some of the time. More resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement. Behavior is shaped through a process of successive reinforcement of approximations of target behavior.

What is private conformity?

change behaviours and opinions to align with group. § Ex: If you privately conformed to the shock color, you would leave the situation with a genuine belief that the best way to train a dog is with a shock color.

learning (behaviorist) theory

children aren't born with anything, they only acquire language through operant conditioning. Child learns to say "mama" because every time they say that, mom reinforces child. But doesn't explain how they can produce words they've never heard before or unique sentences. Associated with BF Skinner. Language is learned.

divided attention

concentrating on more than one activity at the same time. You are just switching the "spotlight" back and forth.

What is generalized anxiety disorder?

describes a person whose general state is tense and uneasy to a degree it influences their life (don't eat well or are sleep deprived for example). This anxiety must last for 6 months or more. o Identifiable physical symptoms: eyelids, twitching eyelids, trembling, fidgeting o Population it affects: women (2/3rd are women)o Source of anxiety: unclearo Can't identify the cause of their stress so they can't deal with it or identify it/causeo Can lead to high blood pressure and other bodily symptomso Usually have also depression (not part of this disorder but can go along with it) o Continuous high level of anxiety

What is obedience?

describes how we follow orders/obey authority. No cognitive component. Ex. "I'm just following orders" o Can be positive. Ex: Firefighter tells you to not enter a building because it's on fire - you would probably acknowledge authority and obey. o Can be negative: ex. normal people committed such negative acts during the Holocaust due to obedience. Both conformity and obedience can be positive (useful/helpful/important aspects) or negative in their effects on social behavior in society. We can conform/obey in little ways as well:o Ex: we obey traffic laws or agree that cereal is a breakfast food. We don't question if we should stop at a stop sign.

Gender Dysphoria

distress/disability caused by person identifying as a different gender than society represents them as. Must cause distress/disability.

Trauma/Stressor-Related Disorders

distress/disability form occurs after stressful/traumatic events. Leads to mood, emotional, and behavioral abnormalities. § Ex: Post-traumatic stress disorder, common after wars, or other traumatic experiences (natural disasters/rape)

Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders

distress/disability form the abnormal use of substances that affect mental function. Include alcohol, caffeine, cannabis, hallucinogens, inhalants, opioids, sedatives, hypnotics, anxiolytics, stimulants, tobacco, others. Can cause mood abnormalities, anxiety symptoms, or psychosis. Also includes gambling

Anxiety Disorders

distress/disability from abnormal worry/fear. Some are specific to certain stimuli like phobias, while others are not specific to certain stimuli, including generalized anxiety disorder. Panic disorder involves panic attacks (intense anxiety) Social anxiety disorder a false cognition leads to a fear of humiliation, embarrassment, rejection, negative evaluation • experie Selective mutism is an anxiety disorder characterized by difficulty speaking in social situations, but the individual is developmentally normative in terms of their language and communication abilit General Anxiety Disorder: Individuals with generalized anxiety disorder nce excessive and persistent worry or anxiety regarding many different spheres of life

Sexual Dysfunctions

distress/disability from abnormalities in or performance of sexual activity.

Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

distress/disability from obsessions or compulsions. § Obsessions - thoughts that occur involuntarily, often unwelcome. Occur repeatedly. § Compulsions are activities that one must do and are often related to an obsession. § Ex. obsession with hands being dirty, compulsion to wash them many times a day.

Elimination Disorder

distress/disability from urination/defecation at inappropriate times or places. § Ex. Urinary accidents

Damaging Effects of stress on our Immune System

divided into innate vs adaptive o Causes inflammation - acute stress can lead to overuse of immune system. Can attack our own body. Good example is arthritis (joint become overly inflamed) o Chronic stress: stop activating immune system response and it suppresses you. Doesn't make you sick, but makes you more susceptible to illness. o Studies:§ 40% slower healing rate for puncture wounds delivered to grad students right before exam compared to same wounds inflicted during summer vacation§ Increased susceptibility to virus to stressful individuals. 20% increase in development of cold • Stress can have damaging effects!

what is a Transformationalist Perspective?

doesn't have specific cause or outcome. Believe national governments are changing, perhaps becoming less important but difficult to explain change so simply. They see the world order is changing. Just a new world order is being developing. Many factors that influence change of world patterns but outcome unknown. CHANGING

What neurotransmitters are monoamines?

dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin

What is cluster B of personality disorders?

dramatic, emotional, erratic Antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic

What is neuroticism?

emotional stability (anxiety, tension)

What is escape learning?

escape an unpleasant stimulus once it has occurred (the stimuli has an element of surprise usually). The response is conditioned (of escaping) in response to a stimuli and then stimuli goes away. (negative reinforcement). Typically, the response would not occur. Fire in a building, and you have to find a way to get out. § Escape conditioning occurs when the animal learns to perform an operant to terminate an ongoing, aversive stimulus. It is a "get me out of here" or "shut this off" reaction, aimed at escape from pain or annoyance. The behavior that produces escape is negativelyreinforced (reinforced by the elimination of the unpleasant stimulus).

What is the iron rule of oligarchy?

even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by select few. Why? Conflict theory explains it. Once person gains leadership role in organization they might be hesitant to give it up. (those with power have vested interest in keeping it) Also those who achieve power might have skills that make them valuable. § Oligarchy: a small group of people having control of a country, organization, or institution.

What is innate learning?

fixed action patterns that are "hard wired"

What is internalization?

idea/belief/behaviour has been integrated into our own values. We conform to the belief privately. Stronger than other types of conformity.

What is stage 6 of psychosocial development?

intimacy vs. isolation. (ACRONYM: : Sticks being intimate and one being isolated). Age 20-40. Try to find love and relationships.o Virtue: Completion leads to comfortable relationships, love. o Negative outcomes: avoiding intimacy can lead to isolation/loneliness/depression.

What are phobias?

irrationally afraid of specific objects or specific situation. Focused anxietyo Can be debilitating (ex. Phobia of leaving your home) or can have a normal life (ex. Phobia of snakes)o Tend to form a pattern. People tend to have phobias of specific subtypes of things typically§ Generally associated with fear of animals, insects, blood, heights, or enclosed spaces. These are common but there are more. § People get by by avoiding the source of their phobia o Social Phobias: Fear of different social situations. not as easy to avoid.§ Ex; shyness, or intense fear of being scrutinized by other§ People avoid talking to people or places where they might be judged or situations that might lead to embarrassment

What is the ICD-10?

is International Classification of Diseases, 10th revision. System from the WHO (World Health Organization).. 11 top level categories

What is socialization?

is a life-long process where we learn how to interact with others. Everything we consider to be normal is actually learned through socialization - how we learn to walk/talk/feed ourselves, and how we learn behavioural norms that help us fit in.

What is social status?

is a person's social position in society. Each person has many statuses, ex. One individual can be a Son, student, and friend, etc. They affect the type of interactions we have - some situations people are equal (ex. you and your friend, you feel comfortable talking things out) some not - you hold an inferior (ex. with professor - you are submissive/respectful, and less negotiate) or superior to the other (ex. President of an organization. You have control over your members. Your members respect you more so.

What is eustress?

is a positive type of stress that happens when you perceive a situation as challenging, but motivating. Eustress is usually enjoyable!

What is social loafing?

is a tendency to put forth less effort in group task if the individual contributions aren't evaluated. Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to put forth less effort when part of a group. o Group-produced reduction of individual effort - groups experiencing social loafing are less productive, put forth less effort, and perform poorly. Perhaps to guard against being the person who is doing all the work, or because you know that your individual contributions are not evaluated.

Glutamate

most common excitatory neurotransmitter. Reticular activating system (required for consciousness - midbrain structures) has diffuse projection of glutamate to the cerebral cortex. [GLU is exciting] o Glutamate is associated with increased cortical arousal.

What is a gender script?

what we expect men and women to do in interactions based on gender

What is the Flynn Effect?

observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the previous generation

Priming

prior activation of nodes/associations, often without our awareness. Ex. hearing a story about apple and asked to name word starting with A. Ex: reading a story that is about rabbits and then hearing the word hair/hare - you are more likely to think of the word as hare.

What is factitious disorder?

pts present to healthcare setting with symptoms that they have deliberately and consciously produced for no obvious reason other than to gain admission to the hospital and adopt the sick role (or to gain disability)

Moro Reflex

startle reaction. Fan out arms then back. Disappears in 4-6 month of age.

What is the Ego?

"The Reality Principle" - Operates on secondary processes. (Reality testing) Mediates the demands of reality vs. the desires of the Id. The self. This is who we identify with/believe ourselves to be.

Acute Withdrawl

(Few weeks, physical withdrawal symptoms, different for each drug/person) For alcohol, only 2 days after cessation of consumption, improvement seen 4-5 days.

What is stage 1 of psychosocial development?

0-1 yrs., crisis is trust vs. mistrust. (ACRONYM: BUN IS RUSTed) If an infant's physical and emotional needs are not met, as an adult he or she may mistrust everyone. o Virtue is hope o And failing to acquire of virtue can lead to suspicion/fear/mistrust.

What factors are correlated with increased obedience?

1. Personal factors (lower status, less power) 2. Situational factors (proximity, legitimacy, consensus) 3. Cultural factors (collectivism: societies that value the group over the individual)

What age constitutes Generation Z?

1995-2003

How are Broca's Area(frontal lobe) and Wernicke's Area (temporal lobe) connected?

2 areas (Wernicke's and Broca's) are connected by a bundle of nerve areas are connected by bundle of nerves fibers called the arcuate fasciculus, also found in deaf people who know sign language. Not specific to spoken language, but brain adapts to whatever modality is needed for communication. When this is damaged, conduction aphasia (also called associative aphasia) - ability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted. Makes it difficult for people with this to repeat things even when they understand what is being said. Associated with damage to the arcuate fasciculus.

What is the door-in-the-face technique?

A large request is made at first, and if refused, a smaller request is made

Posterior Humor

Area behind the iris to the back of lens; also filled with aqueous humor.

Beta Waves

Associated with awake/concentration. If you are alert for too long, beta levels get high and you experience increased stress, anxiety, restlessness-constant awakened alertness.

Dopamine.

Associated with feelings of pleasure and reward. It also has several functions in the central nervous system, including mediating the reward pathway and motor control.

Social Stigma

Association of shame with a particular trait, caused by extreme social disapproval. Obesity is often stigmatized...

What are mood disorders?

Characterized by persistent disruptions in emotional state.

What are secure attachments?

Develops from sensitive, responsive caregivers. Infants readily explore a new environment when caregiver is near. Infants are distressed by a caregiver leaving and comforted on return. Associated with better long-term effects.

Convergence

Gives humans an idea of depth as well based how much eyeballs are turned. Things far away: muscles of eyes relaxed. Things close to us: muscles of eye contract.

Magnocellular pathway

Has high temporal resolution (encodes motion). But has poor spatial resolution; no color

What is cognition?

It refers to thought-related mental processes (thinking, planning, reasoning) and is believed to be linked to language.

Socialization

Learning the norms and values of a society or culture

Folkways

Least deviant, there are minor punishments, (warning clothes backwards)

What are neurocognitive Disorders?

Loss of cognitive/other functions of the brain after nervous system has developed. Big categories within this, one is delirium (reversible episode of cognitive/higher brain problems, many causes - drugs/abnormalities in blood/infections). Dementia and its milder versions are usually irreversible and progressive (usually caused by Alzheimer's disease or stroke).

What are some effects and examples of hallucinogens?

Lysergic acid diethyl amide (LSD) Triggers mind-altering effects

Rational Choice Theory

People act to maximize gain and minimize loss. For example, an individual weighs the benefits of acting deviantly against the likelihood of getting caught (cost) before acting.

What do we need to hear sound?

Pressurized sound waves (a stimuli) and hair cells (a receptor)

Pragnanz

Reality organized reduced to simplest form possible.

Serial Processing

Refers to processing one piece of information at a time, such a memorizing a list item by item.

What is group identification?

Refers to the extent to which an individual perceives himself or herself as a member of a larger collective. For example, identifying as a pre med student associates individual with a larger group of people who are studying for the MCAT and applying to medical school.

Paracrine

Regional Effects

Frontal Lobe

Responsible for initiating movement and higher-level cognitive processes (eg, reasoning). This part of the brain does not process vision.

What is rural?

Rural is anywhere with <1000 people per square mile (ex. Farm country or Alaska). Has to have less than 25,000 residents.

What is Sigmund Freud's Theory of dreams?

Says dreams represent our unconscious feelings/urges/thoughts. Like an iceberg. What happens? literal meaning. manifest content. (monster chasing you) What is hidden meaning? Latent content (job pushing you out) Dreams have meaning. Inerpreting them can help us resolve and identify hidden conflict.

Proprioception

Sense of balance/position. Tiny little receptor/sensor (known as spindle) located in our muscles sends signals that go up to spinal cord and to the brian. Spindle has a protein that is sensitive to stretching Sensors contract muscles- so we're able to tell how contracted or relaxed every muscle in our body is. Cognitive awaresnns of your body in space. Subconscius, you don't always think about it!

Delta Waves

Slower/lower frequency than theta waves. Present in deep sleep or coma.

What are the two theories of hypnosis?

Some think it can help to retrieve memory or inhibit attention to pain. Dissociation Theory: Hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness. Social Influence Theory: People do and report what's expected of them, like actors caught up in their roles)

Macula

Special part of retina rich in cones, but there are also rods.

Countercultures

Subsets of society that resist mainstream values and norms. Countercultural movements are the opposition of mainstream cultures by a clearly defined group

Describe the biological bases of Parkinsons Disease.

Substantia nigra has degeneration of dopamine producing neurons. A dopamine deficit in the basal ganglia causes motor symptoms such as resting tremors, muscle rigidity, and shuffling gait.

Conflict Theory

Suggests that laws are created to serve those in power and maintain their privilege. Individuals engage in deviance as political protest against inequalities.

What do the x and y axes represent?

X: independent variable Y: Dependent variables

What is the world-systems theory

importance of world as a unit rather than individual countries. Divides world into 3 countries: core, periphery, and semi-periphery.

What is collective behavior?

is not the same as group behavior, because of a few reasons. o First, collective behavior is time-limited, and involves short social interactions, while groups stay together and socialize for long period of time.o Collectives can be open, while groups can be exclusive.o Collectives have loose norms (which are murkily defined), while groups have strongly held/well-defined norms. Collective behavior violates generally violates widely held societal norms and it times it can be very destructive.

mature defense mechanisms

mature women wear a SASH: Sublimation Altruism Suppression Humor

What is somatic symptom disorder?

mental disorders manifesting in physical (somatic) symptoms. o Can be any symptom. Wrist pain or general feeling of fatigueo May or may not be able to explain what we see (the physical condition). May or may not be related to a physical conditiono Must cause functional impairments. Stops them from going to school or enjoying life. These individuals have excessive levels of all of the following symptoms: worried (excessively), have extreme levels of anxiety, and spend lots of time and energy worrying/stressing about these symptoms, etc.

Schemas

mental models - Frameworks for us organize and interpret new information. Piaget belief of cognitive development was in the development of schemas. To develop these, you need to be able to grow/change them - which happens through assimilation and accommodations.

What are the three Cluster C personality disorders?

o Avoidant: inhibited, feel inadequate and try to avoid putting themselves in a situation where they can be criticized. [self-explanatory] o Dependent: submissive and clingy. Ex. Those who stay in physically abusive relationships, [imagine: Dependent Debby clings and is submissive to her husband Dan) o Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorders (OCPD). (do not mix with OCD). Very focused on life being ordered and things being perfect and for them being in control to an extent where it annoys other people. It is a personality! On the other hand, in OCD the focus is on order, things in control, having to wash hands.

What is a self-stigma?

o Self-stigma is when individual can internalize all the negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory experiences they've had, and may begin to feel rejected by society, avoid interacting with society.o Ex. someone who has HIV/AIDS and feels the social-stigma may go into denial that they have the condition, experiences hits from self-esteem and suffer from depression (negative mental health), and display behaviours that isolate themselves from society and stop them from taking part in vocation/education/other social activities for example (further isolating them).

What is socialism?

o Socialism - motivated by what benefits society as whole, common ownership of production that focuses on human needs and economic demands.

What is a democracy?

o Some governments take into account will of people, like democracy. [law making, choosing officials]

What are panic disorders?

o Sudden burst of sheer panic and intense fear.o "Panic attacks" - sudden, intense. Might be in response to any stimuli § Heart palpitations or sweating or chest pain or shortness of breath.o Panic attacks are in response to situations that typically don't warrant that level of stress.§ There are situations where a high level of panicking is appropriate ex. If you are being attacked by someone, someone breaks into your house. o There are physical symptoms as well.

What occurs when going from an elementary function to a higher mental function (cognition)?

o o 1. Requires cooperative and collaborative dialogue from a MKO (more knowledgeable other) - a person with a better understanding than the learner. The interaction with the learner + MKOàLearning + Higher M.F (Independence) 2. Zone of proximal development - part where most sensitive instruction/guidance should be given. Ex. between ability of not being able to do 218 something and being able to do something. ZPD is the link between the zone of can't do and can do. Allows learner to use their skills they already have and expand learning to things they can't do. o 3. Language - the main means by which adults transmit info to children, and a powerful tool of intellectual adaptation. Ex. private/internal speech, when people speak out loud to themselves - happens most in children. Way for children to plan activities/strategies, and aids their development. Language is an accelerator to thinking and understanding.

What is institutional discrimination?

organization discriminating - including governments, banks, schools etc. Example: Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954. In this court case, overturned separate schools for whites and African-Americans. Brown said these schools aren't equal, and Africans were being mistreated.

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Baby Boomers

people born between 1946 and 1964 is large population in US, now up to 60s. Grew up in post-WWII periods, currently leaving work force. Opening jobs for younger people also become reliant on families for support depending on financial status (10% of elderly live below poverty) (Acronym: Your dad was a baby too!! This one's common sense!)

What is the rational choice theory?

people compare pros and cons of different courses of actions and choose the one they think is best for themselves. These choices shape pattern of behavior in society. § Have to assume a lot for this to be true: 1. all actions can be listed in order of preference and all preferences are transient. [Ex: I like Apples better than pears and pears better than bananas, so I like apples better than bananas] 2. Also assumes person has full knowledge of outcomes due to action and 3. people have ability to weigh different actions. Rarely all true.

Define the mere-exposure effect?

repeated exposure to novel people or objects increases our liking for them. More often we see something, more often we like it. Applies to everything - music, nonsense syllabus, numbers, objects, etc. o There are exceptions, but in general true. Especially with attraction.§ Exceptions: you start hating orange juice, start to despise song you hear over and over on the radio. This is called "burn out" but most things do not violate the mere-exposureo Ex. Study 1: focus on attraction. Researchers had undergrads rate attractiveness where males rated women's attractiveness, then took 2 women rated similarly and placed them in same class as the male rater. After 5,10, or 15 classes males rated the woman who was with them in 15 classes higher than those women who they attended classes with 5-10 times - even though they rated the two the same initially before the repeated exposures.

What components of aging improve during aging?

semantic memories improve till around age 60, so older adults have better verbal skills (they are great at crossword puzzles!). Also crystallized IQ is improved (ability to use knowledge and experience. Typically tested by analogy tests and reading comprehension). Also better at emotional reasoning.

Thalamus

sensory relay station, everything you hear/taste/etc. Senses come through your nerves and end up in thalamus, which directs them to appropriate areas in cortex, and other areas of the brain. Emotions contingent on senses. Smell is only one that bypasses the thalamus - goes to areas closer to amygdala.

Sex vs. gender

sex is biological; gender is the predetermined roles for men and women in the community (a social construct)

What is avoidance learning?

signal is given before aversive situation. The behavior is to avoid the situation, which results in continued avoidance because it is reinforced by the removal of the pain/undesirable stimuli. Ex. A fire alarm allows you to avoid the fire and you are able to "Avoid" the situation. § Avoidance behaviors are incredibly persistent. This is true even when there is no longer anything to avoid. The reason is that an animal that performs an avoidance reaction never experiences the aversive stimulus. But it receives negative reinforcement in the form of relief. Because of this, avoidance behavior is self-reinforcing. Negative reinforcement.

Parietal Lobe

somatosensory cortex (touch/pressure/pain), spatial manipulation (orient in 3D) o SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX: motor cortex (frontal) + Somatosensory cortex (parietal). Somatosensory cortex - Involved in receiving sensory signals from the skin

What is achieved status?

status you earn yourself after working for it, ex. Olympic athlete

What is the age stratification theory?

suggests age is way of regulating behavior of a generation

What is associative learning?

when one event is connected to another, ex. classical and operant conditioning.

What is a fad?

"fleeting behavior" is something that becomes incredibly popular very quickly, but loses popular just as quickly. Last for short period of time, but reach influence of large # of people in that time. Not necessarily in line with normal behavior. Perceived as cool/interesting by large group of people. § Ex. is a "cinnamon challenge" - person has to eat large spoonful of ground cinnamon in under a minute and posting video online.

Post-Accute Withdrawl

(Fewer physical symptoms, more emotional-psychologic symptoms, same symptoms for everyone. ) Common symptoms include mood wings, anxiety, irritability, tiredness, variable energy, low enthusiasm, variable concentration, disturbed sleep). But they can kinda be all over the place with intensity, like a rollercoaster.Each episode of symptoms will usually last for a few days. The withdraws cycle can last for nearly 2 years.

What is stage 3 of psychosocial development?

3-6 yrs., initiative vs. guilt. (ACRONYM: Tree with an INN in it and a [Q]uilt around it) Children feel more secure in their ability to lead others and play, so ask questions. 216 o Virtue they reach is a sense of purpose in what they do and choices/decisions they make. o Negative outcome: If tendency to ask questions is controlled, develop guilt - as if they're annoying other people and act more as a follower. Inhibits their creativity, and outcome is inadequacy. Some guilt is necessary so child can have self-control.

Cannabis (marijuana)

A mix of all, can be a hallucinogen and can also be a depressant or a stimulant.

Confirmation Bias

Actively seek out only confirming facts. Ex. Only read stories about how wonderful candidate was.

What is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?

Also known as linguistic relativity, posits that language influences our perception and cognition. For example, if a person's native language does not have separate names fo the colors blue and indigo, the person may have difficulty discriminating blue from indigo in isolation but could learn to differentiate them with practice. Linguistic determinism, a stronger version of this hypothesis, states that language controls perception and cognition. For example, if a person's native language does not separate names for blue and indigo, linguistic determinism predicts that this person would not be able to perceive these two colors as distinct.

Amphetamines and methamphetamines (stimulants)

Also trigger release of dopamine, feeling of euphoria for up to 8 hours. Once the effect wears off, individuals feel irritability, insomnia, seizures, depression. Meth is highly addictive. Long-term meth addicts may lose ability to maintain normal level of dopamine because the brain tries to adjust to intense highs.

Cocaine

An even stronger stimulant, causes brain to releases so much dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine that it depletes your brains supply. Causes an intense crash and individuals will be very depressed when it wears off. Regular users can experience disturbances, emotional suspicions, convulsions, cardiac arrest, and respiratory failure.

Periphery Nations:

Are poor and have weak governments and economies. They rely on export of resource to wealthier countries, making them dependent on core nations.

What is Cognitive Dissonance?

Cognitive Dissonance is the discomfort experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting cognitions (ideas, believes, values, emotional reactions).

What are longitudinal?

Data gathered at multiple time points. Can assess risk factors or outcomes.

SES Status

Defines one's standing in society based on income (wealth), education, and occupation.

Thermoreceptor

Detects: Temperature Stimuli: Heat, Cold Example: Skin

Master Status

Dominant Social Position (ex-convict). Dominates in social settings.

Stage 1 of Sleep

Dominated by theta waves. Strange sensations-hypnagogic hallucinations, hearing or seeing things that aren't there, ex. seeing flash of lights or someone calling your name. Feeling of falling/hypnic jerks.

Autocrine

Effects itself.

Describe McDonaldization

Efficiency produces optimization at the cost of individuality. Calculability produces high quantities at the expense of quality. Predictability produces standardization at the expense of uniqueness. Control increases automation, reducing the need for a skilled workforce.

Social Network Analysis

Epidemiological technique mapping connections between individuals to study the spread of communicable disease in a population. Chronic diseases are more complex and do not lend themselves to social network analysis.

Day dreaming

Feel more relaxed, not as focused as alter ness. Can also be light meditation (self-induced)

Attention

Focus/concentrating on something at the exclusion of the other stimuli in environment.

What is a fMRI?

Functional magnetic resonance imaging. Scanner detects the differential properties of oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin. it measures changes in blood oxygenation in the brain over time.

Iris

Gives the eye color. The muscle that constricts/relaxes to change the size of the pupil.

Working backwards

Goal State-->Current State. Start with goal and use it to suggest connections back to current state. Used in mathematical proofs, in mazes.

Parvocellular pathway

Good at spatial resolution (boundaries and shape-high levels of details) and color. But poor temporal (can't detect motion, only stationary)

What would a treatment for PTSD be?

Hallucinogens, they allow people to access painful memories from the past that's detached from strong emotions, so they can come to terms with them .

What is intensity?

How quickly neurons fire for us to notice. Slow=low intensity, fast=high intensity

What was Galton's idea of hereditary genius?

Human ability is hereditary

What components of memory are stable during aging?

Implicit Memory (like procedural memories) and recognition memory (being ablate pick something out of a list)

Overlapping CIs

Implies that the difference may or may not be statistically significant.

Denial

Inability or refusal to recognize unacceptable thoughts/behaviors (insisting one is not angry when actually angry)

Rational Choice/Social Exchange Theory

Individual behaviors and interactions attempt to maximize personal gain and minimize personal cost Perspective: Micro

Peer Pressure

Influence exerted by a group on an individual to conform to be liked or accepted

Internal vs external validity

Internal validity describes the extent that a study is able to show a cause-effect relationship between the variables tested in the study. External validity describes the extent that the results of a study can be generalized or repeated in multiple settings.

Top-down Processing

Involves prior knowledge and expectations influencing perception. Guided by information, beliefs, or ideas already stored in our brain.

What is a conduct analysis?

Involves systematic coding and its interpretation of human communication.

Working Memory

Is the sensory information you actually process. Consists of what you are thinking about at the moment. Capacity is Magic number 7 . Working memory can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of info at a time. Why phone #s are 7 digits long. Does vary based on how complicated the stimuli are, how old you are. Different components to process input. Working memory is memory that is stored while it is held in attention.

What is the opponent-process theory?

It states that color information from cones is combined in such a way that we perceive three opposing pairs of colors : Black/white, blue/yellow, and red/green. No two members of a pair are seen simultaneously, which is why we do not see colors as reddish green or bluish yellow,.

Vygotsky's Theory of Language

Language and thought are both independent, but converge through development. Eventually learn to use them at same time via socialization - Believed children developed language through social interaction with adults who already knew the language. Through the interaction, they learnt to connect the thoughts and the language they eventually learn.

Rationalization

Making excuses for unacceptable thoughts/behaviors (justifying cheating because "the course is impossible")

Symbolic Interactionism

Meaning and value attached to symbols Individual interactions based on these symbols Perspective= micro

What is an electroencephalogram (EEG)?

Measures electrical signals of cortex below the skull.

GABA and Glycine

Most common inhibitory neurotransmitters Gaba- brain glycine-spinal cord

What are nonrandomized designs?

Nonrandom allocation into treatment and placebo groups. Can determine efficacy of the intervention.

Constancy

Our perception of object doesn't change even if the image cast on the retina is different.

Cultural Transmission

Passing of knowledge and values to the next generation. Occurs within in-groups through education and socialization.

What is factitious disorder?

Patients want to be sick. The patient will falsify or disease their signs or symptoms to get a diagnosis/treatment. Ex. They might injure themselves, falsify tests. This is often called Munchausen's syndrome.o Munchausen's by proxy -when one person makes another person look ill so medical attention/treatment provided further for another individual. o People do this to be in sick roll (not for money)

Yerkes-Dodson Law

People perform best when they are moderately aroused - the Yerkes-Dodson Law, a bell shaped curve. o The relationship between long term memory and fear follows a Yerkes-Dodson curve. o This means that extreme emotional responses usually impact memory negatively. Moderate emotions, like mild fear, are associated with optimal memory recall.

What is a normative organization?

People voluntarily unite based on shared values and/or goals (church congregations, sororities)

What is the optimum arousal theory?

People want to reach full arousal/alertness. Drive to get full arousal, and natural high - a state we enjoy. Ex. Why people go to amusement parks.

Insomnia

Persistant trouble falling asleep or staying asleep. Various medications but taking them too long leads to dependence or tolerance. If you rely on medication, you become more habituated to i and need more to get the same effects. Treatments can involve psychological training and lifestyle changes (exercising regularly or relaxing before bed).

Social Capital

Person's networks of people that can be converted to economic gain.

Choroid

Pigmented black in humans, is a network of blood vessels that helps nourish the rentina.

What are primary and secondary reinforcers?

Primary reinforcers are innately satisfying/desirable, like food, water, sexual activity Secondary reinforcers are those learned to be reinforcers, such as previously neutral stimuli. Requires a pairing or association with a primary reinforcer for it to have value. Ex. money

Emigration

Relocation OUT of an area. The emigrated area has push factors to "push" people out of this area.

Immigration

Relocation of individuals into an area. The immigrated area typically has pull factors to "pull" people to this better area.

Intuition

Relying on instinct, there is a high chance of error when using it to solve problems.

What are the elementary stages of babies according to Vygotsky's sociocultural development theory?

Said babies have 4 elementary mental functions: o Attention, sensation, perception, and memory (acronym: elementary mental babies have crAMPS) These elementary mental functions are developed into more sophisticated and mental processes - higher mental functions. Most develop from skillful "tutor" - a model, ex. parent/teacher/someone older. Tutor = model, and child tries to understand instructions/actions provided by tutor and they internalize it. o Higher Mental Functions: Independent learning and thinkingo Ex: solving a puzzle as a kid. You have a hard time as a kid, but a parent gives tips and strategies to solve the puzzle and the second time you can internalize these ideas and do it on your own.o Higher mental functions cultivated by tutor from who we model our behavior.

Dual coding hypothesis

Says it's easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone. Can use the method of loci - imagine moving through a familiar place and in each place leaving a visual representation of topic to be remembered.

How does the cochlea distinguish between sounds of varying frequencies and how is this distention maintained by the brain?

The brain uses basilar tuning- there are varying hair cells in cochlea and allows brain to distinguish between high and low frequency sounds. Hair cells at base (start of cochlea, 1600 Hz) of cochlea are activated by high frequency sounds, and those at apex (end of cochlea, 25 Hz) by low frequency sounds. THINK: long waves travel farther. We can hear frequencies between 20-20000 Hz.

Symmetry

The mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point

What is racialization?

The process by which one group designates another group with a racial identity, often based on shared group qualities, such as physical attributes (skin pigmentation) or behaviors (religious practices). The designating group has more social power (dominant group) and exerts social control over the designated group, which has less social power (subordinate group).

What waves characterize stage 1 sleep?

Theta waves

What characterizes stage 2 sleep?

Theta waves, Sleep spindles (bursts in frequency) and K complexes (increases in wavelength)

What was Robert Sternburg's view's on intelligence?

Three kinds: Analytical (academic abilities), Creative (adapt to new situations and generate novel ideas), and practical (solve ill-defined problems)

What is urban?

Urban areas include cities/towns with >1000 people per square mile. o Cities have over 50 000 people. o Metropolis have over 500 000 people. o If many metropolises are connected, called megalopolis (ex. Urban complex of 44 million people in NYC area from Boston to Washington DC).

What are roles?

We have many different roles that define what we do and who we are. We adopt Social norms - the accepted standards of behavior of a social group, use it to guide our behaviours (what behavior is appropriate). Norms provide order in society and we use them to conform to expectations of that role/expectations of others. We respond to their approval when we play our roles well, and we get disapproval when we play roles badly. Expect people to behave in way that fits that role, and have them fit the role even more when roles are stereotyped.

What is the recency bias?

Your most recent actions are also very important, and people place a lot of emphasis on your recent actions/recent performances, more than ones before - the recency bias. o Ex: you're only as good as your last game, last match.

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

What is the somatosensory cortex?

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Projection

attributing unacceptable thoughts/behaviors to someone or something else (calling the sidewalk stupid after tripping)

Is the fovea vascular or avascular?

avascular

What is temperament?

broader than personality. It's their characteristic emotional reactivity, intensity, - their shyness and their sociability. Temperament seems to be established before babies are exposed to environment. Persistent as person ages.

Palmer Grasp Reflex

children closes their hands on anything that comes in their palm. Disappears at 3-4 months, then child grasps things voluntarily

Belief Perseverance

gnore/rationalize disconfirming facts, ex. During elections learned about and then ignore facts about someone you like.

What is the Just World Hypothesis?

good things happen to good people, bad things happen to bad people

What was Binet's idea of mental age?

how a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years.

What is urbanization?

is movement of people from rural to urban areas.

What is society?

is the way people organize themselves - bunch of people who live together in a specific geographic area, and interact more with each other than outsiders. Share a common culture over time.

What is xenocentrism?

judging another culture as superior to one's own culture

What is latent learning?

learned behaviour is not expressed until required

Foliate Papillae

located on lateral aspects of posterior tongue

What is utilitarian organizations?

members are paid/rewarded for their efforts, ex. Businesses and government jobs, and universities (receive diploma in exchange for your time).

Define Geographical proximity?

nearness is most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships. o People date, like, marry people of the same neighborhood or those that sit next to in class or work in the same office. o Mating starts with a meeting - Why is proximity so powerful for relationship formation? 1. We aren't going to fall in love with someone we don't meet. You can't start a relationship/befriend those who live far away. Even with social media, and easy travel/connection with individuals far away - rule of proximity is still true (even if you take internet dating into account).

What are the psychological factors that contribute to depression?

"learned helplessness" - begin to feel powerless if they have no control over the environment they are in repeatedly. "uncontrollable exposure to an aversive stimulus "independent to intensity of punishment "Cognitive theory" - cognitive distortions - getting trapped in negative thought pattern. When you continue to think about negative thoughts. Cognitive theory - attribution. These form a pessimistic /negative attributional style which makes people vulnerable to depression o Individuals with depression link negative experiences to internal causes. They think negative experiences will continue to occur in the future. They also think negative experiences are global § Ex: a friend doesn't call you back, you start thinking it is because you are unlikeable, you start thinking this will happen in the future and also that another friend doesn't like you. o Are pessimistic attribution style individuals more likely to have depression or is it the other way around. Not always clear. Coping style and self-esteem might have to do with depression. Do these cause depression or are they a result?

What is conformity?

"peer pressure", tendency for people to bring behaviour in line with group norms. Powerful in social situations. We use social situations (especially ones with peers) to determine what is acceptable, when to question authorities, and get feedback on behavior. o This is why it is important for people to have positive peers. If group behavior is positive, then there will be peace, harmony, happiness o Negative peers = negative behaviors, which can be catastrophic

What are positive symptoms of schizophrenia?

"psychosis" - hallucinations, delusions (characteristic psychotic disorders including schizophrenia) "perceptual abnormalities", disorganized speech/thinking, disorganized behavior, catatonic behavior Catatonic schizophrenia is a type (or subtype) of schizophrenia that includes extremes of behavior. At one end of the extreme the patient cannot speak, move or respond - there is a dramatic reduction in activity where virtually all movement stops

Motion Parallex

"relative motion" Things farther away move slower, closer moves faster. a Monocular cue

What are the three Cluster A personality disorder?

(Acronym: PSS: Psych &Sociology Section) o Paranoid: profound distrust + suspicion of other people. [paranoid of others] o Schizoid: emotionally detached in relationships and shows little emotion. (what people sometimes incorrectly consider as antisocial) [DISTANT, can spell as DiZtant. D and Z in schizoid and D and Z in distant] o Schizotypal: odd beliefs/ magical thinking (t in typical = think of magical hat)

Schachter-Singer

(Two-factor theory of emotion)- physiological and cognitive responses simultaneously form experience of emotion. If we become physiologically aroused, we don't feel a specific emotion until we're able to label/ identify reason for situation. § Ex: Holding your cat (event)-->Physiological response of increase HR/or changes in NT level-->label the situation and identify reason for physiological response and event (This is really nice, I like holding my cat, this makes me happy)-->emotion (Happy) § A man, who is allergic to bees, encounters a bee. Simultaneously, the man's heart beat increases, he starts EX2 A man, who is allergic to bees, encounters a bee. Simultaneously, the man interprets that his allergy to bees makes this encounter threatening, his heart beat increases, and he starts sweating. He labels the emotion he Event-->PR + Identify reason for the situation (PR) (consciously)-->Emotion

What is counterconditioning?

(also called stimulus substitution) is a form of respondent conditioning that involves the conditioning of an unwanted behavior or response to a stimulus into a wanted behavior or response by the association of positive Counter conditioning is very similar to extinction seen in classical conditioning. It is the process of getting rid of an unwanted response. But in counter conditioning the unwanted response does not just disappear, it is replaced by a new, wanted response. "The conditioned stimulus is presented with the unconditioned stimulus". This also can be thought of as stimulus substitution. The weaker stimulus will be replaced by the stronger stimulus. When counter conditioning is successful, the process can not just be explained by simply substitution of a stimulus. It usually is explained by things such as conditioned inhibition, habituation, or extinction

What is classical conditioning?

(also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is a learning process in which an innate response to a potent stimulus comes to be elicited in response to a previously neutral stimulus; this is achieved by repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus with the potent stimulus. o "I am conditioning myself to like it" is the same as "I am learning to like it" "S" = Stimulus - Anything that stimulates your senses (anything you can hear, see, smell, taste, or touch. Stimuli can produce a response -"R" Classical does not involve change in behaviour like operant conditioning. Carrot is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because no one had to teach guinea pig to like carrots. The UCS triggers a response, called an unconditioned response (UCR). The response in this case was an excitement in guinea pig (a normal physiological response. o Unconditioned means it's innate, already do naturally, and not learned. o While conditioned means it's a learned behavior. Occurs when neutral stimulus (refrigerator door) is able to elicit the same response as the unconditioned stimulus (the carrot). Pavlov's dogs is another example

What are public declarations?

(more likely to follow through if you've told everyone), and justification of effort (people do something they don't want to justify effort they put into it, such as going to med school after working so hard)

Pegwood + Method of Loci

(two methods that are good for remembering things in order that you already know. Verbally anchors and links words).

what is index of dissimilarity?

0 is total segregation, and 100 perfect distributions. Why is residential segregation important? o Political isolation - Communities segregated are politically weak because their political interests don't overlap with other communities - become political vulnerable, don't have the political influence to keep their own needs addressed. o Linguistic isolation - Communities who are isolated may develop own language, even in same city. May limit jobs. o Lower access to quality education/heatho Spatial mismatch - opportunities for low-income people in segregated communities may be present but farther away, and harder to access. Gap between where people live and where opportunities are.

Sleep apnea

1 in 20 people struggle with it People are often unaware. They stop breathing while sleeping- body realizes you're not getting enough oxygen, you wake up just long enough to gasp for air and fall back asleep without realizing it. These patients do not get enough state 3 sleep. Snoring is an indication or fatigue in the morning after a full night of sleep.

How are we persuaded for or against a message?

1) Message characteristics - message itself, clarity, was it logical, how well thought message it. Also includes how well written it was, does speaker have good grasp of grammar, appropriate vocabulary, length of talk, etc. o 2) Source characteristics - the environment around the message and the speaker's background. What is their level of expertise of speakers around us - do they seem knowledgeable, trustworthy, and is information credible or not. Where does the information come from - internet poll, street poll, or a psych journal. Physical environment, venue of event (campus or a bar). o 3) Target characteristics -characteristics of listener such as mood, self-esteem, alertness, intelligence, etc. How we receive a message.

What is random mating?

1) Random mating- all individuals within a species are equally likely to mate with each other. Mating not influenced by environment/heredity or any behavioral/social limitation. Ensures a large amount of genetic diversity. {Bridge: hardy Weinberg equilibrium assumes this}

What is stage 2 of psychosocial development?

1-3 yrs., autonomy vs. shame/doubt. (ACRONYM: Shoe shaped Car driven by doubtful SHA[N]E). Around 18 months to 3 yrs. children develop independence by walking away from mother, what they eat, etc. Critical that parents allow children to do that. o Virtue achieved is will (independence). o Negative outcome: If child is overly criticized/controlled, feel inadequate and lack self-esteem, and have shame/doubt in abilities.

Auditory Path

1. First hits the outer ear, the pinna. 2. From the pinna into the auditory canal (otherwise known as the external auditory meatus) 3. Then from the auditory canal they hit the tympanic membrane (aka the eardrum) 4. As pressurized waves hits the eardrum, it vibrates back and forth,causing 3 bones to vibrate in this order 1. malleus (hammer) 2. incus (anvil) 3. stapes (stirrup) Combined these bones are called the ossicles. 5. The Stapes is attached to oval window (aka elliptical window). The oval window then vibrates back and forth. 6. As it gets vibrated, it pushes fluid and causes it to go in/around cochlea ( around structure lined with hair cells) 7. At tip of cochlea (inner most part of circle), where can the fluid go no? It can only go back, but goes back to the round window (circular window) and pushes it out. 8 The reason it doesn't go back to oval window, is because the middle of the cochlea is a membrane - the organ of Corti (includes the basilar membrane and the tectorial membrane). 9. Hair cells (cilia) move back and forth in the cochlea- electric impulse is transported by auditory nerve to the brain. 10. The above process of fluid going around the cochlea keeps occurring till the energy of the sound wave dissipates and stops moving. Occurs more= more hair cells vibrate.

Describe operant conditioning.

1. Increase motivational state (deprive of desirable food) 2. Shaping (rewarding successive approximations of desirable behavior (eg, food for exploring the wheel) 3. Continuous reinforcement (Rewarding desirable behavior every time it occurs (eg, food for running on wheel) In operant conditioning, reinforcement is used to encourage certain behaviors, and punishment is used to discourage unwanted behaviors. Providing a reward AFTER EVERY SINGLE DESIRED BEHAVIOR, known as CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT is the best way to train animals to perform a new behavior.

What are the 4 main points of culture?

1. People share culture in society: All people share culture with others in their society, provides rules and expectations for carrying out daily rituals and interactions.o 2. Culture is adaptive - it evolves over time and adaptive. § Normal in hunter/gathers (cooperativity encouraged) different than today's information/technology age (individualism/competition). o 3. Culture builds on itself - creation of culture is ongoing and cumulative, and societies build on existing cultures to adapt to new challenges and opportunities. § Normal values are shaped by your culture. Ex. Putting a baby in a crib is strange in other parts of the world. Culture differs around the world. o 4. Culture is transmitted - from one generation to the next. We teach a way of life to the next generation. Humans are only mammals with culture to adapt to environments (to survive on equator and artic)

What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs?

1. Physiological needs 2. Safety and Security needs 3. Love and Belonging Needs 4. Self esteem 5. self actualization Pedro Sang Lullaby So Softly

What is the preconventional phase of kohlberg's moral development?

1. Pre-Conventional (pre-adolescent) (ACRONYM: PREacher smacking oBEEdience with a Fish (self-interest) o 1. Obedience vs. Punishment - reasoning is based on physical consequences of actions, so obeying the rules is a means to avoid punishment. § Age: Children.o 2. Individualism and Exchange or SELF-Interest - recognize not just one right view by authorities, different individuals have different viewpoints. Doing what is right for personal gain.

What are three things needed for social reform?

1. Relative deprivation: Those who join social movements are not necessarily worst off. What's important is how people perceive their situation. [Ex. Someone making 100k can be not happy while someone making very little can be happy]. Feeling of discrepancy between legitimate expectations and reality of present. § 2. Feeling of Deserving better § 3. Conventional means are useless -a belief conventional methods are useless to get help. § Criticisms: people who don't feel deprived join social movement even if they don't suffer themselves. And too risky for oppressed to join a movement due to lack of resources to participate (can't take time off work...but there is exceptions to this). Also, when all 3 are present, no social movement created.

What are the four major categories of stress?

1. Significant life changes (changes in your personal life) 2. Catastrophic Events (large scale event that everyone considers threatening) 3. Daily Hassles 4. Ambient Stressors

What is the theory of planned behavior?

1. Theory of planned behavior o Intentions + Implications: We consider our implications of our actions before we decide on how to behave. The best predictor of our behavior is the strength of these intensions and implications. o Intensions are based on 3 things:§ Our attitudes towards a certain behavior (ex. I like/favor studying),§ Subjective norms - what we think others think about our behavior (ex. My friends think studying is a waste of time)§ Perceived behavioural control (how easy/hard we think it is to control our behavior) ex. I also have to work 40 hours this week on top of studying. In this example: Our attitude is positive, but our behavior of studying is low!

What are the four things we do to reduce our cognitive dissonance?

1. modify our cognitions (change/alter the thinking process towards an actions so we are in less dissonance, a smoker may say "well I don't smoke that much") 2. Trivialize (make things less important) 3. Add (add more cognitions, to make contradictions comfy) 4. Deny Key point: People strive for harmony in our thoughts, actions, and words. As soon as our cognitions, our attitudes and behaviours don't align, we have cognitive dissonance.

What constitutes the silent generation?

1925-1945 older than baby boomers born during Great Depression (Acronym: Your silent grandfather)

What age constitutes Generation X?

1965-1980

What age constitutes Millenials?

1980s-2000s

Hippocampal and Frontal Lobe effects of stress

2 areas of brain with most glucocorticoid (secreted in response to stress) receptors are the hippocampus and frontal cortex Hippocampus - learning and memory. Frontal cortex responsible for impulse control, reasoning, judgment, planning. We do see atrophy in these areas subjected to stress.

What is the Stanford Prison Experiment?

24 men were chosen to be prisoners or guards. The experiment was to last 14 days and it lasted only 6 because of safety concerns. People took on the role seriously and forgot they were in the experiment in the first place. Even Zimbardo forgot that he took on the role. They all INTERNALIZED their roles.

What is the post-conventional phase of kohlberg's stage moral development?

3. Post-Conventional (moral) (ACRONYM: POSTman delivering a contract (social contract) and Universal today (Universal principles). Higher moral reasoning. o 5. Social Contract - Individual becomes aware that even though rules and laws exist for greater good, there are times this law works against interest of particular people. Ex. for Heinz, is protection of life more important than breaking/stealing? People at this stage said yes. Sometimes law must be broken to reach these principles. o 6. Universal Ethical Principle - people develop own set of moral guidelines, which may or may not fit the law, and principles apply to everyone. People who uphold and believe in these have to be prepared to act towards these even if they have to obey consequences/disapproval/imprisonment. Very few people 220 who reach this stage, ex. Ghandi, Nelson Mandela, Martin Luther King. "to promote social welfare"

What is stage 8 of psychosocial development?

65+, slowing in productivity. Crisis is integrity vs. despair. (ACRONYM: plate with inteGRIT and a pear). Stage where people contemplate on lives, reminisce. May feel guilty about past or unaccomplished, dissatisfied. o Virtue is wisdom -look back on life with sense of closure/completeness and accept death wthout fear o but if we feel unproductive leads to despair/dissatisfaction upon death.

Where is language processed?

90% of people, language is in left hemisphere (both right and left handed people!). Whatever is dominant, 2 main areas are Broca's area (speak/language production, frontal lobe) and Wernicke's area (temporal lobe (sound processing), understand)

Pheromones

A Chemical signal released by 1 member of the species and sensed by another species to trigger an innate response. They are specialized olfactory cells. They are really important in animals, particularly insects- linked to mating, fighting, and communication.

What is the life course approach?

A Holistic, multidisciplinary framework for understanding how psychological, biological, and sociocultural factors across a lifetime have a cumulative effect on health outcomes.

What is Lewi Terman known for?

A Psychologist of Stanford University furthered/modified Binet's Intelligence test and also incorporated teenagers and adults. This was named the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. Terman noted that Binet's test was not predictive of US children. The Stanford-Binet test started being used to measure intelligence of immigrants (which was a huge problem -the test tested language ability which presented a clear issue, a language barrier)

What is a photoreceptor?

A Specialized nerve that can take light and convert to neural impulse. Inside rods are optic discs, which are large membrane bound structures-thousands of them.

universalism theory of language

A Universalist believes that human cognition and thoughts shapes language and language is created from a set of universal semantic distinctions and constructions shape human language. § Ex: The New Guinea people only think about dark and light. If they had other thoughts, they would develop words for them.

Shape Constancy

A changing shape still maintains the same shape perception. Like a door opening means the shape is changing, but we still believe the door is a rectangle.

Basal Forebrain

A collection of structures located to the front of and below the striatum. It includes the nucleus accumbens, nucleus basalts, and medial septal nuclei. These structures are important in the production of acetylcholine, which is then distributed widely throughout the brain. The basal forebrain is considered to be the major cholinergic output of the Central Nervous system.

What is bipolar disorder?

A condition where someone swings from extreme emotional highs to extreme emotional lows.

What is the confounding variable?

A confounding variable is a hypothetical or real third variable that is often not taken into account during analysis and can adversely affect the study. : A confounding variable is one which is not typically of interest to the researcher but is an extraneous variable which is related to BOTH the dependent and independent variables.

What is the difference between evolutionary game theory and general game theory?

A important difference between evolutionary game theory and general game theory: § Game theory involves intention, where participants reasoning about behaviours of others. § Evolutionary game theory different because decisions might not have a conscious intention on part of players. o Evolutionary game theory helps us predict traits we would expect to see in a population. Evolutionary game theory predicts the appearance of (helps us see) evolutionary stable strategies (behaviours that persist in population once present).

Describe what a taste aversion is and what the result is.

A learned taste aversion is a specific and powerful type of classical conditioning that occurs when an organism becomes will after consuming something. Whatever was consumed prior to the illness becomes associated with the illness and is avoided by the organism afterward, for a very long-term deal.

What is attitude?

A learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. To evaluate people, issues, events, objects. (We think of attitude as a moody teenager, or someone having certain attitude towards a certain topic).

Somatosensory Homunculus

A map of your body in your brain. Info all comes to the "sensory strip". It is sa topological map of the entire body in the cortex. Different areas of the body have signal that go to different parts on this strip. This part of cortex/ parietal lobe is called the sensory cortex and it contains the homunculus. Info from body all ends up in this somatosensory cortex of the parietal lobe. If there was a brain tumor, to figure out what its in neurosurgeons can touch different parts f the cortex and stimulate them. If a surgeon touches part of cortex patients can say they feel it. Do ti to make sure they aren't removing parts in sensation, which would make patients loose sensation in those areas.

Occupational Prestige

A measure of the respect and esteem (prestige) of a given occupation.

What is the mediating variable?

A mediating variable specifies a given cause (original predictor variable, independent variable) that works indirectly through a more direct cause (mediator variable) to a final effect (outcome variable, dependent variable). The mediator adds to the overall variance accounted for in the data and can explain how the dependent and independent variables are related. A mediating variable is one which explains the relationship between two other variables. "RELATIONSHIP between two variables" EXPLAINS WHY OR HOW the relationship o Explains the relationship between IV and DVo IV accounts for variations in DVo IV variations account for variations in mediatoro Mediator variation account for variations in DVo When mediator is added to the mode, the relationship between the IV and DV decreases

Describe what a meta-analysis is and when averages/results cannot be compared.

A meta-analysis statistically analyzes data combined from multiple studies with a common experimental goal. To combine study results for a meta-analysis, studies must use parallel methodology and outcome measures. Averages between groups cannot be compared if they are not based on the same outcome measures.

What is the moderating variable?

A moderating variable is a variable that specifies conditions under which a given predictor is related to an outcome. The moderator explains 'when' a dependent and independent variable are related. A moderator variable is one that influences the strength of a relationship between two other variables. o Changing the strength or direction of the relationship between IV and DV o Does not explain why there is a relationship between IV and DV

Limbic System

A network of brain regions that also includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, thalamus, and cingulate gyrus, is involved in emotion, learning, and memory.

Amygdala

A neural structure that is part of the limbic system and is involved in emotion regulation and learning (especially fear-based conditioning)

Hippocampus

A neural structure that is part of the limbic system and is involved in memory formation, learning, and recall

What is dopamine?

A neurotransmitter with widespread targets throughout the brain, specifically in the basal ganglia (motor function), mesolithic pathway (pleasure, reward), and prefrontal cortex (motivation, emotion regulation)

What is the trait theory of personality?

A personality trait is a stable predisposition towards a certain behavior. Straightforward way to describe personality - puts it in patterns of behavior. Description of traits instead of explaining them. Surface traits are evident from a person's behavior, while source traits are factors underlying human personality (fewer and more abstract). What is a trait? A relatively stable characteristic of a person that causes individuals to consistently behave in certain ways. Combination and interaction of traits forms the personality.

What is group polarization?

A phenomenon where group decision-making amplifies the original opinion of group members. Stronger version of the decision is adopted. For a view point to influence a groups final decision making: All the view do not have equal influence. Viewpoint is shared by majority of members of the group Arguments made tend to favour popular/majority group view Any criticism is directed towards minority view Confirmation bias: group members seek out information that support the majority view. Ex: majority of the group agrees that training the dog with treats is the best way to go about it. Some people chastise those who say the collar is the best way to train the dog. The individuals leave the discussion that training the dog with treats is amplified

Alzheimer's Disease (AD)

A progressive disease that destroys the brain's neurons, gradually impairing memory, thinking, language, and other cognitive functions, resulting in the complete inability to care for oneself; the most common cause of dementia. Characterized by amyloid plaques in the brain.

What is the limbic system?

A set of structures in the brain, and many structures play an important role in regulating emotions. Experts can't agree on what structures make up the entire limbic system. Responsible for storage/retrieval of memories, especially ones tied to emotions. Structures of the limbic system: Acronym: hippo wearing a HAT (HAT Hippo): Hypothalamus, Amygdala, Thalamus, and Hippocampus.

What is cognitive dissonance?

A state of mental discomfort caused by conflicting attitudes, beliefs, and/or behaviors.

Cochlear Impants

A surgical procedure that attempts to restore some degree of hearing to individuals with sensorineural narrow hearing loss- aka nerve deafness.

Ectasy/MDMA/Molly

A synthetic drug between a stimulant and hallucinogen. Like a stimulant, it increases dopamine and serotonin and euphoria. It also stimulates the body's CNS. Effects include high BP, dehydration, overheating, death. It can damage neurons that produce serotonin, which has several functions including moderating mood. No serotonin=depressed mood.

What is behaviorism?

A theory in psychology that focuses on the role the environment plays in shaping human behavior. Specifically, behaviorism focuses on how reinforcement and punishment shape human behavior.

place theory of hearing

A theory of hearing which states that our perception of sound depends on where each component frequency provides vibrations along the basilar membrane. By this theory, the pitch of a musical tone is determined by the places where the membrane vibrates, based on frequencies corresponding to the tonotopic organization of the primary auditory neurons. Place theory posits that one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea's basilar membrane.

What is a stressor?

A threatening/challenging event (example is dog is a stressor to the rabbit)

What is the Vestibular System?

A type of sensation, balance and spatial orientation. It comes from both inner ear and limbs. Focus is on the inner ear; in particular the semicircular canals (posterior, lateral, and anterior; each orthogonal to each other). The inner ear canal is filled with endolymph, and when we rotate the fluid shifts in the semicircular canals- it allows us to detect what direction our head is moving in, and because we can detect how quickly the endolymph is moving we can determine the strength of rotation. Endolymph doesn't stop spinning the same time as we do, so it continues moving and indicates to brain we're still moving even we've stopped- results in feeling of dizziness.

What is dreaming?

Accomplished during REM sleep. Can tell someone is dreaming because eyes are moving rapidly under eyelids, and brainwaves look like they are completely awake. These are memorable dreams. Activity in prefrontal cortex during REM sleep is decreased- part responsible for logic. Why things in our dreams can defy logic and don't seem weird.

What is the elaboration likelihood model?

According to elaboration likelihood model, we want to evaluate information along two possible paths: central and peripheral routes. After a route is chosen, information is passed through three different stages. Stages: o Stage 1: Pre-Processing stage due to target characteristics: before we can consider information or be persuaded by it, the information is first filtered by interest, motivation, importance, etc. of us (the listener). § Central Processing: If listener interest, motivation, importance are high. People will only choose this route when they are interested in the topic. § Peripheral processing: If listener interest, motivation, importance are low we process via the peripheral route. Chosen when listener doesn't care about topic, § We Filter information before we can even process it. o Stage 2: Processing Stage by message/source: § Central Processing: Focus on a deep processing of the information. § Peripheral processing: Focus on superficial characteristics (shallow processing of information) such attractiveness of speaker, their PowerPoint attractiveness, or even how many points the speaker made. How many times speaker got audience to laugh, etc. o Stage 3: Change in attitude § Central Processing: creates a lasting attitude change§ Peripheral processing: creates a temporarily attitude change

What are the three components of attitude?

Affective (emotional) - we may feel or have emotions about a certain object, topic, subject.§ Ex: I am scared (an emotion) of spiders is an emotional attitude and shapers our attitude about spiders.o Behavioural - how we act or behave towards object/subject § Ex; I will avoid (action/behavior) spiders and scream (action/behavior) if I see one. Influence our attitude. o Cognitive component -form thoughts/beliefs, and have knowledge about subject/topic that will influence and shape our attitude (perhaps prior knowledge that will help you shape attitude). Their cognitions. § Ex: I believe spiders are dangerous (We have a belief they are dangerous) which forms our attitude.

Life Course

Aging viewed holistically in terms of social, biological, acultural and psychological contexts.

What are some effects and examples of depressants?

Alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines Slows down CNS function. Exert their primary anxiolytic effect through binding at the GABA receptor, enhancing the effect of GABA, the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous system.

Automatic vs controlled tasks

All activities practiced become automatic processes, or things that occur without need for attention. A controlled task is harder, and we would struggle to complete if attention was divided. So in general, multitasking is not as efficient as working on single task, even if the tasks are relatively simple. So when studying, focus on studying! Then take breaks.

Directed Attention

Allows attention to be focused sustainably on a single task, in this case a single orientation of the Necker Cube.

Nonoverlapping CIs

Always imply a statistically significant difference between groups. However, the opposite is not necessarily true.

What parts are involved in the limbic system?

Amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and cingulate gyrus. The limbic system is involved in emotion, learning and memory.

What is role-playing?

An act of orienting one's own behavior to a set of expectations defined by a role. Eventually we adopt the attitude of that role.

Hindsight Bias

An event is perceived as being likely or predictable after is has occurred, even if it was not likely to happen. For example, after a team scores an upset victory, people might declare that they knew it would happen all along.

What are caste systems?

An individuals's status is ascribed (involuntarily assigned) based on personal characteristics such as race, ethnicity, or parental caste. Individuals tend to remain in the same caste for life and are discouraged (formally and informally) from intimate contact with individuals in other castes. Therefore, social mobility (movement between castes) is very difficult.

Describe what anomie is.

Anomie is a state of normLESSness (without norms) in society. When the norms and values of a society are undermined and have yet to be replaced, the social system reaches the condition of anomie. Society should provide stability, norms to guide behavior, and purpose, goals, values, and morals.

What is cluster C personality disorders?

Anxious/fearful Avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive

Semi-periphery nations:

Are between core and periphery nations, w its economies that re relatively more diversified than those of periphery nations.

Taste Buds

Are concentrated anteriorly (front) on the tongue. Taste buds can be fungiform (anterior), foliate (side), and circumvallate (back). In each taste bud are the 5-receptor cells that can detect taste. Each taste can be detected anywhere on the tongue. Each taste bud has cells specialized for each of the 5 sense.

Proximal stimuli

Are the patterns of stimuli from these objects and events that actually reach your senses (eyes/ears). It is the light falling on the retina.

Core Nations:

Are wealthy with strong, diversified economies and centralized governments. Core nations take resources from poorer countries and lead the global economic market through the export of goods around the world.

What is the Mere Exposure Effect?

Argues that just the act of being exposed to something increases an individual's affinity for it. For example, the more someone hears a song, the more they will LIKE the song. The mere exposure effect explains why people like certain things, but it cannot explain complex behavior like suicide.

How is semantic long-term memory appear to be organized?

As a network of interconnected nodes containing factual concepts (colors, objects). The organization and relationship between nodes is unique to each individual. This semantic network is unique to each individual according to the personal meaning associated with each node.

What is the pleasure principle?

As a young child (or if you are immature) you want to immediately feel pleasure to avoid suffering. Not willing to compromise. o Ex. I want the candy now

Where is the primary auditory cortex and what does it do?

As sound enters the cochlea, it travels and activates the hair cell that matches its frequency and it is mapped to a particular part of the brain. The primary auditory cortex (which is part of the temporal lobe) receives all info from cochlea. It is separated by regions which detect different frequencies.

Wha is the steric theory of olfaction? (or shape theory)

Asserts that odors fit into receptors similar to lock and key.

Primary Appraisal

Assessing stress in present situation. 3 categories of response to this primary appraisal - irrelevant, benign/positive, or stressful/negative. If primary appraisal is negative (stressful), move forward with secondary appraisal. § Irrelevant - I see the stress but it's not important. § Benign/Positive - Ex: a dinosaur takes out the dog - the rabbits enemy § Stressful/Negative - the stressor is actually threatening. Ex. Rabbit having to run away from the dog.

Ascribed Status

Assigned social position (race)

Serotonin

Associated with a positive mood, feelings of satisfaction, and social dominance.

What is the cerebellum?

At the back, responsible for muscle contraction or motor control & balance

Suspensory ligaments

Attached to a ciliary muscle. These two things together form the ciliary body, which is what secretes the aqueous humor.

Achieved status

Attained social position (doctor)

Signal Detection Theory

Attempts to quantify the accuracy of decisions made under conditions of uncertainty, as when it is difficult to tell whether a stimulus is present (eg, trying to detect a plane on a radar screen filled with static).

Divided attention

Attention is a limited resource. Can't split it very well. Doing 2x at once you end up switching between tasks rather than doing them simultaneously. Divided attention occurs when an individual must perform two tasks which require attention, simultaneously.

Actor-Observer Bias

Attributional bias that describes the tendency to attribute one's own actions to external factors by the actions of others to internal factors.

Self-serving Bias

Attributional bias that occurs when individuals credit their successes to internal factors but blame their failures on external factors.

What is aversive conditioning?

Aversive conditioning is usually used to stop a particular behavior. The process involves pairing a habit a person wishes to break, such as smoking or bed-wetting, with an unpleasant stimulus such as electric shock ornausea. If I wanted to stop Shanikwa from smoking I could shock her every time she smokes. The shock is the UCS and the pain is the UCR. Once the smoking becomes associated with the electric shock (acquisition), Shanikwa will experience pain when she smokes, even without the shock. Thus the smoking will become the CS and the pain the CR (but only if the shock is no longer given).

Bottom-Up Processing

Begins with stimulis. Stimulus influences what we perceive (our perception) No preconceived cognitive constructs of the stimulus (never seen it before). It is data driven, and the stimulus directs cognitive awareness of what you're looking at. Uses inductive reasoning and is always correct.

Regression

Behaving as if much younger to avoid unacceptable thoughts/behaviors (moving back in with parents to avoid responsibilities)

Reaction Formation

Behaving in a manner opposite unacceptable thoughts/behaviors (expressing love for a person one despises)

Define altruism.

Behavior that benefits in a group at potential cost or risk to oneself. For example, sounding an alarm call in response to a predator sighting benefits the group of squirrels, but places the individual who made the call at risk by drawing the predator's attention.

Lens

Bends the light so it goes back of eyeball-focuses light specifically on the fovea of the retina. Adjust how much it bends the light by changing its shape, using the suspensory ligaments.

What waves characterize awake, alert states?

Beta waves, they are the high frequency, low amplitude waves.

What is discrimination?

Biased actions against an individual or group

What are the two main factors that influence our intake of food, sex, and drugs?

Biological factors (hormones and brain regulates each drive by controlling them automatically and unconsciously) and socio-culture (our conscious choices on how we express our needs) factors

What are our 5 tastes?

Bitter, salty, sweet, sour, and umami (ability to taste glutamate) We have 5 main tastes, and each taste depends on specific receptors that are located on the tongue.

Repression

Blocking unacceptable thoughts/behaviors from consciousness (being unaware of traumatic past experience)

What characterizes REM sleep?

Blood pressure, pulse, respiratory rate, and body temperature increase while deep tendon reflexes and skeletal muscle tone decrease. Consumes 20-25% of sleep time. High-frequency, low amplitude waves that appear similar to beta waves.

Global Aphasia

Both Broca's Aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia are damaged. Acronym: Globally affects language. § Global aphasia is a combination of impaired comprehension and production of speech.

What is schizophrenia?

Brain disorder that is neurodevelopmental - combination of genetics and the environments. Can notice difference in brain scans but diagnosed via clinical interview. Affects how people act and preceded by a prodrome period (period before symptoms). Decrease in functioning. Social repercussions of schizophrenia - stops people in engaging in society, high risk of suicide, incarceration (risk being in jail), homelessness

Long-Term Potentiation

Brain doesn't grow new cells to store memories - connections between neurons strengthen. Called long-term potentiation (LTP), one example of synaptic plasticity. Neurons communicate using electrochemical signals - through synapse. Pre-synaptic neurons release neurotransmitters on post-synaptic neurons, allowing Na+ and Ca2+ to flow in. o Neural transmission will flow from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic neuron. With repeated stimulation, the same pre-synaptic neuron stimulation converts into greater post-synaptic neuron potential- stronger synapse, and when it lasts long time it is called long-term potentiation. This is how learning occurs!

Activation Synthesis Hypothesis of Dreams

Brain gets a lot of neural impulses in brainstem, which is sometimes interpreted by the frontal cortex. Brainstep=activation, cortex=synthesis. Our brain is simply trying to find meaning from random brain activity. Therefore dreams might not have meaning.

What is the biological basis of Parkinson's disease?

Brains of patients have abnormalities visible to naked eye - in brainstem, the substantia nigra (means black substance, usually darker than surrounding black tissue in normal patients) is less dark or not dark at all in Parkinson's disease patients. Suggests only one type of neuron is involved. These cells/neurons lost are ONLY dopaminergic neurons (NT dopamine releasing). Motor abnormalities related to loss of dopaminergic neurons lost at the substantia nigra. Often contains Lewy bodies - abnormal structures inside Dopaminergic neurons of Substantia Nigra. The Lewy bodies contain a protein alpha synuclein, a normal protein present in brain cells under normal conditions are clumped together in Parkinson's disease. § Area of research: Do Lewy bodies kill the dopaminergic neurons? Or is something else killing these dopaminergic neurons and the Lewy bodies are formed in the process?

What are defining features of bureaucracies?

Bureaucracy, a modern form of organization adopted by complex societies, is designed to be rational and maximize efficiency. an ideal bureaucracy is characterized by: Division of labor increases efficiency through specialization. Hierarchal structure provides a clear chain of command enabling everyone to understand their role. Standardization of clear rules/procedures ensures continuity and uniformity. Impersonal recesses for hiring/promoting (based on merit) and handling clients foster equal treatment.

Long-Term Memory

Capacity is unlimited. 2 main categories: explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative). It is unlimited.

What is capitalism?

Capitalism - private ownership of production with market economy based on supply and demand

What are cardinal traits?

Cardinal traits are characteristics that direct most of person's activities - the dominant trait that influence all of our behaviours, including secondary and central traits.

What do hallucinogens do? (otherwise known as psychedelics)

Cause distorted perceptions/hallucinations, heightened sensation, they can give energy or calm people down. Examples:mescaline, peyote, PCP, LSD

Korsakoff's Syndrome

Caused by lack of Vitamin B1 or thiamine. Caused by malnutrition, eating disorders, and especially alcoholism. These groups don't process or absorb all the nutrients they need. o Most cases Not caused by brain injurieso Thiamine is important because converts carbohydrates into glucose cells need for energy. Important for normal functioning of neurons.o At first, damage to certain areas causes poor balance, abnormal eye movements, mild confusion, and/or memory loss. At this stage called Wernicke's encephalopathy - precursor to Korsakoff's syndrome. If Wernicke's encephalopathy is diagnosed in time it can reverse the damage or at least prevent further damage. If untreated, will progress to Korsakoff's Syndrome, which has a main symptom of severe memory loss, accompanied by confabulation (patients make up stories, sometimes to fill in memories). o Korsakoff's syndrome is not progressive, unlike AD. If people are diagnosed and treated, they can better. o Treatment typically includes thiamine injections, staying on a healthy diet, abstain from alcohol, take vitamins, and relearn things. Effectiveness depends on how well patient follows the treatment guidelines and how early it is diagnosed. o Individuals with Korsakoff syndrome have problem forming new memories and recalling old memories.(anterograde and retrograde amnesia respectively)

Organ of Corti

Center part of the cochlea, containing hair cells, canals, and membranes. Splits the cochlea into 2- the upper and lower membrane. At the upper membrane: The hair cells/ cilia are called the hair bundle and it is made of little filaments. Each filament is called a kinocillium. Tip of each kinocillium is connected by a tip link which is attached to a gate of K+ channels. When the tip links gets pushed back and forth by endolymph, they stretch and allow K+ to flow inside the cell from the endolymph (which is K+ rich). Ca2+ cells get activated when K+ is inside, so Ca2+ also flows into the cell, and causes an AP, which then activates a spiral ganglion cell, which then activates the auditory nerve.

What were the similarities between Carl Rogers and Maslow?

Central feature of our personality is self-concept - achieved when we bring genuineness and acceptance together to achieve growth-promoting climate. o When there's discrepancy between conscious values and unconscious true values leads to tension, must be resolved. o Genuine + acceptance = self-concepto Importance of congruency between self-concept and our actions to feel fulfilled.

Hypothalamus

Centrally located in the brain and is the command center for the endocrine system, which produces hormones that regulate a number o the body's functions, such as growth, metabolism, blood pressure, core body temperature, appetite, and sleep. It has several nuclei that have specialized functions; one of these nuclei is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which regulates the circadian pacemaker that controls circadian rhythms.

What is the biological basis of schizophrenia?

Cerebral cortex (layer that is outermost part of cerebrum) seems to have decreased size, in frontal and temporal lobes. These areas have to do with cognitive and perceptual functions which are abnormal in schizophrenia. § Organization of the Cerebral cortex (cortical layers) particularly in frontal and temporal lobes is disturbed. Typically there is a clear organization. Here, there is a disorganization and thinning of layers. Abnormal development of brain is most likely what leads to this disease. o Some features of schizophrenia also involve abnormalities in dopamine (increase). This dopamine plays a role in frontal/temporal lobes. Effects cognitive, emotional, perceptual functions. Abnormal activity of mesocorticolimbic pathway. One way of thinking about schizophrenia is abnormal activity is mesocorticolimbic pathway leads to dysfunction in parts of frontal cortex that cause cognitive symptoms, and limbic structure causes negative symptoms, and abnormal activity in temporal cortex causes positive symptoms. Causes: genes, physical stress during pregnancy (such as infection during pregnancy), and psychosocial factors (negative family interaction styles effect development of brain) o Poverty and schizophrenia link. Causality is not well known.

What are dissociative disorders?

Characterized by disruptions in memory and identity. Although individuals with dissociative disorders may experience social dysfunction, this is a result of their disruptions i memory and identity, not an inflexible and enduring pattern of relating to others.

What are personality disorders?

Characterized by inflexible and enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that differ markedly from social norms and cause functional impairment. Individuals with personality disorders have pathological personal traits and maladaptive patters of relating to others.

What is OCD?

Characterized by obsessions and compulsions • OCD o Obsessions: Unwanted repetitive thoughts o Compulsions: Unwanted repetitive actionso These obsessions and compulsions persistently interfere with everyday life. Ex. Continuously watching your hands through multiple times throughout the day to the point your skin becomes rock.

Rooting Reflex

Check stroking = baby turns head. Allows for orientation to mothers nipple or bottle. Disappears in few weeks of life - then baby turns head voluntarily

What are the sociocultural factors that contribute to depression?

Co-rumination/Empathy: having a friend/roommate/partner with depression can increase likelihood of individuals around you getting depression. Might be due to people talking about problems and the negatives of them instead of how to solve them. You also take on the (empathize) with the emotions of those close to you. This empathy might cause depression. Low Socioeconomic status or those who lost a job/struggling to keep a job have a higher risk of developing depression Social isolation/child abuse 173 • Internalization of prejudice = higher likelihood of depressiono Ex. You grow up in a household that has negative attitudes toward homosexuality and you start to like people of the same sex. This can lead to depression

Compare and contrast withdraws from coffee and nicotine

Coffee withdraws: irritability, difficulty, concentrating, depression Nicotine: more addictive than coffee, anxiety, insomnia irritability, distractibility

What are the three components of emotion?

Cognitive, behavioral, and physiological. The cognitive component includes all the mental processes that accompany emotion (motivations, beliefs, expectations). The behavioral component includes immediate outward actions (gasping) and the physiological component includes bodily reactions (increased heart rate).

Reference Group

Comparison group to which an individual compares self Individual may or may not belong to this group

Role conflict

Competing expectations for two or more roles create tension. A student who is employed part-time struggles to find enough time to complete homework and work late hours

Role strain

Competing expectations within a single role create tension (a student struggles to find enough time to complete homework & also attend student government meetings)

What is a CT?

Computerized tomography. The computer combines multiple x-rays taken at different angles. It measures detailed structure of internal organs and tissues at a single point in time.

Semantic networks

Concepts are organized in your mind as connected ideas. For closely related ideas, they might be closer and longer for less closely related ideas.

Substance-induced disorders

Conditions that are caused by substance. Can be substance induced mood disorders.

What are cones?

Cones are sensitive to colors and high-intensity light. Cones have opsin proteins that respond to certain wavelengths (colors) of light, typically to short (blue), medium (green), and long (red) wavelengths. Cones are more densely packed in the fovea, the central portion of the retina that receives information form the central visual field.

Freud's Id, Ego, Superego

Conscious mind above water, subconscious mind below water

What is gray matter known for?

Containing most of the neuron somas In spinal cord, grey is on inside and white matter on outside. For brain-->differ: White on inside and grey on outside. Axons go down tracts of white matter.

What is white matter known for?

Containing myelinated axons In spinal cord, grey is on inside and white matter on outside. For brain-->differ: White on inside and grey on outside. Axons go down tracts of white matter.

Temporal Lobe

Contains multiple auditory cortices, is involved in hearing, selective listening, language processing, and memory.

What is the retina?

Contains receptor cells called rods and cones. These are sensitive to colour (cones) and light (rods) intensity.

What is the frustration-aggression hypothesis?

Contends that individuals exhibit violences as a result of having a goal or effort blocked or defeated.

What does the cerebellum do?

Controls balance, equilibrium, and muscle coordination.

What is the conventional phase of kohlberg's moral development?

Conventional (ACRONYM: CONvict named Norm (Societal Norms - Good Girl/Bad Girl) behind bars (Law-and-order) o 3. Societal Norms /Acceptance- Good Boy and Good Girl - Authority is internalized, but not questioned, and reasoning is based on group person belongs. Individual is good in order to be seen as good by others, emphasis on conformity. "to gain acceptance and to avoid disapproval" o 4. Law and Order / Law abidance - maintaining social order, child is aware of wider roles of society and obeying laws. "to follow rules"

Compare and contrast cultural relativism and ethnocentrism.

Cultural relativism views social practices within their own cultural context, whereas ethnocentrism judges social practices based on another society's culture.

What is culture?

Culture is way of life shared by group of individuals - the knowledge, beliefs and values that bind a society together. Very diverse, can include artwork, language, and literature. o Ways of of thinking, behaving, and feeling connected to a shared knowledge of a society and allow members of the society to gain meaning from object and ideas around them.

What are case-controlled studies?

Data gathered from individuals with the condition of interest (cases) and compared to individuals without the condition (controls)

What are cross-sectional studies?

Data is gathered at one point in time, can determine prevalence of an outcome in a population.

Population Pyramid

Death and emigration. Can calculate mortality rate by age group, or country. § Emigration: opposite of immigration. Movement of a person out of a country. # ppl moving out/1000 ppl. § Death (Rate)/Mortality Rate: #Deaths/1000 people. High Mortality rate DOES NOT mean lots of young or unnatural deaths. Population Pyramid: Graphs the age and sex distribution of a population. Males/Females on x-axis and increasing age on y-axis. Stationary/Constrictive Pyramid: Indicate low birth and death rates in population.o Constrictive period = fewer young people than old people. (in developed countries). Mortality rate of country with lots of old people does not compare well with a country where people are dying young from disease.

What is Stage 3 of the Demographic Transition Model?

Death rates continue to drop and birth rates begin to fall. Ex. Middle East. Population continues to grow § Birth rates fall because of birth control, social trend towards smaller families. § Death rate drops because Society has better healthcare, § Occurs in countries that are becoming more industrialized (fewer childhood deaths, and children no longer needed to work or not allowed to work by law - no longer economically beneficial to have children). In this stage children are sent to school instead of working to support the family. § Slower population expansion and longer lived elderly. § Pyramid Model: Late Expanding Population Pyramid. Birth rates decline (fewer young people) and people are living longer lives as people are getting older.

Explicit Memory

Declarative are facts/events you can clearly/explicitly describe. categories, episodic and semantic. § Anytime you take vocabulary test or state capitals you're using semantic memory (has to do with words/facts). So remembering simple facts like meanings of words. § Second type is episodic memory (event-related memories...like your last birthday party.).

Alcohol

Decreased inhibitions, so decreasing cognitive control. Lack of coordination, slurring of speech. Think more slowly, disrupt REM sleep (and form memories).

Stage 2 of Sleep

Deeper stage of sleep. People in this stage are harder to awaken. We see more theta waves, as well as sleep spindles and K complexes. Sleep spindles area burst of rapid eye activity. Some researchers think that spindles help certina perceptions so we maintain a tranquil state during sleep. Sleep spindles in some parts of brain associated with ability to sleep through loud noises. K-complexes suppress cortical arousal and keep you asleep. They also help with sleep-based memory consolidation (some memories are transferred to long-term memory during sleep). Even though they occur naturally, you an also make them occur by gently touching someone sleeping.

Popular Culture

Defined as ideas, attitudes, and perspectives that are mainstream (ie relevant to most people in society). It includes anything that the majority of individuals in a society believe in.

What waves characterize Stage 3 and Stage 4 of sleep?

Delta Waves

What are the 8 psychoanalytic theories of major defense mechanisms?

Denial, Projection, Rationalization, Regression, Repression, Displacement, Sublimation, Reaction Formation

Dependent vs independent stressors

Dependent Stressor - Depressed person would be expected to experience a greater number of stressful events that he or she influences (i.e., dependent stressors).o An independent stressor (i.e., the death of a loved one) occurs without the person's influence. Equal amounts.

What is the monoamine hypothesis?

Depletion of monoamine neurotransmitters in the central nervous system causes depression symptoms.

What are the 4 main categories of psychoactive drugs?

Depressants, Stimulants, Hallucinogens, and depressants

What is cultural capital?

Describes all of the non financial and nonsocial network sets. For example, a degree from a great university such as Harvard confers prestige. Hard work, talent, intelligence and physical attractive are also examples of cultural capital because these are all valued in society.

What is economic capital?

Describes an individual's tangible financial assets, such as property and money/income. Money confers power and status in society, so economic capital confers advantage to those who possess it.

Cultural Evolution

Describes changes in human values, practices, and/or beliefs that are NOT due to genes.

Intersectionality

Describes how all individuals hold multiple, interconnected identities that simultaneously impact their lives and perspectives. For example, being female is not the only identity that affects how a woman sees, experiences, or is treated in the world. Her experiences and perspectives are also a product of her other identities.

What is intersectionality?

Describes how individuals hold multiple, interconnected, marginalized social identities (gender, race, age) that impact their lives, perspectives, and treatment in society.

What is relative deprivation?

Describes the discontent people experience when they believe they are entitled to something yet are being deprived of it.

Color Constancy

Despite changes in lighting which change the image color falling on our retina, we understand (perceive) that the object is the same color.

What are case studies?

Detailed information gathered about one individual (or a small group of individuals). They are often used to study one or a few individuals who possess a trait or condition of interest such as a genetic mutation causing four distinct cone types.

Chemoreceptor

Detects: Chemicals Stimuli: Molecules, solutes Example: Taste buds (tongue)

Photoreceptor

Detects: Light waves Stimuli: Visible Light Example: Rods, cones (retina)

Mechanoreceptor

Detects: Movement Stimuli: Sound waves, touch Example: Hair cells (ear)

What are insecure attachments?

Develops from insensitive, unresponsive caregivers. In a new environment, infants are apathetic or overly clingy toward caregiver. Infants re indifferent to, or not comforted by a caregiver's return. Associated with worse long-term effects (less satisfaction in adult relationships, poorer health outcomes)

What is strain?

Deviant behavior results from the disconnect between goals and the means for achieving those goals. Predict that individuals experience strain when there is a disconnect between goals and the available means for achieving those goals.

What is the DSM-5?

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition, from the American Psychiatric Association (APA).20 top level categories.

What are parasomnias?

Disorders involving abnormal function of the nervous system during sleep. They most likely occur in childhood. Common examples are somnambulism, and night terrors

What are dyssomnias?

Disorders involving difficulty falling/staying asleep, poor sleep quality, inappropriate sleep timing. They most likely occur in adulthood. Common examples are insomnia, sleep apnea, and narcolepsy

What are the two categories of attributions?

Dispositional/personal (based on internal characteristics such as motivation) or Situational/environmental (based on external factors such as the neighborhood in which one grew up)

Depressive Disorders

Distress/disability from abnormally negative mood. Mood refers to long-term emotional state. (Mood is not emotion, mood is more long term and not necessarily related to events). Mood is also subjective experience person has of their experience. § Mood (how someone feels such as sad) becomes affect (how mood is displayed to others - person crying). Hopelessness, loss of enjoyment in activities. High risk of suicide.

Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders

Distress/disability from symptoms similar to those that may occur to illness unrelated to mental disorder, but of psychological origin with or without having a general medical condition at the same time. § Example is someone that has abdominal pain, caused by psychological disorders such as stress without any physical signs.

Filliform Papillae

Do not contain taste buds and exist all over the tongue. Thecenter of the tongue contains only filiform papillae. This is hwy the stimulation of the center of the tongue does not cause a taste sensation.

Exogenous/External Cues

Don't have to tell ourselves to look for them in order for them to capture our attention. Ex: bright colors, loud noises

What are psychoactive drugs?

Drugs that can alter our consciousness, and perceptions. They can alter our perception, increase our mood, calm us down, make us feel more alert. Classified by action and effects the have on our bodies.

What are stimulants?

Drugs that excite your CNS, increase HR/BP, alter ness, awakens, energy levels increase. Can cause people to feel glittery. Examples are caffeine, amphetamines, methamphetamines, Cocaine, MDMA (molly/ecstasy), nocitone, THC (marijuana/cannabis).Their effect dissimilar to stress, increased glucose metabolism in the brain. Cocaine blocks dopamine rey-take, amphetamines both block dopamine rey-take and stimulate presynaptic dopamine release. Caffeine inhibits the enzyme that breaks down cAMP, and inhibits adenosine receptors and can disrupt sleep. Nicotine acts on acetylcholine.

What is an EEG?

Electroencephalogram. Electrodes are placed on scalp and connected to an amplifier. It measures voltage fluctuations in the brain over time.

What is light?

Electromagnetic wave

Flashbulb memories

Emotional memories can be positive or negatively valenced. Highly emotional memories that feel extremely vivid are called flashbulb memories (term coined by Brown and Kulik (1977)) - and even though they seem as real as life, they are still susceptible to reconstruction as less emotional memories. o Flashbulb memories: people claimed to remember detail of what they were doing when they received news about an emotionally arousing event. o Ex. your memory about your birth can be positively valenced while memory of planes hitting twin towers on 9/11 might be negatively valenced), but highly vivid memories are called.

What is ethnicity?

Ethnicity is also socially defined, not defined by physical characteristics like race, but these groups are defined by shared language, religion, nationality, history, of some other cultural factor. Less statistically defined than racial groups and definitions can change over time. o An ethnic minority can be absorbed into majority after 1-2 generations. A minority is a group that makes up less than half the total population and is treated differently due to some characteristic. § Ex. In 1900s, native born Americans did not consider Irish, Italian, or Jewish immigrants to be white. Interestingly, children of these immigrants were considered white because they were culturally similar and their skin color was used to determine their ethnic identity. § Discrimination: Unjust treatment of a category of people because they belong to the category § Prejudice: Preconceived opinion that isn't based on reason or experience. Discrimination often results from prejudice.

Define Ethnocentric

Ethnocentric: judging someone else's culture from the position of your own culture o Viewing our own culture to be superior to that of others o Can lead to cultural bias and prejudiceo Using one's own cultural standards, such as norms and values, to make judgements about another culture.

Secondary Appraisal

Evaluation of the individual's ability to cope with the situation. What is the individual's material preparedness to deal with stressor? Appraisal of harm, threat, and challenge (how to overcome it). § Harm: what damage has already been caused § Threat: How much damage could be caused § Challenge: How can the situation be overcome or conquered. o Humans can have a stress reaction and also anticipate stressors! Makes the whole process a bit more interesting/complicated.

Misleading Information

Ex: Participants watched a traffic safety video in which they observed a car crash, and then then participants were asked questions on what happened and the key question was "how fast cars were the cars going when they hit each other" "Some people got the question with the word "hit" and some got "smash". Those participants who received the question with the word "smashed", they were more likely to say there was glass on the ground in the video (even though there was not any glass on the ground)

Define Feminist.

Examines gender inequality in society. Perspective can be macro or micro.

What are anxiety disorders characterized by?

Excessive worry, uneasiness, apprehension and fear with both physiological and psychological symptoms

What is a specific phobia?

Excessive, irrational fear of a specific situation (flying) or an animal (spider)

Define generalized anxiety disorder (GAD).

Excessive, uncontrollable worry about a range of topics. Muscle tension; difficulty concentrating out sleeping; feeling restless, fatigued, or irritable.

Best ways to manage stress?

Exercise, meditation, religious beliefs/faith, cognitive flexibility (perspective change)

Lazarus Theory

Experience of emotion depends on how the situation is labelled. We label the situation, which then leads to emotional and physiological response

James-Lange Theory

Experience of emotion is due to perception of physiological responses. § Ex. Holding pet cat (Event)-->increased HR/neurotransmitters/smile (Physiological response)--> Interpretation of Physiological response à happiness (emotion). It's not the cat making you happy...its something the cat is doing to your body makes you happy. When sad, don't cry because you're sad, you're sad because you cry. § Ex2: changes as the emotion fear. § Ex. physiological arousal followed by aggressive emotions (not simultaneous). Awareness of physiological processes occurring that make you happy.Event -->Physiological Response (PR)--> Interpretation of PR-->Emotion Acronym: J/L are one (1) apart on the alphabet, so they have a physiologic response first (1st) which leads to emotion--

Place Theory

Explains the perception of sound pitch (how high or low a tone is). Inside the cochlea, specific sound wavelengths generate basilar membrane vibrations at specific loci. Each locus (place) corresponds to a slightly different frequency. Hairs cells located at the base of the basilar membrane are activated by high frequency sounds, and hair cells located at the apex of the basilar membrane are activated by low frequency sounds.

What is explicit memory and what are its subcategories?

Explicit/declarative memory is memory for facts and events that can be consciously or intentionally recalled: including: semantic memory (facts) and episodic memory (personal experiences)

Define spatial inequality.

Exposure to higher rates of crime, violence, pollution, and other environmental health risks that negatively impact heir health.

Rapid-eye Movement (REM) stage

Eyes move rapidly beneath eyelids but most of your other muscles are paralyzed. Most dreaming occurs during REM sleep, so paralsyation inhibits actions. Most important for memory consolidation, formation of episodic memories. Combination of alpha, beta, dyssynchronoous waves, and similar to beta waves seen when awake. Acronym: BATS-Drink Blood (beta, alpha, theta, sleep-spindle/K complexes delta Beta)

Change Blindess

Fail to notice changes from a previous to a current state in environment. ex: Don't notice when your mom gets a haircut.

What is family as defined by the MCAT?

Family - defined by many forms of kinship, including marriage, blood, or adoption. Small nuclear family is more emphasized in the US. o Different family values go with different social values of family and economy, § ex. rural families were production based, so large families.§ Urban families are consumption based, so large family means more strained on resources. Urbanization: changes in expectations on family roles and child care.§ Family can be a married couple, generation skips, single parents, step family, gay couples, no one uniform type.

What is fertility?

Fertility is natural ability of human beings to have babies, which add to the population

Vitreous Chamber

Filled with vitreous humor; a jelly like substance to provide pressure to eyeball and gives nutrients inside of eyeball.

What is the primacy bias?

First impressions count! They're 1) long (lasts a long time) 2) strong (tough to overcome) and 3) easily built upon (people put extra emphasis on info that helps reinforce first impression, and not info that doesn't....ex. you are a messy person, people will look at your messy room instead of your tidy desk). o Called the primacy bias: first impression is more important than later data.

hierarchal semantic networks

First semantic network theory suggested that we stored information in a hierarchical way. "We store things in a hierarchical manner". It was thought concepts were organized from higher order categories to lower order categories. We store information at the highest category possible. Broad categories/characteristics are stored at higher level nodes. o Supported by Cognitive Economy Principle: Says that our brain is efficient.o Evidence: How long it takes people to verify certain statements. For example, it takes people little time to verify a canary is canary, more time to verify canary is a bird, and even more to verify canary is an animal.

What are Alfred-Binet known for?

First to develop an intelligence test, but wasn't intending too. He developed a test in order to establish a child's mental age and measure a child's intellectual development and predict how well they will do in school later on. Was designed for French children

Circumvallate Papillae

Flat mound structures at the back of the tongue and contain taste buds

Define macrosociology.

Focuses on groups, populations, social structure. Important concepts; institutions, inequality, impact of the social environment on people's interactions. Example; How does racial inequality influence how minorities access health care?

Define micro sociology.

Focuses on individual attributes and interactions. Communication, symbols, reciprocity, interpersonal exchanges are its focus. Example: How does the interaction between a doctor and a patient reflect racial inequality?

What is conflict theory?

Focuses on inequalities of different groups in society, based on ideas of Karl Marx that believed society evolved through several stages: feudalism -> capitalism -> socialism. o 19th century Europe was capitalist -§ rich upper class called bourgeoisie (minority) and poor lower class called the proletariat (majority). § Upper class had more power (owned the factories, and sold what they produced from factories). Lower class depended on upper class (the factory owners) to get paid, but upper class also depended on lower class for their labour. § Significant economic inequality, which Marx believed led to change in society. Lower class united to create class consciousness as they realized they were being exploited. Exploitation would allow lower class to overthrow the status quo. A society where one group exploited another group economically would eventually lead to its own destruction.

Law of common Fate

For example, if there are an array of dots, and half the dots are moving upward while the other half moving downward, we would [erceive the upward moving dots and the downward moving dots as two distinct units.

What is dissociative identity disorder?

Formerly called multiple personality disorder Two or more distinct personalities exist in a single body. Both identity have influence on persons thoughts and behaviors The two identities are distinct from each other. Each has its own: o mannerisms,o emotional responses,o distinct "physical changes" -not actually different physical differences but one identity could identify as right handed and another as left handedo Denial - denying the existence of the other identity. Not aware of other distinct personalities exist within that person. Who have this disorder? People typically have a history of child abuse or other extreme life stressor.o Perhaps develops under cases of extreme stress, which leads to a person's conscious awareness dissociating/separating from painful memories, thoughts or feelings.

What was the psychosexual theory of development?

Freud - Proposed the psychosexual theory of development. o Believed early childhood was the most important age/period in which personality developed. Most of personality developed by age of 5. Early experiences play a large role in personality development. This development influences behavior later in life. o 5 stages - if completed successfully, result is a healthy personality. If issues aren't resolved at a certain stage, then fixation occurs.

What kinds of receptors do sweet tastes rely on?

GPCR receptors! Glucose binds GPCR, conformational change, G protein dissociates, opens ion channels, and cause cell to depolarize and fire an AP. Glucose hits tongue--> Activates sweet cell (because it has sweet sensitive receptors)--> triggers cascade of events so cell depolarizes--> travels down axon to the brian.

Biological Evolution

Genetic traits from parent to offpsring, that occurs via transmission of genes and occurs slowly over time.

Fixation

Getting stick on a wrong approach to a problem. If we can start solving the problem, it typically occurs through an insight - that aha moment. Insight is hard to predict and hard to encourage, particularly when you are fixated on seeing a problem from the same inefficient approach.

Overconfidence

Going into test without knowing a lot of info. Could be due to fluency (ease of processing) during studying. Ex. Can happen in a test if you never tested yourself to see if you really knew the answers. Can overestimate ability to produce answers when you need too. Can also experience overconfidence in an argument.

Method of Loci

Good for remembering things in order, link info to locations. Tie information you need to remember to certain stops along a route that you already know. Ex. Bananas raining down on bus stop you get on, next stop there are oranges being thrown at, and the final stop you have a cat eating blueberries. Again, this method also ties imagery.

Primary Group

Group of individuals who are emotionally close Smaller in size, high degree of interaction (eg, family)

Secondary Group

Group of individuals who come together to accomplish something Larger in size, more impersonal (coworkers)

Out-Group

Group to which an individual does not identify or belong Out-group members viewed unfavorable

In-Group

Group to which an individual identifies & belongs Other in-group members viewed favorably

What is Stage 1 of the Demographic Transition Model?

High birth rates due to limited birth control, economic advantage for more workers, and high death rate due to disease/poor nutrition. Most countries at this stage prior to 18th century when death rates fell in Western-Europe. Large young and small old population. Overall population remains fairly stable § Pyramid Model: Stationary Pyramid. Large young population and small old population (y axis)

Babinski Reflex

How baby will turn/unturn toes when bottom of the foot. Disappears before 12 months. (fans toes outwards).

How do you calculate growth rate?

How much population of a country grows or shrinks over a period of time. It is not always a positive number. While world population grows, growth rate of some countries is negative. § Growth Rate: (People added to population - people removed)/(Initial Population) *100= (Total Population Increase - Total population decrease)/(Initial Population)*100= (Births + Immigration - Deaths - Emigration)/(Initial Population)*100 [Can be calculated as Current Population - Initial Population / (Initial) * 100] § Most countries have a positive growth rates currently. § Positive Growth rate = BIGGER population now than before

Describe how similarity impacts attraction.

How similar someone is to us is huge predictor of attraction. Close friends and couples are more likely to share common attitudes, beliefs, interests, and values. We tend to partner up with people who match our age, race, religion, and economic status/educational level. We like people who are like ourselves in looks. o Demonstrated through experimentation and correlation/surveys.o One study, two people brought in the lab and they were told they were going to be playing a game. One person was a confederate (in on the study the entire time). Participants were split into 2 conditions. 1. Participants saw a the other player and in 2. Picture shown of other participant w/ some of their own facial features mapped onto it. Results show that the individual was more likely to cooperate with the other player when the other player has similar facial feature as to his own. § Person is more likely to trust/cooperate with the person who had similar characteristics (of the photo of someone whose facial features are morphed with their own).

Accommodation

How we later adjust our schemas to incorporate new experiences -to remember. Acronym: accommodation has "cc" for change or create

What are induced states of consciousness?

Hypnosis and medication are example. They do not occur naturally. Hypnotism usually involves getting person to relax and focus on breathing, and they become more susceptible in this state-but only if they want to. More alpha waves in this stage-an awake but relaxed state.

What does the IQ test predict?

IQ score measures only analytical intelligence. Scales are scored so average person score is 100. Depending on where you are in relation to 100 - it effects where you are at large. o Standard Deviation = 15.o High analytical intelligence = tend to do better at school. 79 o Those who have high IQ, creative, and/or practical intelligence do not tend to have better m

What is intra-generational mobility?

If change in social class happens in a person's own lifetime

What is normative social influence?

If we do something to gain respect/support of peers, we're complying with social norms. Because of this we might go with group outwardly, but internally believe something differently. § Ex: friends are all obsessed with a certain singer. You tell the group you like the singer as well even if you absolutely hate him/her. You continue to say you like it (or even go to the singers concert)

What is extinction?

If you open refrigerator door and give the Guinea pig get a carrot anymore, over time she would no longer react - extinction. When a CS does not elicit a CR anymore. o It is used to train certain phobias. Ex. If you are afraid of heights, the therapist would expose you to various heights and the stimuli would not elicit the same response anymore (the response of fear)

Olfactory Bulb

Imagine there's olfactory cells sending projections to olfactory bulbs. There are thousands of types of olfactory epithelial cells, each with different receptor. These olfactory epithelial cells are located within other epithelial cells. Let's say one has a receptor for benzene rings. When it binds to the receptor, it triggers a cascade of events that will cause the cell to fire. AP will end up in olfactory bulb. All cells sensitive to benzene will fire to one olfactory bulb- called a glomerulus- a designation point for various sensory olfactory cells that are sensitive to the same molecule For example, a benzene glomerular. At the glomerulus, the receptors that synapse on another cell known as mitral/tufted cell that projects to the brain. This organization isothere because it's easier for one cell to send a projection to the brain instead of thousands.

How do you calculate Net immigration?

Immigration - Emigration (# of people entering - # of people leaving a country)§ Migration reasons: People are moving to industrialized countries for potential for better life. Move for political reasons (become refugees), for jobs, or wanting to live somewhere foreign. § Internal Migration: move within same country. Doesn't change population of a country, but can effect economics/culture of a country. Internal migration is a large factor in urbanization (movement from rural to urban areas)

Law of Past Experiences

Implies that under some circumstances visual stimuli are categorized according to past experience. For example, if an individual reads an english word they have never seen, they use the law of past experience to interpret the letters "L" and "I" as two letters beside each other, rather than using the law of closure to combine the letters and interpret the object as an uppercase U.

Alpha Waves

In daydreaming state. Lower frequency than beta waves. Disappear in drawsiness but reappear later in deep sleep.

What is relative poverty?

In developed countries, use a different marker - a % level below the median country of the country. Ex. In Us, instead of $1-2 a day, median income is above $80/day. o <60% of the median income. o If a country's income rises up, absolute poverty line won't change, median income level would.o Relative poverty is not about survival, its people whose incomes are so low in their own society they're being excluded from society.

What is operant extinction?

In operant conditioning it results from some response by the organism no longer being reinforced (for example, you keep getting your dog to sit on command, but you stop giving it a treat or any other type of reinforcement. Over time, the dog may not sit every time you give the command).

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to encode new memories

Anomia

Inability to name things

What is anosmia?

Inability to perceive smell.

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to recall previously encoded info

Mass Media

Includes all routes through which information reaches large numbers of people in society (internet, social media)

What is social capital?

Includes and individual's social networks. In other words, it is the people an individual knows who can help that individual advance in society. For example, knowing the president of Harvard could help someone get accepted into Harvard.

What is formal curriculum?

Includes the explicit, official content taught to students in the educational system, whereas the hidden curriculum promotes certain values and behaviors implicitly.

What increases population dynamics?

Increase: Births and immigration.§ Immigration: movement of a person into a country. #ppl moving in/1000 § Birth rate: Births/1000 people per yr. Can also look at births in terms of fertility rate- # number of births a woman is expected to give birth to in her child bearing years. On avg women in US gives birth to 2.1 children in her life. >2 = increase in population = 2, no increase/decrease in population. <2 = decrease the population § Total Population Increase Rate: (#Births + # Immigration)/1000. Multiply Rate by population and you get the population increase

Damaging effects of stress on our heart

Increased B.P, B.V distend, so they build up more muscle and become more rigid. Can lead to hypertension (HBP) and vascular disease (disease of blood vessels - get damaged with higher force of blood movement). Spots attract fat and narrow blood vessels. Worst place to experience this is coronary arteries - coronary artery disease.

Nicotine

Increases HR/BP and also disrupts sleep and can suppress appetite (which is why some people gain weight when they quit smoking). At high levels, nicotine can cause muscles to relax and release stress-reducing neurotransmitters (to counteract hyper alter ness). It is a CNS stimulant, which works as an acetylcholine receptor agonist.

What are semi-periphery nations?

India and Brazil, middle-ground between core and periphery. Not dominant in international trade but diversified/developed economy. These semi-periphery countries can come either from periphery countries moving up to core countries or core countries declining towards periphery status.

Define Rational Choice/Social Exchange.

Individual behaviors and interactions attempt to maximize personal gain and minimize personal cost. Perspective: Micro.

Role exit

Individual disengages from a social role, often replaying it with a new social role. A college student (old role) graduates and begins full-time employment.

What are the four individual influences on behavior? (projection, reaction formation, regression, sublimation)?

Individual influences on behaviour: projection (projecting own feelings of inadequacy on another), reaction formation (defence mechanism where someone says or does exact opposite of what they actually want/feel), regression (defence mechanism where one regresses to position of child in problematic situations), sublimation (defence mechanism where unwanted impulses are transformed into something less harmful).

What is the bystander effect?

Individual may feel less inclined to take action because of presence of others in the group. The bystander effect refers to a group process in which individuals observe an injustice or a crime being perpetuated and do not intervene.

What is individual discrimination?

Individual person acting to discriminate based on something (sex, religion, race, age etc.) ex. a science professor who doesn't let women into his class. (in this example sex discrimination)

What is differential association?

Individuals learn specific deviant behaviors and values/norms through interaction with others with those same behaviors and values/norms.

How do you calculate current population?

Initial Population + Births - Deaths + Immigrating In - Emigrating out [ If this is a negative number, you have a negative growth rate for that country] o Currently, world population is growing. § ~7B current population of world§ We estimate/extrapolate data of population!

Retina

Inside, back area filled with photoreceptors, where the ray of light is converted form a physical waveform to a electrochemical impulse that the brain can interpret.

Growth Mindset for Intelligence

Intelligence is changeable if you learn more

what is social anxiety disorder/social phobia?

Intense fear of scrutiny or rejection in social situations (public speaking, asking someone on a date)

Absolute Threshold

Intensity value at which an individual is able to detect a stimulus about 50% of the time.

Contrast Internal and External Loci of Control

Internal: My own actions/behaviors determine the outcome of events, often times people will have higher self-esteem and blame self for failure. External: Luck, fate, and powerful others determine the outcome of events. Often times associated with lower self-esteem, feeling more stressed, and a lesser need for achievement and academic success.

Executive Attention

Involved in goal-directed behavior. monitoring conflicts between internal processes, and anticipating the effects of behavior. Dopamine from the ventral segmental area is associated with executing attention.

Schizophrenia Spectrum and other Psychotic Disorders

Involves distress/disability from psychosis. Psychosis involves delusions (fixed false beliefs 157 not explainable by experiences/culture ex. Ones thoughts are controlled by someone else or "I have superpowers"), hallucinations (sensory perceptions without any stimuli ex. Hearing voices w/o stimuli). With psychosis disorganized thinking can occur and negative symptoms (decreased emotional expression, decreased motivation, decreased social behavior). Schizophrenia has many of these features while other psychosis disorders have some.

What is feature detection?

Involves the perceptual discrimination of specific aspects of a given stimulus via feature detectors. Feature detectors are specific neurons that preferentially fire in response to very specific stimuli.

What is class consciousness?

Involves the recognition of class structure and an identification with one's own social class such that individuals understand that people from other classes have needs and interests different from their own.

What kind of receptors do sour and salt channels rely on?

Ion Channels! "SOdium, which is an ion channel, is Sour and salty, think salt). They bind to the receptor directly. Ex. NaCl binds to receptor and causes ion channel to open, and +ions outside flow in. Cell depolarizes and fires an AP.

Talk about the begging pathway of smells going to the brain

Is a Bone with little holes that allow olfactory sensory to send projections to the brain. Above the cribriform plate is an extension from the brain-olfactory bulb- a bund of nerves that sends little projections through cribiform plate into the olfactory epithelium, which branch off. At the end of each connection are receptors, each sensitive to 1 type of molecule. Molecule travels into nose, binds one of receptors on nerve endings.

Fluid Intelligence

Is ability to reason quickly and abstractly, such as when solving novel logic problems. § fluid intelligence is the ability to think on one's feet, be adaptable, and solve problems using deductive and inductive reasoning. Fluid intelligence tends to decrease as we move into older adulthood, while crystalized increases or stays same.

Marijuana

Is also a mild hallucinogen. Main active chemical is THC, which heightens sensitivity to sounds, taste, smells. Like alcohol ( a depressant), it reduces inhibition, impairs motor and cooridation skills, perceptual skills. It disrupts memory formation and short term recall. Stays in the body put to a week so regular users need less of the drug rather than more to receive the same high .

Prefrontal Cortex.

Is associated with executive functions such as critical thinking, problem solving, planning, impulse control, and executive decision-making. (would be active during lucid dreaming)

Define Consciousness

Is awareness of ourself and environment. Can have different levels of consciousness and can be natural or be induced by external factors such as drugs or internal such as mental efforts.

Perception

Is conscious sensory experience of neural processing.

Define social class.

Is largely determined by economic resources (income, property). Wealthy individuals are at the top of the social hierarchy, whereas those in the working and lower classes are at the bottom.

Kinaesthesia

Is talking about movement of the body. Kinaesthesia is more behavioral while proprioception is more cognitive. You teach yourself how to move successfully to complete the task at hand. "If I move in this direction, I will hit the baseball"

Total fertility rate (TFR)

Is the average number of children born per woman during her lifetime.

What is a mental set?

It describes the inclination to use old methods to solve new problems, even when those methods are not appropriate for the current problem.

What is social desirability bias?

It describes the tendency of research participants to provide the most favorable or acceptable responses to research questions. In other words, participants may overemphasize positive behaviors (studying) while downplaying or underreporting undesirable behaviors (consuming alcohol)

What is the teacher expectancy effect?

It describes what occurs when a teacher's preconceived ideas about a student ("he is lazy") results in student performance that ultimately meets the teacher's expectations. Students may over perform (when the teacher has high expectations) or underperform (when the teacher has low expectations)

What is functional Fixedness?

It is a cognitive bias restricting the way one thinks of an object's uses to only typical or traditional uses. If someone needs a hammer but doesn't have one, functional fixedness would prevent the person from considering a paperweight or shoe to hammer the nail.

What is the foot in the door technique?

It is a compliance technique (meant to persuade someone to act) that involves posing a small request that is easy and requires little effort or expense to an individual at first. If an individual complies with the small request, a much larger request us posed second. People tend to have more favorable attitudes toward those they have just helped, increasing the likelihood they will agree to the large request.

What is sick role theory?

It is a functionalist approach describing how disruption to typical social activity (work) caused by illness is minimized through the sick role, which legitimizes illness as socially acceptable deviance.

What is fertility rate?

It is a measure of the number of people being added to a given population through birth (as opposed to immigration)

What is Factitious disorder?

It is a somatic symptom and related disorder (SSRD) that involves falsifying physical or psychological symptoms without obvious external gain (disability benefits). Fabricated memory loss to gain sympathy from other is characteristics of factitious disorder (an SSRD).

Describe the nucleus accumbent and the reward pathway.

It is a structure that is part of the reward pathway. The reward pathway also includes the ventral segmental area (which produces dopamine) and portions of the prefrontal cortex.

What is the illness experience?

It is a symbolic interactionist approach to understanding how people incorporate and make sense of illness as part of their self-identity and daily routines.

What is obedience?

It is a type of conformity in which an individual carries out orders given by an authority figure. Research on obedience suggests that people tend to obey even when doing so results in immoral or unethical behavior.

Define World Systems Theory

It is an economic theory of globalization that views the world as a global economy where some countries benefit at the expense of others.

What exactly does deviant mean?

It is any behavior that violates culturally established norms.

What is relative poverty?

It is defined in comparison to the economic conditions of others, it is a more subjective measure encompassing quality-of-life issues, such as relatively longer travel times to reach medical care using public transportation because one cannot afford a car.

What is internal validity?

It is mostly concerned with casualty, or the extent to which changes in the dependent variable can be attributed to changes in the independent variable. The presence of confounding variables, which are additional variables that might influence results or outcomes, decreases internal validity by introducing the possibility that results are attributable to a confounding variable and not to the independent variable of interest.

What is external validity?

It is mostly concerned with generalizability or the extent to which results can be applied to other situations (outside the laboratory) or beyond the sample to the larger population.

Define Power.

It is the ability to control others. Certain careers (politician) and accomplishments (large social media following) increase one's power.

What is parallel processing?

It is the cognitive ability to process color, form, motion, and depth simultaneously. Color and form are processed by the parvo pathway; motion and depth are processed by the magno pathway.

Describe what social stigmatization is.

It is the disapproval of those with a deviant characteristic that does not conform to social expectations, such as an intersex appearance. Social stigmas can result in prejudice (negative attitudes) or discrimination (unfair treatment) by others in society.

What is absolute poverty?

It is the inability to secure the basic necessities of life, such as food, clean water and shelter. An absolute level at which if you go below, survival is threatened. Minimum level of resources a human being needs to survive. This level no matter where you are. o Approx. $1-2 a day, talking about developing countries.o However, someone in Arctic needs a lot more than somewhere else. There's variability absolute poverty does not consider.o The median level of income in a society can gradually rise as country gets richer. When it does, we find less people live in absolute poverty - decrease in poverty.

What is age-specific fertility rate? (ASFR)

It is the number of live births per year for 1,000 women in a certain age group in a population. For example, the ASFR per 1,000 women age 25-29 may be in the hundred, whereas the ASFR per 1,000 women age 40-44 may been the single digits.

Define medicalization.

It is the process of defining human behaviors or characteristics as medical conditions, often results from shifting attitudes, new scientific evidence, or new treatments.

What is the dependency ratio?

It is the proportion of unproductive (too old or too young to work) to productive (working age) members in society. People under the age of 15 and over the age of 64 are considered too young/old to work. The higher the ratio, the more dependent people there are.

Define inclusive fitness.

It is the sum of its direct fitness (own reproduction) and indirect fitness (cooperative behavior that aids kin). Thus inclusive fitness serves as a metric for an individual's total evolutionary success. Female squirrels who remain near their birthplace and live by many relative, engage in altruistic behaviors that maximize the chance that kin will survive (indirect fitness).

Define evolutionary game theory.

It mathematically evaluates the relative success of particular strategies (behavioral phenotypes) over time. When the evolutionary benefit of a social behavior outweighs the cost of that behavior (warning call puts an individual at risk but increases the likelihood that genes will be passed on), game theory predicts that the behavioral phenotype will persist.

What is teacher expectancy?

It occurs when a teacher's beliefs about a student result in the student meeting the teacher's expectations and is thought to occur as a result of the teacher's behavior toward the student.

What is group think?

It occurs when groups of individuals engage in dysfunctional, dangerous, or nonsensical behavior becaUse of a desire for group cohesion outweighs critical decision-making. Groupthink explains the conscious decision making practices that occur within a defined group, so it does not explain why suicide clusters happen.

What is a sampling bias?

It occurs when study participants are recruited from a population non randomly, often resulting in a non representative sample.

What is source monitoring?

It refers to the errors that occur when an individual incorrectly attributes a memory to the wrong source. For example, an individual who reads on the AAMC website (source) that the MCAT is adding a new behavioral sciences section, but when recalling this info remembers hearing it from a friend (incorrect source), has committed a source monitoring error.

What is social constructionism?

It suggest that social reality is created through interpersonal interactions, which result in shared meanings and expected roles/behaviors.

Describe the Malthusian Theory of Population Growth.

It suggests that the human population increases exponentially while resources increase at a slower rate. According to the theory, the population growth rate can be slowed by preventative checks and positive checks. A preventative checks are those that decreases the birth rate (and are typically voluntary, such as waiting to marry) Positive checks increase the death rate, slowing population growth by shorting the average life span. They can be small scale or large scale. Large-scale positive checks that greatly reduce a population are called Malthusian catastrophes.

Similarity

Items similar to one another grouped together by the brain. Like the brain automatically organizes these squares and circles in columns, and not in rows.

Linguistic Determination

Language has an influence on thought. They are called the Weak and Strong hypothesis - referring to ho much influence they think language has on thought. § Weak Linguistic Determinism: (relativism) language influences thought. It makes it easier/more common for us to think in certain ways based on how our language is structured. Linguistic Relativism - There are differences in language between cultures. Example: The girl pushes the boy. If you imagine that statement with girl on the left, your native language probably reads from left to right like English. If you drew it with the girl on the right, your native language probably reads right to left like Hebrew. Right to left vs. left to right language influences what direction you imagine girl pushing boy. • encounters. § Strong Linguistic Determinism (aka Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis): Language determines thought completely. People understand their world Although the use of language begins in the sensorimotor stage, Piaget believed that the world of a child in this stage is understood through sensation and action. § During the preoperational stage, according to Piaget, the world is understood mainly through the use of language and mental imagery. A child in the concrete operational stage of development will use categories, logic, and concrete reasoning to understand the world. A person will describe and understand the world through scientific reasoning, hypothetical situations, and abstract relationships in the formal operational stage, according to Piaget Weak Linguistic Determinism believes linguistic structure influences but does not determine the context of everyday 87 through language, and language in turn shapes how we experience the world. Ex. Native tribe called Hopi without grammatical tense in language so they couldn't think about time in same way. The linguistic relativity hypothesis (Whorfian) asserts that cognition and perception are determined by language one speaks.

What are periphery nations?

Latin America and Africa. Relatively weak government, greatly influenced by and depend on core countries and transnational corporations. Economy focused on narrow economic activity (1 type usually) like extracting raw material. High percentage of poor/uneducated people and strong upper class that controls most of economy. Huge inequalities.

Write out/explain the three language development theories for the MCAT.

Learning Perspective: Language acquisition is learned via operant conditioning/language imitation and practice. Nativist Theory: It is innate and biologically predetermined. It also occurs during critical (time-sensitive)period early in life. Interactionist Perspective: Language acquisition is biological (due to normal brain development) and social (due to interaction, reinforcement, desire/motivation to communicate)

What are central traits?

Less dominant than cardinal. ex. honesty, sociability, shyness.

Continuity

Lines are seen as following the smoothest path.

Wernicke Area

Located in the Temporal Lobe and is responsible for language comprehension.

Broca's area function

Located in the frontal lobe, is responsible primarily for speech production, including control of the mouth that is necessary for fluent language production

Somatosensory Cortex

Located in the parietal love, receives sensory input from the body about touch sensation and position of limbs in space.

What is the left side of the brain responsible for?

Logic, sequence, rational, analytical, objective, parts, language!

What is social epidemiology?

Looks at health disparities through social indicators like race, gender, and income distribution, and how social factors affect a person's health. Correlation between social advantages/disadvantages and distribution of health + disease. Social epidemiology focuses on the contribution of social and cultural factors to disease patterns in populations (the social determinants of a disease), Emphasized how social factors, such as class or race/ethnicity, affect 260 the distribution of disease and health. As a subfield of epidemiology has a significant overlap with sociological perspective on health and disease. Both types of research call attention to the ways in which health and disease are conditioned in a social context.

What is environmental justice?

Looks at the fair distribution of the environmental benefits and burdens within society across all groups.

What is mania?

Mania is a state of high optimism, high energy, high self-esteem, euphoria, poor judgement, poor decision making (which can cause financial distress), risky behaviors (ex. Driving to quick, or risky sexual behavior), delusions of grandeur (unrealistic thoughts), heart races, people don't sleep, racing thoughts. Followed by a crash (a depressive episode).

What is mass hysteria?

Mass hysteria (or group hysteria) occurs when fear and rumor spur similar behavior among many group members. Examples of mass hysteria generally include physical symptoms (twitching, laughing) that have no apparent cause and spread within an isolated community.

What is delivery of healthcare?

Massive inequalities in terms of access. We take care of elderly through Medicaid and Medicare, and children through health child insurance. But people in between are left behind - those who populate working force (when they get sick they can seriously effect society). Affordable Care Act is trying to fix this but too early to tell. Spend a lot of $ on healthcare without desired outcomes, because we invest a lot more in helping people when they are sick instead of developing preventative medicine.

Define Symbolic Interactionism.

Meaning and value attached to symbols. Individual interactions based on these symbols. Perspective: micro. Theorists: Charles cooley and George Herbet Mead.

Tolerance

Means you are used a drug so you need more of it to achieve the same effect (ex, you took cocaine so there is lots of dopamine in the synapse. Pst-synaptic neuron has receptors for dopamine. Long-term stimulation can lead to brain shutting down some receptor because of high levels of dopamine; therefore same amount of drugs won't cause the same high.

What is a Positron Emission Tomography (PET)?

Measures glucose metabolism in the brian. Scanner detects radioactive tracer attached to a glucose analog.

What is a Magnetoencephalogram (MEG)?

Measures magnetic fields produced by electrical brain activity.

Explain the role of melatonin, circadian clock, core body temp, and plasma cortisol levels.

Melatonin, a hormone released from the pineal gland when light levels are low, synchronizes the internal circadian clock according to daylight. The circadian clock regulates circadian rhythms (physiological processes fluctuating around a 24-hour cycle), including core body temperature and plasma cortisol levels.

What is a utilitarian organization?

Members are compensated for their involvement typically through money or certification/diploma

What is a coercive organization?

Membership is not freely chosen (prisoners) and/or maintained (military service members must be discharged)

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that often lead to a solution (but not always). Reduces the # of solutions we need to try by taking an approach as to what possibilities could exist and eliminates trying unlikely possibilities. Don't guarantee a correct solution, but they do simply complex problems and reduce total # of solutions we will try in order to get to a more manageable #. Ex. Focusing on one category of solutions OR guessing a PW that contains your birthday.

What enzyme breaks down of monamines in the presynaptic neuron?

Monoamine oxidase, an enzyme attached to the mitochondria in axon terminals that catalyzes the oxidation (breakdown) of monoamines. It functions to recycle monoamines that have been removed from the synaptic cleft.

Mores

More deviant, there are more serious punishments (like learning no clothes in public)

What are some effects and examples of narcotic analgesics "pain killers"?

Morphine, codeine, herion Lessens sensation of pain

What are the three main abnormalities associated with Alzheimer's disease?

Most common disorder in dementia category, or neurocognitive disorders. Loss of cognitive functions. Memory also decreases. But normal motor functions are fine until later stages where they lose basic activities of daily living (ADL) - toileting, eating, bathing, etc. Under microscope, 3 main abnormalities: loss of neurons, plaques (amyloid, because plaques are made of beta-amyloid. Occur in spaces between cells, outside of neurons in abnormal clumps), and tangles (neurofibrillary tangles, clumps of a protein tau. Located inside neurons. Develop proteins normally in the brain, but changed so it's abnormal and causes them to clump together). o Not clear if they're what's killing neurons, or if they're a by-product. Group of neurons at base of cerebrum, called the nucleus basalis is often lost early in course of Alzheimer's. Important for cognitive functions - send long axons to cerebral cortex and through cerebrum, and release acetylcholine. Contribute to cognitive functions of disease.

Benzodiazepines

Most commonly prescribed suppressant. Subscribed for same things as barbiturates-sleep aids, or anti anxiety or anticonvulsants. They enhance your brain's response to GABA-activated chloride channels in your neurons, and make neurons more charged. They bind to a site on the GABA, receptor complex the regulates the sensitivity of the receptor complex.

Sleepwalking/sleep talking

Mostly genetic, and occurs during stage 3 sleep and is harmless. Occurs more often in children (partly because they have more stage 3 sleep than adults)

Social Mobility

Movement of individuals, groups, or families, between or within status categories in society (eg from middle class to upper class). It can be horizontal or vertical and is related to a multitude of other factors (education, job loss, marriage, and institutionalized discrimination.

Fungiform papillae

Mushroom-like protuberances often containing taste buds and located on the sides and tip of the tongue.

What is the drive reduction theory?

Need is lack or deprivation that will energize the drive, or aroused state. § That drive is the aroused state. Fulfilling the drive will reduce the need. This need-drive balance is what maintains homeostasis. Typically basic, essential, and physiological § Ex. You are at the gym and need for water. Trainer says you need to do more exercise. In this example, need: water, drive: thirst. Doing push ups is means to fulfill drive for water.

Retroactive Interference

New learning impairs old info. Refers to later information interfering with memory for earlier information. § ex. Writing new address makes it difficult to recall your old address

What is assortative mating?

Non-random mating where individuals with certain phenotypes/genotypes/similarities/genes/physical appearance tend to mate with each other at a higher frequency, ex. large animals mate with large animals and small animals mate with small animals. § Can result in inbreeding which is a problem that occurs if animals too genetically similar mate. Tends can be harmful to species overall. Increase likelihood of harmful recessive traits being passed on to offspring.

What are norms reinforced by?

Norms are reinforced by sanctions - rewards/punishments for behaviours in accord with or against norms respectively. Positive sanction - a reward for conforming to norms. Negative sanction - a punishment for violating norms. Formal sanction - officially recognized and enforced. Informal sanction - unofficially recognized and does not result in specific

What is a good pneumonic for the stages of psychosexual development (Freud)?

OLD AGE PARROTS LOVE GRAPES or OLD AGE PENSIONERS LOVE GRAPES/GENITALS or ORANGANTANGES ALWAYS PLAY with LITTLE GORILLAS 214 o Old = oral, age = anal, parrots = phallic, love = latent, grapes = genital Depending on what stage we're at, going to be different fixation of energy at certain body part.o For oral stage - focus is mouth. For anal stage, anus, phallic is genitals, latent is none, and genital stage is the genitals.

Closure

Objects grouped together are seen as whole. Minds fills in missing information.

Proximity

Objects that are close are grouped together, we naturally group the closer tings together rather than things farther apart.We group things close to one another together!

Observational Learning

Observational learning (aka social learning/vicarious learning) is learned through watching and imitating others - such as modeling actions of another. o Mirror neurons found that support this.o Aggression is environmentally learnt and mass-media can have an performance effect (performance is situationally dependent depending on If the actor is rewarded or punished)

Attentional capture

Occurs when attention is attracted by the motion of an object or stimulus

Neglect Syndrome

Occurs when damage to the brain causes a change or loss in the capacity of the spatial dimension of divided attention

Define social exclusion.

Occurs when individuals are marginalized to the point of being unable to participate in society economically (earning money, purchasing goods/services), socially (interacting with others), and civically (voting). Social exclusion is tied to many circumstances that are stigmatized in society (mental illness, poverty), although it is unclear whether social exclusion is a cause or a result of such factors.

Substance-use disorders

Occurs when individuals use the drug and it causes a serious/real degree of impairment in functioning in life, at work, school or home. It is a PROBLEM WITH THEIR SUBSTANCE UCE. Are they using increasingly larger amounts? Do they experience withdrawals? Are they possibly tolerant of this substance

Stereotype boost/lift

Occurs when positive stereotypes about social groups cause improved performance. "Asians are good at math", then the asians perform well on the test.

What is experimenter bias?

Occurs when researchers deliberately or inadvertently influence the results. Often, this bias leads to results that confirm what the researcher was expecting.

Experimenter Bias

Occurs when researchers deliberately or inadvertently influence their study, often leading to results that confirm what the research was expecting.

Transduction

Occurs whenever energy is transformed from one form to another; in this case, light energy is transformed to electrical energy by rods and cones.

Define Continuity

Older adults attempt to maintain the habits and behaviors from their youth

Dfine Disengagement

Older adults withdraw from social relationships/society as society withdraws from them

How does stress impact depression?

One of major emotional responses of stress is depression (problem is anhedonia - inability to experience pleasure, so perceive more stressors). o Biological backing: The anterior cingulate (anterior part of the frontal cortex) stops responding to serotonin. (acronym: anterior cingulate responds to serotonin - Anterior designers are CINGLEate (single) and love SEXetonin....when they get stressed they stop having SEXetonin (stop responding to serotonin) o Learned helplessness - you learn from having control ripped out of hands that you don't have control, so lose ability to identify coping mechanisms because taking less control of outcome of your life. Cycle continues downward into major depression.

Decay

One reason forgetting happens. When we don't encode something well or don't retrieve it for a while, we can't recall it anymore. One theory is that the pathway between cue and memory become weaker over time or periods of disuse which makes it harder to stimulate those neurons. If you learn something once and never revisit, it is likely to decay over time. Initial rate of forgetting/decay is high but levels off over time.

Size Constancy

One that appears larger because its closer, we still think its the same size.

What is operant conditioning?

Operant conditioning ALSO CALLED Instrumental Conditioning focuses on the relationship between behavior and their consequences, and how those in turn influence the behaviour (classical conditioning no change in behaviour) In operant conditioning, behaviours have consequences - two types: reinforcement (increase a behavior) and punishment (decrease a behavior). Two types of reinforcement (positive and negative) and two types of punishment (positive and negative).

Opiates/Opioids

Opiates- natural Opoids- Synthetic They are like depressants, they decrease CNS function, decrease HR/BP, cause relaxation, induce sleep (hence can be used to treat pain and anxiety), but it is NOT a depressant. They work on different mechanisms at the neurochemical level. Examples include heroine, codeine, morphine, oxycodne. They are often used to treat pain because they act at body's receptor sites for endorphins. Depressants acton GABA receptors while opiates act on endorphin receptors. They often lead to euphoria, and cause vasodilation and pupillary constriction. An overdose would lead to respiratory failure.

Hippocampus

Plays an important role in the initial consolidation of declarative memory and long term potentiation.

What is Stage 4 of the Demographic Transition Model?

Population stabilizes, both birth and death rates are low and balance each other out. Population is large because it has been growing until Stage 4. § Low Birth Rates: improvement in contraception and high percentage of women in workforce. Many Couples focus on careers over children. Ex: US/Australia § Pyramid Model: Low Stationary Pyramid. Low birth rates and low death rates (longer life expectancy)

What is PET?

Positron emission tomography. The scanner detects radioactive tracer attached to a glucose analog. IT measures changes in glucose metabolism in the brain over time.

What is illness anxiety disorder?

Preoccupation with having or acquiring a serious diseases (HIV, cancer)

Describe George Mead's Theory of the Social Self.

Prepatory (or imitation): Babies/toddlers imitate others and begin using symbols and language without meaning comprehensions. At this stage, children have no sense of "self" as separate from the world around them. Play: Through play, preschool age children begin role-taking. When children understand themselves as individuals separate from others, the "I" component of the self has developed. Children that begin to imagine how others perceive them, which is the beginning of the development of the "me". Game: School-age children become aware of their position/role in relation to others. They begin to see themselves from the perspective of the more abstract generalized other, further developing the "me" to incorporate the values and rules of the society in which they live.

Describe habituation in the context of drugs.

Pretend you are a cocaine addict, and you are always in the same room when you get cocaine. Your brain tells body to get a head start to lower HR before you take the drug to begin the compensation process for a drug like cocaine, This is why you need higher doses over time... habituation!

What is labeling?

Primary deviance (a small social norm violation) leads to a deviant label and social stigma, causing secondary deviance (more serious violations)

What is attribution?

Process of inferring causes of events/behaviours. o Attribution can either internal or external, our focus will be on external.o Everyday, we make tons of attributions on environment, our own behavior, and those around uso Inference a person is behaving a certain way based on situation they're in.o 3 main parts of external attribution: consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus

Signal Detection

Process that attempt to detect a signal or target of interest. This allows responses to be primed and quick actions undertaken in response to the signal or target of interest. i.e. a pothole in the road is detected and avoidance actions are taken .

LSD

Protoptypical hallucinogen. Interferes with serotonin, which causes people to experience hallucinations (which are visual instead of auditory).

Explain the difference between reinforcements/punishers and primary and secondary of those.

Punishers are just negative. Like electric shock (very bad) for primary, and bad grades/ speeding ticket for secondary.

Experimental Design

Quantitave approach whereby the researcher manipulates independent variables to measure their effect on dependent variables.

What are randomized controlled trials?

Random allocation into treatment and placebo groups. Can determine efficacy of the intervention.

What is the right side of the brian responsible for?

Random, intuitive, holistic, synthesizing, subjective, attention, tone or emotion behind language

Visual Processing

Ray of light from the left visual field hits the NASAL side of the left eye and hits the TEMPORAL side of the right eye. Optic nerves from each eye networks the electrical signal to the brain and converge from each eye at the optic chiasm and then breaks off and digs deeper into the brain. Now, all light from the nasal side of both eyes cross to the other side so left nasal info goes to the right side and vice versa. The right visual field goes to the left brain, and the left visual field goes to the right side of the brain.

What is dependency theory?

Reaction to Modernization theory. Uses idea of Core + Periphery countries to look at inequalities between countries. Periphery countries (3rd world countries) export resources to Core countries (first world). This is not because they are in an earlier stage of development but because they have been integrated into the world economy as an undeveloped countries. They don't have means to become a developed nation. They will remain poor and dependent on wealthier nations.

What components of memory decline during aging?

Recall becomes more difficult (although recognition is stable), episodic memories impaired (forming new episodic memories is difficult, old memories stable), processing speed (older people have a harder time outputting a response), and divided attention (becomes harder to switch attention between task and become easily distracted). Also prospective memory (remembering to do things in future) is decreased.

What happens if we put a salty receptor inside a sweet cell?

Receptors in membrane bind to glucose. But let's insert salty receptor. Since axon from cell leads to brain, if naCl comes in and activates the receptor, +ions go inside, sweet cell depolarizes and fires an AP, and brain interprets it as a sweet signal. Put a salty receptor in a sweet cell, can trick your brain to thinking its sugar!

What is reciprocal determinism?

Reciprocal determinism is the interaction between a person's behaviours, personal factors (motivation/cognition), and environment are all determined by one another

What are the different types of cones?

Red, green, blue

Intoxication

Refers to behavioral and psychological effects on the person. These are drug specific, like being drunk or high.

Sensory Adaption

Refers to decreasing perception of a constant stimulus over time. For example, you notice the smell of cookies baking when you first walk into the kitchen, but no longer notice it half and hour later.

What is false consciousness?

Refers to individuals from lower classes adopting the misleading views of the upper class and therefore accepting the status quo 9injustive, exploitation).

Define social status.

Refers to one's prestige (reputation). Certain careers (physician), personal characteristics (attractiveness), and achievements (winning a gold medal) confers status that is not necessarily tied to wealth (although it can be).

Prejudice

Refers to preconceived ideas and beliefs about people or groups based other group membership.

What is social reproduction?

Refers to the fact that the successive generations tend to occupy the same social class (children born into lower social class families tend to occupy a lower social class as adults).

What is educational stratification?

Refers to the mechanisms that produce inequality in educational access (schools available to students) and outcomes (graduation rates, college matriculation) in society. Students are stratified in the education system as a result of social characteristics, such as parent's income or influence.

Social Reproduction

Refers to transmission of society's values, norms, and practices, including social inequality, from one generation to the next. Children with a parent who has been incarcerated are more likely to be incarcerated themselves.

Generational Status

Refers to whether individuals were born in the country in which they reside.

What can we learn from the Milgram experiments?

Regular everyday people will comply with an authority figure even if it goes against their moral values and harming others.

What is religion as defined by the MCAT?

Religion - religiosity: how religious a person is can range from private beliefs/spiritual routines, to institutionalized religion, celebrating certain holidays, reading a spiritual text, praying often etc. o Ecclesia - dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, ex. Lutheranism in Sweden and Islam in Iran. o Churches are established religious bodies in a larger society. [ex. Roman catholic church] o Sects tend to be smaller and are established in protest of established church. They break away from churches. Ex. Mormon/Amish o Cults are more radical, reject values of outside society. Rise when there's a breakdown of societal belief systems, but usually short-lived because depend on inspirational leader who will only live so long. o Religion has been effected by:§ Modernization: more info available to public, less emphasis on religion. o Secularization is the weakening of social and political power of religious organizations, as religious involvement declines. o Fundamentalism - reaction to secularization, go back to strict religious beliefs. Create social problems when people become too extreme.

Describe what religiosity means.

Religious affiliation describes an individual identifying with a religious group, whereas religiosity (or religiousness) is the degree to which an individual internalizes that religion, as demonstrated by the individual's beliefs, behaviors, and identity.

Define Activity

Remaining physically and socially active improves quality of life for older adults

What is panic disorder?

Repeated, uncontrollable and unpredictable panic attacks (overwhelming surges of anxiety that peak within minutes)

Damaging effects of stress on our Reproductive system

Reproduction huge energy expense in women, so this gets shut down during stress response.o In women - FSH/LH and then estrogen/progesterone can be inhibited which reduce reproductive abilitieso Boys have a reduced testosterone as well, but precise levels of testosterone not required so never really reduced to the point of infertility. Impotence /erectile dysfunction also often caused by stress because your blood vessels are being constricted (less blood flow to penis) and allows more blood to remain in core. § Impotence usually due to stress in the US!

Endogenous/Internal Cues

Require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it. Ex: a mouse arrow, would need internal arrow of what an arrow is to follow it and to know it's not just a random line. Like the cocktail party effect--> laity to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd. Or when someone cals your name!

Differences between rods and cones

Rods contain rhodopsin while cones have photopsin. There are more rods than cones. Rods are 10000x more sensitive to light can cones. They are better at detecting light- telling us whether light is present (ie black/white vision). Cones detect color but also some light. Rods have slow recovery time vs cones fast recovery time.

What is the psychoanalytic theory?

Says personality is shaped by childhood experiences person's unconscious thoughts/desires, feelings, and past memories (particularly experiences in childhood). Personality has memories, beliefs, urges, drives, and instincts that we are not always aware of that make up the unconscious. Says childhood experiences and unconscious desires o 2 instinctual drives motivate human behavior:§ Libido -natural energy source - fuels energy of mind for motivation for survival, growth, pleasure, etc.§ Death instinct - drives aggressive behaviours fuelled by unconscious wish to die or hurt oneself/others

What is the mass society theory?

Scepticism about groups that were involved in social movement, said social movements would only form for people seeking refuge from main society. Ex. Nazism, Fascism, Stalinism (social movements in 20th century that destroyed millions of lives). [People who joined social movements were dysfunctional, irrational, and dangerous]. Theory did not persist. People only join to satisfy a psychological need for involvement.

What is stage 2 of Demographic Transition Model?

Seen in beginnings of developing populations/countries. Population rises as death rate decreases/lower death rate (availability of food, improvement in health and sanitation). Trend was seen in 19th century Western-Europe after Industrial Revolution. High birth rates remain. Overall population growth. § Pyramid Model: Early Expanding Population Pyramid. High birth rates and death rate declining so you get a nice pyramid shape.

What is segregation?

Segregation is a way of separating out groups of people and giving them access to a separate set of resources within the same society o Idea "separate but equal", which is rarely true in practice.o Segregated people often have worse resources.o Segregation is maintained by law/public institutions, or more informal processes like "hidden discrimination".o Social isolation - when community voluntarily isolates itself from mainstream, based on their own religious/cultural/other beliefs

Spotlight model of attention

Selective attention - takes info from 5 senses, but don't pay attention to everything. You are aware of things at an unconscious level- ex is priming, where exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus, even if we haven't been consciously paying attention to it.

What is self concept?

Self-concept aka Self Identity - is how someone thinks-about/perceives/evaluates themselves, aka self-awareness. o Derived from self-esteem and self-efficacy (talked about in next video)o Development of self-concept has 2 parts: first, an existential self and then a categorical self.

What is a stereotype threat?

Self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. Occurs when members of a group are made aware of a negative stereotype about their group before engaging in an activity, causing performance to suffer.

Signal Detection and its 4 Outcomes

Signal Detection Theory quantifies how decisions are made amid noise (distractions). The theory includes four possible outcomes: correct detection (signal present and correctly detected), false negative (signal present but not detected), false positive (signal absent but incorrectly detected) or correct rejection (signal absent and correctly determined to be absent)

Stage 3 of Sleep

Slow wave sleep. Very difficult to awaken. Characterized by delta waves. Where sleep walking/talking in sleep happens. Declarative Memory consolidation.

Are olfaction and gustation contralateral or ipsilateral?

Smell (olfaction) and taste (gustation) don't synapse onto the thalamus and hence are both ipsalateral while vision/hearing/touch are contralateral.

Define Social constructionism

Social actors define what is real. Knowledge about world based on interactions. Perspective :macro or micro Theorists: not important for MCAT

What is social constructionism?

Social constructionism argues that people actively shape their reality through social interactions/agreement - it's something constructed, not inherent. Things are social products made of the values of the society that created it. o A social construct is concept/practice everyone in society agrees to treat a certain way regardless of its inherent value, ex. money. Social constructionism is theory that knowledge is not real, and only exists because we give them reality through social agreement - nations, books, etc. don't exist in absence of human society. o The self is a social construct too - our identity is created by interactions with other people, and our reactions to the other people. (and reaction to expectations to society)

What is social control?

Social control is the exertion of influence by a group to ensure that the behavior of individuals conforms to that of h=the group.

Social Constructionism

Social factors define what is real Knowledge about world based on interactions Perspective is macro or micro

What is the looking glass self?

Socialization also shapes our self-image and self-concept, and Charles Cooley used the term "looking glass self" to describe this process - idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others. Thought this happened in 3 steps o 1) How do I appear to others?o 2) What must others think of me? (are we: shy, intelligent, funny, or awkward) o 3) Revise how we think about ourselves (based on correct OR incorrect perceptions on others evaluations).

What is socialization and its major agents?

Socialization describes the lifelong process of learning the norms, values, and behaviors of one's own society. The process of learning through social interaction with others is the foundation of socialization. Major agents are family, friends, school workplace, and mass media.

Describe functionalism.

Society= an organism. Each part of society works to maintain dynamic equilibrium (homeostasis). Perspective: macro Theorists: Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons

Functionalism

Society=an organism Each part of society works to maintain dynamic equilibrium (homeostasis) Perspective= macro Theorists: Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons

Conflict Theory

Society=struggle for limited resources Inequality based on social class Perspective= Macro Theorists= Karl Marx and Max Weber

Define conflict.

Society=struggle for limited resources. Inequality based on social class. Perspective; macro Theorists: Karl Marx and Max Weber

Proactive Interference

Something you learned in past impairs learning in future. Earlier information interferes with later information.§ ex. New password learning - prior pw learning impairs ability to learn new one.

Interactionist Approach to Language

Sometimes called social interactionist approach. Believe biological and social factors have to interact in order for children to learn language. Children's desire to communicate with others - such as adults in their life, makes them motivated to learn language. Associated with Vygotsky.

What are ways animals communicate?

Sound (like barking) Chemical signals/olfactory signals Somatosensory communication (like bee's mating dances) Visual cues (like oh she's hot)

Anterior Chamber

Space filled with aqueous humor, which provides pressure to maintain the shape of eyeball; allows nutrients and minerals to supply cells of cornea/iris.

Who came up with the theory that there is 1 general intelligence?

Spearman Evidence comes from fact people who score well on one test also tend to score well on other types of test, ex. Verbal and math skills. relative to other people, you tend to equal in both skills, although relative to oneself they might be different Factor underlying these consistent abilities is called g factor (acronym: g = general intelligence)

Cultural Diffusion

Spread of beliefs and behaviors from one cultural group to another. Describes exchange between out-groups, such as the popularity of sushi in America. Different from cultural transmission. Cultural Transmission occurs from generation to generation. Cultural Transmission: cultural transmission addresses how culture is learned. Culture is passed along from generation to generation through various childrearing practices, including when parents expose children to music.

Sensorimotor Stage

Stage 1 of Piaget's States of Development: 0-2 years old - Sensorimotor Stage (sensory = senses - children gather information about the world via sight, smell, taste, hearing, touch etc. + motor = active, as you develop how to use senses you learn to move your body around). Main task/awareness develops is object permanence: objects exist even if they can't see them.

Theta Waves

Stage 1 of Sleep. Slower/lower frequency than alpha waves. Occurs during drowsiness or right after you fall asleep or when you are sleeping lightly.

What is the sleep cycle?

Stage 1--> Stage 2--> Stage 2--> Stage 2--> REM--> N1 We cycle through these 4-5 times per sleep, each one being 90 minutes.

Describe the four stages of sleep.

Stage 1: Fleeting thoughts, hallucinations, muscle twitches. Stage 2: Increased relaxation. K-complexes Stage 3/4: Deepest sleep, Growth Hormone released REM: Muscle paralysis, dreaming. Beta waves, rapid eye movements, Cardiovascular and respiratory activities become irregular, body temp drops to its lowest point

Preoperational Stage

Stage 2 of Piaget's stages of development: 2-6/7 years old (approx.) - Preoperational stage (operational = mental operations like imagining things") - When children are going to develop/engage in pretend play. Start to use symbols to represent things. Words symbolize objects and children start understanding symbols. Also, very egocentric - only concerned about themselves, no empathy (they don't understand that other people have a different point of view than they do) (ex. A child might not understand that sitting in front of you while you watch TV will prevent you from seeing TV, since they can see). Stage of "I can't see you, you can't see me"

Concrete Operational

Stage 3 of Piaget's Stages of development: 7-11 years old- Concrete operational "(operational = mental operations". Learn idea of conservation. § Can do test to find out if they're in this stage - take 2 identical glasses with same amount of water, and kids will tell you they have the same amount. Then, pour one into short fat glass and other into tall skinny glass in front of the child and ask child which one has more. Before this stage will say tall glass, because the water is higher, but once they reach concrete operational stage and understand amount of water doesn't change just because the glass size changes then they will tell you that they have the same amount of water even though they look different. Also begin to learn empathy; begin reasoning of math skills.

Formal Operational

Stage 4: 12+ years old - Formal operational stage - reason abstract consequences, and reason consequences; moral reasoning. At this point children are reasoning more like adults and they continue to develop that overtime. § Acronym: Stage 4 - "4 is a door" and Formal Operations: picture a very wide door and behind that door are "four males" with excellent abs (for abstract thinking, which is possible at this stage). The concrete operational stage describes children who are able to grasp concrete (real) events logically, conversion, and reversibility ( ability to recognize that numbers or objects can be changed and returned to their original condition.

Bottom-up Processing

Starts with sensory input and builds up to a final perception in the brain

Weber Law

States that the smallest difference between two stimuli that can be perceived (called the just noticeable difference) is based on the original stimulus intensity, not on a constant value. If you can barely perceive the difference between 10 lbs and 11 lbs (10% difference), you can also just barely detect a difference between 50 lbs and 55 lbs ( a 10% difference).

Subliminal Stimuli

Stimuli that are below the absolute threshold of sensation.

Appraisal Theory of Stress

Stress arises less from physical events but more from the assessment/interpretation of those stresses/events. Appraisal. This is the Appraisal theory of stress. There are two stages to the cognitive stages of stress - the primary appraisal and the secondary appraisal

What is a dominant group?

Subcultures include ethnic groups like Mexicans or orthodox Jews, or groups like the elite upper class. Subculture can cause tension with dominant group-which have the power to determine the cultural expectations of society.

Define social epidemiology.

Subfield of epidemiology that focuses on the effect of social factors on individual and population health.

Stress Reaction

Subsequent physical and emotional response (ex. bunny's response to the dog chasing it).

What is the spreading activation model?

Suggests that when a node in the semantic network is activated (viewing a picture of a toy fire engine), nodes directly connected to that node (firefighter, alarm) are activated as well, which is known as priming.

Labeling Theory

Suggests that when someone is labeled as deviant, the act of being labeled produces further deviance. The initial act is called primary deviance, and, if labeled, results in social stigma such as disapproval by others.

What is systematic desensitization?

Systematic Desensitization was developed by Joseph Wolpe and is a process that involvers teaching the client to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation. It works great with phobias. If Akira has a horrific phobia of spiders, the therapist will teach Akira relaxation techniques (or give Akira a magical feel good drug). Slowly spiders are introduced to Akira. First maybe just a picture, then one in a cage, then one outside of a cage etc... The goal is to get Akira to associate spiders with the drugs or relaxation techniques. Eventually, seeing a spider will cause Akira to relax (in theory).

Displacement

Taking out unacceptable thoughts/behaviors on a safe target (punching a pillow when angry at parents)

The types of somatosensation

Temperature (thermoception), pressure (mechanoception), pain (nociception), and position (proprioception)

Fundamental Attribution Error

Tendency to blame others' behavior on internal instead of external behaviors. The fundamental attribution error fails to account for the finding regarding someone's attributions for their OWN behavior.

What is the social-cognitive theory?

The Social-Cognitive Theory view behaviours as being influenced by people's traits/cognitions and their social context. Talking about interactions between individual and situation they're in. o Cognition -> Environment -> Behavior (the order can change as well)o Ex. Meg is interested in soccer (cognition), joins a soccer team (environment), and spends time with soccer players (behavior). Cognition -> Environment -> Behavior § Or, she can spend a lot of time with soccer players (behavior), become interested in it (cognition), and joins a soccer team (environment). Behavior à Cognition à Environment § Or, she hangs with soccer players (behavior), so she joins a soccer team to hang out w/ them more (environment), and then after playing for a while develop a real interest in soccer (cognition). This then reinforces her hanging with the team. BehavioràEnvironmentàCognition. • This theory was developed by Bandura (same scientist who did work on observational learning). Our learning is through observation of others, and observation of behavior of others.

What is self-control?

The ability to control our impulses and delay gratification. Influences how we behave. Humans have natural desires: motivations associated with pleasure or release from displeasure. Aren't necessarily bad (ex. Desire to drink water to live). When they become a temptation: when desire conflicts with values or long term goals. (ex. Wanting to eating a candy bar while having the long-term goal of losing weight, or watch a series on Netflix vs. graduating with your PhD). o So self-control is focussing on long-term goals while putting off short-term temptations.

What is the behaviorist theory?

The behaviourist theory says personality is the result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment - it's deterministic, in that people begin as blank states and the environment completely determines their behavior/personalities. Do not take thoughts and feelings into account. Environment-->BEHAVIOR 1. Skinner - strict behaviourist, associated with concept of operant conditioning. Uses rewards/punishment to increase/decrease behaviour, respectively. 2. Pavlov - associated with classical conditioning, ex. Pavlov dog experiment. Places a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to trigger an involuntary response. Ex. ringing a bell in presence of food causes dog to start salivating. o People have consistent behaviour patterns because we have specific response tendencies, but these can change, and that's why our personality develops over our entire lifespan. Constantly evolving and changing.

Parallel Processing

The brain's ability to process several different components of a stimulus simultaneously. Explain why humans are capable of perceiving various aspects of visual stimuli simultaneously, such as form and location.

Compare and contrast the central and peripheral visual fields.

The central (foveal) view has in increase in density of cone photoreceptors (color), is good for bright light conditions as well as color/detail perception. It increases visual acuity. Peripheral view has an increase in rod photoreceptors, good in dim light conditions, and detect motion and is sensitive to light.

Contextual Effects

The context in which stimuli are presented and the processes of perceptual organization contribute to how people perceive those stimuli (and also that the context can establish the way in which stimuli are organized)

What is the halo effect?

The halo effect is tendency people have inherently good/bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics. Ex. the physical attractiveness stereotype - believe attractive people have more positive personality traits. Ex. Jim, our initial overall impression is in the middle. His accounting rating/skills is very high, sales are negative, and leadership is moderately good. o Halo effect - as if someone has a halo over their head. If we have an overall positive first impression, we start to analyze all their skills based on our overall first impression rather than just skills. They get an overall boost in each of their skills because of our impression. § Ex: Now imagine, he has overall very good impression, even though he has the same actual skillset. We would perceive that the person is much better at other skills not demonstrated. Regardless of evidence, We may perceive he's actually pretty good at sales instead of below average, We may say he is extra-ordinary in leadership and accounting instead of just good. o Halo effect often happens with celebrities, and greater attractiveness.§ Ex; we think attractive people are kind, good leaders, hospitable without actual evidence.

What is the superego?

The internalization of cultural ideals and parental sanctions. "Morals" Interjection/Internalization. The Superego inhibits Sexual and Aggressive impulses, and tries to replace reality with morality, striving for perfection. The Superego has subsystems: - The Conscious - what you should not be "wrong" - The Ego Ideal - what you should/want to be "right" o If you think about this theory, its the classic angel(super-ego) and devil (id)on the shoulder telling you what to do. It is up to you to decide (ego), but if your conscious self (ego)is weak, you'll end up having one of the other two take over- leading to an imbalance. This is why psychoanalytic therapy focuses on raising the intrapsychic conflicts to the conscious level.

What does the brainstem consist of?

The medulla and pons and midbrains. It controls beat/breathing and is a cross over point for our nerves for sure

Absolute Threshold of sensation

The minimum intensity of stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

How does a molecule bind to a receptor and cause an AP?

The molecule binds to the GPCR receptor on odor molecule--> GPCR on olfactory epithelia--> G protein dissociates and causes a cascade of events inside the cell--> G protein binds to ion channel which allows cells outside the cell to come inside--> opens and triggers an AP--> goes to cribriform plate--> glomerulus--> activate mitral/tufted cell--> synapse cell *The pathway for olfaction goes from the olfactory bulb to the amygdala and the piriform cortex. From there the signal is transmitted to the orbitofrontal cortex.

Processing

The neural transformation of multiple neural signals into a perception.

Pupil

The opening in the middle of the iris. The size of the pupil can get bigger/smaller based on the iris relaxing/contracting respectively. The pupil modulate the amount of light able to enter the eyeball.

Describe the placebo effect.

The placebo effects occurs when the administration of an inactive substance or sham procedure (the placebo) corresponds to the improvement of symptoms, often related to a person's belief that a treatment will work.

What is fecundity?

The potential reproductive capacity of a female

What is cultural relativism?

The practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one's own culture. Judge and understand another culture he practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one's own culture. from within their culture -o No absolute right or wrong, but we have different cultures which are themselves valid.o Important to consider: Can falter if someone uses it to conduct activities that violate rights of humans no matter what culture they're from. o "Refers to an awareness of differences across cultures in norms, values, and other elements of culture"

What is globalization?

The process by which tangibles (products) and intangibles (values/idas) spread across the globe, occurs primarily as a result of advances in technology and communication.

What is the serial position effect?

The relative ease (or difficulty) of remembering an item from a list is related to the item's position on the list. The items that are easiest to recall are those from the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of the list, while muddle items are the hardest to recall.

Ethnography

The scientific description of the customs or social phenomena of individual peoples and cultures. Study people in their natural environment (within their communities) and provide descriptive info about culture, behaviors, norms, in a geographic location.

What is the optic disc?

The site where the optic nerve attaches to the eye - no vision (photoreceptor cells) here. It is known as the blind spot.

Difference Threshold or Just Noticeable Difference

The smallest difference between two stimuli that a person can detect 50% of the time is called the difference threshold, or just noticeable difference.

just noticeable difference (JND)

The smallest difference that can be detected 50% of the time. Different from the absolute threshold.

What are class systems?

The social class individuals are born into influences their opportunities and resources. However, an individual's status is at least partially achieved (voluntarily earned) through effort and/or ability. Social status is less clearly defined and boundaries between classes are not definite. Therefore, social mobility (movement between classes) is possible.

What is a master status?

The status that supersedes other identifying traits; for example, of a woman feels that her roles as a mother is more important than her roles as a woman, a daughter ,etc., she is more likely to identify herself as a mother and to identify with other women who label themselves as such.

Trichromatic Theory of Color

The theory that color perception results from three types of cones in the retina, each most sensitive to either red, green, or blue; other colors result from a mixture of these three.

What is the labeled line theory?

The theory that olfaction describes a scenario where each receptor would respond to specific stimuli and is directly linked to the brain.

gate-control theory of pain

The theory that pain is a product of both physiological and psychological factors that cause spinal gates to open and relay patterns of intense stimulation to the brain, which perceives them as pain. Non-painful stimuli "close" gates, painful stimuli "open" gates.

What is the vibrational theory of olfaction?

The vibrational frequency of a molecule gives that molecules its specific oder profile.

How many different olfactory epithelial cells are there?

There are nearly 100 different olfactory epithelial cells each sensitive to one particular molecule. They all send projections to one glomerulus respective to their specialization. Then they synapse onto a mitral/tufted cell which signals to the brian.

Define social networks.

They are informal and nonhierarchical webs of interaction between nodes (individuals) which are linked by ties. Ties describe the connections between the bodes and are defined as strong or weak. Weak ties are losse/flimsy connections, such as those between acquaintances, whereas strong ties are more solid connections, such as those between family and close friends.

What are rods?

They are sensitive to low levels of light, and are responsible for night vision but not for color vision. More numerous than cones, rods are present primarily in the periphery of the retina.

What are manifest functions?

They are the intended consequences of a social structure. For example, the media is meant to disseminate information.

What are dyads?

They are the smallest sociological group. Dyadic relationships characterize the interaction between the two people.

What are twin studies?

They are used to estimate the importance of genetic and environmental factors on complex human traits, such as color perception. Although they are rare, twin adoption studies can help clarify the role of genes versus the environment for specific traits.

Barbiturates

They are used to sleep or reduce anxiety. They depress your CNS. Anesthesia or anticonvulsant drugs. They are not often prescribed due to negative side effects such as reduced memory, judgement and concentration, with alcohol it can lead to death. They induce sleep and reduce anxiety. Side effects include reduced memory, judgement, and concentration. Combining them with alcohol leads to death

What are sleep-wake disorders?

They include conditions marked by disturbed sleep causing distress and/or impaired functioning. Sleep wake disorders fall broadly into two categories: parasomnias and dyssomnias,

What are depressants

They lower our body's basic functions and neural activity, lower CNs activity, decrease heart rate, decrease BP, decrease processing/reaction time, etc. Three categories: alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines

When are attachment styles formed?

They reflect the emotional bond between child and caregiver, are not formed during the first few hours of birth but rather from during the first few years of life as a result of repeated interactions. The nature of this ongoing contact between child and caregiver can produce a secure or insecure attachment.

Conjunctiva

Thin layer of cells that lines the inside of your eyelids from the eye

Monocular Cues

Things we can detect without two eyes: Relative size: The closer an object it is perceived as being bigger. Interposition (overlap): Perception that one object is in front of another. An object that is in front is closer. Relative Height: Things higher are perceived to be farther away that those that are lower. Shading and contour: Using light and shadows to perceive depth/contours-crater/mountain.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

This method uses radio waves and they are exposed to a magnetic field. The radio waves are then added to the magnetic field and disrupts orientation of atoms. As atoms move back to alignment with magnetic field they release signals and those are used to create image. This also doesn't tell us anything about brain function either.

What are the steps in the demographic transition model?

This model refers to the transition of a society from high birth rate and death rates to low birth and death rates. Stage 1: In pre-industrial societies, birth and death rates are both high and population is slow. Stage 2: As society industrializes, death rates drop as food/ medicine availability and sanitation increase. Stage 3: As society urbanizes, birth rates decline as access to contraception increases. Stage 4: In developed societies, birth and death rates are both low and population growth is slow. Stage 5: Hypothetically, fro developed societies with very low birth rates, population decline.

What is meditation?

Training people to self-regulate their attention and awareness. Can be guided and focused on something in particular, like breathing, but medication can also be unfocused and the mind wanders freely. More alpha waves are present than normal relaxation in light meditation. In deep meditation you can have increased theta waves in brain. There are not many long term studies . Those who regularly mediate have increased activity in the prefrontal cortex, right hippocampus, and right anterior insult- increased attention control (the goal of meditation). Can be helpful for people with ADHD or in aging.

Encoding

Transferring info in working memory into permanent store in long-term memory. Since working memory stores items 7+ or - 2, anything greater than that needs to be stored in long-term memory.

Sublimation

Transforming unacceptable thoughts/behaviors into acceptable thoughts/behviors (taking up boxing gas a way to channel one's anger)

Cornea

Transparent thick sheet of fibrous tissue, anterior 1/6th of eye, starts to bend light, first part of eye light hits.

Fads

Trends or crazes occurring over a short period within a segment of the population. Like wearing bell-bottoms in the 60s as a hippie.

Retrieval

Trying to remember/call up a memory of something you learned before. Successful retrieval depends on being able to use cues around you and to recognize the association between cues present at encoding and cues present at retrieval. Best types of cues are the associations that form when you are actually encoding. Anytime you pull something out of long-term memory and bring it into conscious memory (working memory) you're engaging in retrieval.

Sensory Memory

Two components based on type of input. You have iconic (memory for what you see, lasts half a second), and echoic (what you hear, lasts 3-4 seconds) memory. Defined by tine.

Confirmation Bias

Type of cognitive bias in which individuals tend to embrace evidence supporting their beliefs, dismiss or ignore evidence refuting their beliefs, and interpret ambiguous evidence as support.

Spatial Inequality

Unequal geographical distribution of wealth resulting in the concentration of health-compromising factors (pollution, crime) in lower-income neighborhoods.

List the 5 language & cognition major theories & theorists

Universalism: Cognition controls language Piaget: Cognition influences language Vygotsky: Cognition and language develop independently, merging later Linguistic relativity: Language influences cognition Linguistic determinism: Language controls cognition

What is personality?

Unlike psychological characteristics/abnormalities is believed to be constant over a person's lifetime. o Is our personality hard-wired and persistent as we age? What about our gender identity? or intelligence?

Social Norms

Unwritten rules for behavior that people in society are expected t o follow (chewing with a closed mouth. Unlike laws, which are more formally enforced, disobeying social norms is often informally punished (getting stared at or shunned). They maintain order in society by ensuring that behavior is predictable.

What is the hypothesis of relative deprivation?

Upsurge in prejudice/discrimination when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to o Relative depreciation is the discrepancy of what they are entitled to and what they get) § Extent and how quickly this happens can lead to collective unrest - an upsurge in prejudice and discrimination. § Linked to Frustration Aggression Hypothesis

What is gentrification?

Urban renewal - revamping old parts of cities to become better. But can lead to gentrification, which means when redone they target a wealthier community which increases property value. People there before are pushed out because they can't afford property anymore and it leads to great inequality in cities.

Top-Down Processing

Uses background knowledge that influence perception. Like where is waldo? It is theory driven, and the perception is influenced by our expectation. Deductive reasoning is used. Not always correct.

Sclera

Usually absorbs by the time the light gets to this. The whites of theses, think fibrous tissue that covers posterior 5/6th of eyeball. Attachment point for muscles. Acts as an additional layer of protection and structure of eyeball. Lined with the conjunctiva.

What are the otolithic organs?

Utricle and saccule. They help us to detect linear acceleration and head positioning. In these are CaCO3, crystals attached to hair cells in viscous gel. If we go from lying down to standing up, they move, and pull on hair cells, which triggers AP. These would not work well without gravity! Buoyancy can have effects as well, particularly without visual cues on which way is up/down.

How is visual info processed?

Visual information is processed contra-laterally: A stimulus in the left visual hemifield is processed in the right visual cortex, and a stimulus in the right visual hemifield is processing in the left visual cortex.

What are defense mechanisms?

Ways to protect ourselves - a psychological shield against anxiety or discomfort of unconscious psychological processes. A way to protect ourselves when we have to deal with unconscious wants, feelings, desires, and impulses.

In-attentional blindness aka perceptual blindness

We aren't aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field "miss something right in front of you" Example: You can't say where the nearest fire extinguisher is because you fail to notice it because your attention is typically elsewhere. This is true even though fire extinguishers are brightly colored and essential to survival.

Chunking

We group info we're getting into meaningful categories we already know to ease memorization. Like putting oranges, bananas and apples into the "fruit" category.

Well/Ill -defined problems

Well-defined: clear starting and ending point Ill-defined: More ambiguous starting and/or ending points

What is a core nation?

Western Europe and US. Strong Central Government with enough tax to support it. Economically diversified, industrialized, and independent of outside control. Strong middle and working class. Focus on higher scope production of material goods rather than raw materials.

Phototransduction Cascade

What happens when light hits rod/cone. It makes the brain recognize thet there is light entering the eyeball. Light hits rods (which causes rod turns off)--> bipolar cell (turns on)--> retinal ganglion cell (turns on)--> optic nerve--> BRAIN The phototransduction cascade is the process of rod turning from on--> off

What is Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)?

When a person have lingering memories and nightmares about a past event that it impact them in daily life (haunting/bad memories/repeated nightmares) Includes physical symptoms like insomnia o Have a trigger that leads to the disorder.§ Ex. Soldiers coming home from the war, survivors of terrible accidents, violent/sexual assault victims, natural disaster victims.o Described as PTSD if symptoms persist for over 4 weeks after an event. § Ex. A normal person might have a nightmare after something terrifying but these nightmares stop/become infrequent after some time. For someone with PTSD they don't stop. o Acronym:§ Posttraumatic stress disorder TRAUMATraumatic event Re-experienceAvoidanceUnable to functionMonth or more of symptoms Arousal increased

What is an extinctive burst?

When an animal no longer receives regular reinforcement, its original behavior will sometimes spike (meaning increase dramatically)

What is counterculture?

When laws of dominant society is violated (conflict with larger culture becomes serious), a counterculture results. Counterculture: group with expectations and values that strongly disagree with the main values from the larger society. own set of norms to live by. o Ex. Mormons believe in polygamy. Polygamy = more than one spouse (broader definition), polygyny = more than one wife, polyandry - woman has multiple husbands o Ex. Old Order Amish (PA/OH) reject mainstream ideas and have their own ideas/values, reject technology and consumerism and replace with religious principles (simple lifestyle)

Feature Detection

When looking at an object, you need to break it down into its component features to make sense of what you are looking at. There are three things to consider when looking at any object: color, form, and motion.

What is deviance?

When norm is violated, it's referred to as deviance. Not negative, just individuals behaving differently from what society feels is normal. Deviance is relative (just like norms are). Deviance is dependent on context, individuals, group, and country. Deviance standards can change based on these factors.

Narcolepsy

When people can't help themselves from falling asleep. Various fits of sleepiness, going into REM sleep. Have fits (usually 5 minutes) that can occur any time. Cause is not completely known. Indications that it is genetic, and linked to absence of alter ness neurotransmitter. Neurochemical interventions can cause someone to overcome narcolepsy potentially.

source monitoring error

When people recall information they often forget the information's source - an error in source monitoring. (ex. Can forget if the yield sign was in original video or in the written description even if you were able to identify you saw the yield sign OR ex. people might have difficulties calling out memories of a video car crash from other car crashes they remember or from movies where there was glass on the ground)

What are circadian Rhythms?

Why you get sleepy in the afternoon. They're our e regular body rhythms across a 24-hour period. Controlled by melatonin, produced in the pineal gland. They control our body temp, daylight can make an impact (even artificial light), Also change as you age (younger people are night owls while older people go to bed early), can prevent you from sleeping in.

Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT scan)

X-rays to create image of the brain (tumor/abnormal swelling/bleeding...but it can't tell us anything about what areas of the brain are active in a given time.) • CT scans are a computerized composite of X-ray images that are slightly lower resolution than MRI and are not as good for soft tissue but are faster than MRIs. Sometimes CT scans are combined with a radioactive dye (like a PET scan) to show structure and activity imposed in one image.

What is labeling theory?

a behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant. Depends on what's acceptable in that society. o Ex. steroids can be labelled as deviant. Not labeled as right or wrong, it is possible that in some situations steroids are necessary. In professional sports - steroid use can be labeled as wrong or unfair and can be considered deviant and subject to critic by others. Deviance is determined by the team members, sporting league, or greater society label.

Retinal Disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

Representative Heuristic

a heuristic where people look for the most representative answer, and look to match prototype - a given concept to what is typical/representative. o Ex: Linda is outspoken and very bright, majored in philosophy and as a student she participated in antinuclear demonstrations and organizations that fought discrimination. What is more likely? Linda is a Feminist bank teller or a bank teller. Most people will say she is more like a feminist bank teller even if they don't know feminists or anyone like Linda. She fits you prototype of how a feminist would act (she is representative of a feminist). o Can lead to a conjunction fallacy: which means co-occurrence of two instances is more likely than a single one. People tend to think the probability of 2 events occurring together is higher than the probability of one alone (ex. Linda being a bank teller and feminist is greater than just being a bank teller. However statistically speaking there are more bank tellers than feminist bank tellers so it's more likely she is just a bank teller than a feminist + bank teller, which your instincts might be telling you).

Means-end analysis

a heuristic where we analyze main problem and break it down into smaller problems. We then attack the problem that has the most difference between current state and goal state. Solve BiggestàSmallest Problem. Current StateàGoal State. Ex. Planning a trip to a new country, biggest problem would be to get to the new country - so you book a plane ticket to a new country.

What is Race?

a socially defined category based on physical differences between groups of people.o Racial formation theory looks at social/economic/political forces that result in racially constructed identities.§ Sometimes differences are real, but sometimes only defined by history. Ex. In 1800 in US, people would be considered black even if they appeared white if they had a black ancestor. All humans 99.9% identical - There is no genetic basis for race. But it is important on a social level. o In the US race is defined by skin color but hair color is irrelevant. Latin America race category in the US can be broken down to 5-6 races in SA.

What is the Hawthorne effect?

a study's results are affected by participant's knowledge that they are taking part in an experience (or being observed)or being treated differently than usual

What is imitation?

a type of individual social influence, one of most basic forms of social behavior. Begins with understanding there's difference between others and our self. o Andrew Meltzoff (1977) published study that questioned theory that understanding between self and others happens soon after birth. In his experiment he suggested that babies are born with a built-in capacity to imitate others. o In his experiment:§ A baby 12-21 days old, baby copies sticking tongue out. Baby imitating experimenter. § Was it true imitation or something else? Picture you opening mouth, baby should also open mouth. Had to ensure it wasn't a reflex or conditioning either. When baby had pacified in mouth, and experimental stuck out tongue, baby imitated them after the pacifier was taken out. § Condition: Experiments facial expressions had to be blank during this experiment. § Suggests we are born with built-in capacity to imitate others. Built in social mechanism which is critical for our species to learn through others. § Evidence suggests we have mirror neurons, when one fires another fires when we observe same action performed by other person. (Found in areas of brain that are motor (parietal lobe), premotor cortex (frontal lobe), and somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe). Can be helpful in understanding Imitation further.

Bipolar or related disorders

abnormal negative mood, but these may have periods of abnormally positive mood called mania § Mania is characterized by little sleep, talking quickly, making bad decisions due to impaired judgement, making bad decisions based on bad assessment of risk or abilities of a task. Can leads to social/legal problems.

What are the cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia?

abnormalities of attention, organization, planning abilities § disorganized thinking, slow thinking, difficulty understanding, poor concentration, poor memory, difficulty expressing thought, difficulty integrating thoughts, feelings and behavior

What is validity?

accuracy. Items that are high in validity accurately address the construct. "ACTUALLY GETTING AN SNSWER FOR SOMETHING YOU WISH TO MEAUSRE"

What is fixed-interval?

acronym: Interval = TIME. ex. receives pay check every 2 weeks - in this case, time is constant. Pay doesn't change if he sells 1 car or 100 cars. Less incentive to sell cars. Response rate is slower.

What is fixed-ratio?

acronym: Ration = RATION = AMOUNT (of responses). FIXED = Consistent ex. car salesman gets bonus every 5 cars he sells. Reinforcement only occurs after a fixed # of responses. Contingent on # of cars sold regardless of how long it takes (so the salesman will probably try to sell as fast as possible). Jobs that demand someone to work in a fast paced manner typically pay workers on fixed-ratio (ex. Factory workers, fruit pickers)

What is variable ratio?

acronym: Variable = VARIATION. Reinforcement is delivered after average # of right responses has occurred. Similar to fixed-ratio, except # changes for each reward. Just fixed-ratio but varies. Average # of correct responses is the same. Ex. bonus is paid after selling 5 cars for first bonus, 3 for second, 7 for third, 6, then 4 etc. Average is 5. Lots of uncertainty. Car salesman can't predict when he will get a bonus. o Another example is slot machine. You don't know if the next pull will be the jackpot (because it makes it very difficult to walk away from something).

What is the relative deprivation theory?

actions of groups oppressed/deprived of rights that others in society enjoy. Ex. Civil Rights Movement, a response to oppression to people of color in US.

What is the oral stage of psychosexual development?

age 0-1 yrs., libido/sense of interaction is centered around baby's mouth (rooting/sucking reflex), vital for sucking/eating. Infant derives pleasure via oral stimulation (tasting/sucking). Because infant completely dependent on parents/caretakers, baby also develops sense of trust and comfort. o If fixation here, issues with dependency or aggression. Also smoking or biting fingers/nails, suck their thumb, people who overeat.

What is the anal stage of psychosexual development?

age 1-3, centered around anus, ex. toilet training. Leads to developing control/independence, encouraging child to feel positive outcomes and helps child feel capable and productive. Serve as basis for competent, productive, creative adults. o If fixation occurs, have problems with orderliness and messiness.

What is stage 5 of psychosocial development?

age 12-20, adolescence. Transition from childhood to adulthood, so one of most important crisis. Want to start feeling they belong in society - identity vs. role confusion (ACRONYM: Skydiver dents his head on the ground when falling and then has confusion). In this stage, the child has to learn rules he needs to occupy as an adult, so may re-examine identity to figure out who they are. Body image plays big role. o Virtue is fidelity, seeing oneself as unique.o Failure: Role-confusion ( I don't know what I want to be when I grow up). Can cause rebellion/unhappiness.

What is the phallic stage of psychosexual development?

age 3-6, children discover difference between males and females. Oedipus complex and Electra complex at this stage. Oedipus complex also develops - boys view fathers as rivals for mother's affection. Describes feeling of wanting to possess the mother and replace the father. Electra complex (by Carl-Jung) is the equivalent for young girls to their fathers. Resoled through process of identification, where child starts to understand and develop similar characteristics as same-sex parent. o If fixation occurs, cause homosexuality/exhibitionism

What is is stage 7 of psychosocial development?

age 40-65 (Middle adult-hood), established career, so settle down, make families the center of their lives, and sense of being part of bigger picture. Generativity vs. stagnation (ACRONYM: GENERator powering heaven, a STAG powering the generator for the NATIONS heaven). o Positive virtue: Adults feel like they give back through raising children/work/community activities/organizations, so develop sense of care for others. o Negative outcome: is they feel stagnate and unproductive.

What is stage 4 of psychosocial development?

age 6-12. Where teachers take an important role in a child's life, and child works towards competence. Crisis is industry vs. inferiority (ACRONYM: Dinosaur with dust on him feeling inferior). o Virtue: Child will gain greater significance and greater self-esteem, and try to win approval from others. Competence. Will feel industrious, o Negative outcome: but if initiative is restricted child feels inferior (don't have competence). Some failure is necessary/ good though, so child has modesty.

What is the Life Course Theory?

aging is a social, psychological, and biological process that begins from time you born till time you die. a holistic perspective that calls attention to developmental processes and other experiences across a person's life o Biological process change as people live longer = affect social process.o Age-based expectations no longer apply as they used to as people live longer. (ex. 80 year old on ski slope or getting a master's degree).o "life course approach refers to a research perspective that considers how experiences from earlier in life affect outcomes later in life."

Magnetoencehphalogram (MEG)

aka SQUIDS - Superconducting quantum interference device)- better resolution than EEG, but rarer because requires a large machine and special room to shield it. Records the magnetic fields produced by electric currents in the brain. Measured by using SQUIDS. (acronym: MEGa SQUIDS are invasive)

What is a class system?

allows for degree of social mobility, combination of background and movement, often by education. Less stability.

What is an authoritative parent?

also strict, consistent and loving but more pragmatic and issue-oriented and listen to children's arguments. Balance responsibility with rights of child. Discipline.

What is aggression?

any physical/verbal behavior intended to harm or destroy. Ex. Physical, verbal, or spreading a malicious rumor Comes from a combo of biology/psychological/socio-cultural variables.

What are repressed memories?

are hypothesized memories having been unconsciously blocked, due to the memory being associated with a high level of stress or trauma. The theory postulates that even though the individual cannot recall the memory, it may still be affecting them consciously. The existence of repressed memories is a controversial topic in psychology; some studies have concluded that it can occur in victims of trauma, while others dispute it. According to some psychologists, repressed memories can be recovered through therapy. Other psychologists argue that this is in fact rather a process through which false memories are created by blending actual memories and outside influences. Furthermore, some psychologists believe that repressed memories are a cultural symptom because there is no written proof of their existence before the nineteenth century.[2] § Some believe that they can be "recovered" years or decades after the event, most often spontaneously, triggered by a particular smell, taste, or other identifier related to the lost memory, or via suggestion during psychotherapy.

What is the theory of intersectionality?

asks us to consider all the different levels of discrimination. Intersectionality calls attention to how identity categories intersect in systems of social stratification. For example, an individual's position within a social hierarchy is determined not only by his or her social class, but also by his or her race/ethnicity. o Originally coined in 1989 by Crenshaw as a feminist theory, but has since expanded out and use it to explain oppression in all parts of society. The theory of intersectionality proposes that we need to understand how all these discriminations (double or triple jeopardy) can simultaneously exist.

What is the genital stage of psychosexual development?

back on libido, because individual develops strong sexual interests. Before this stage, focus on individual needs. Now, focus on needs of others. No adult fixation - person is mentally healthy. Goal: establish balance between various life areas (well balanced, warm, caring)

What is continuous reinforcement?

becomes less reinforcing so there is a need for ulterior reinforcement. Occurs via a 1:1 ratio- this means that for each behavior, there is a reward. Discovered by B. F. Skinner via reward schedules with animals but apply to animals as well.

What are taboos?

behaviors completely forbidden/wrong in any circumstance, and violation results in consequences far more extreme than a more. Often punishable by law (with serious legal consequences) and result in severe disgust by members of community. Considered very immoral behavior. Ex. Incest (sexual relationships between family members) and cannibalism (eating human flesh)

What is self-efficacy?

belief in one's abilities to succeed in a situation / to organize and execute the courses of action required in a particular situation. Developed by Bandora due to his dissatisfaction with idea of self-esteem. Self-efficacy is a more specific than self-esteem. Can have an impact on everything from psychological states, to behavior and motivation. All people can identify goals they want to accomplish, things they want to achieve. Most people realize that putting plans into action is not so simple. Self-efficacy plays a role in how individual goals, challenges are approached. o Two types of self-efficacy. Strong and weak.o People with strong self-efficacy recover quickly from setbacks, have strong/deep interest, strong sense of commitment to activities, and enjoy challenging tasks (Acronym: RISE. R=Recover, I= Interest, S=Strong sense of commitment, E = Enjoy challenging tasks) People with weak self efficacy dwell on the negative outcomes and avoid challenging tasks.

What are the negative symptoms of schizophrenia?

blunted emotions, loss of enjoyment "emotional abnormalities" refer to the absence of normal behaviors found in healthyindividuals. Common negative symptoms of schizophrenia include: § Lack of emotional expression - Inexpressive face, including a flat voice, lack of eye contact, and blank or restricted facial expressions. • Affective flattening is the reduction in the range and intensity of emotional expression, including facial expression, voice tone, eye contact (person seems to stare, doesn't maintain eye contact in a normal process), and is not able to interpret body language nor use appropriate body language. § Lack of interest or enthusiasm - Problems with motivation; lack of self- care. • Avolition is the reduction, difficulty, or inability to initiate and persist in goal-directed behavior; it is often mistaken for apparent disinterest. (examples of avolition include: no longer interested in going out and meeting with friends, no longer interested in activities that the person used to show enthusiasm for, no longer interested in much of anything, sitting in the house for many hours a day doing nothing.) § Seeming lack of interest in the world - Apparent unawareness of the environment; social withdrawal. § Speech difficulties and abnormalities - Inability to carry a conversation; short and sometimes disconnected replies to questions; speaking in monotone. • Alogia, o

Piaget's Theory of Language

came up w/ cognitive development in children. He believed once children were able to think a certain way, they then developed language to describe those thoughts-->influences build it. Language influence is influenced by cognitive development. § For example, when children develop object permanents, they start to develop words like gone and missing, find, etc.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

can't give us detail of structure, but can combine them with CAT scans and MRIs. Inject glucose into cells and see what areas of brain are more active at given point in time. (Active cells = use most glucose). More invasive. (acronym: PETs like glucose) § resolution.

What is a microculture?

can't support people throughout their lifespan, refers to groups/organizations only affecting limited period of one's life. Ex. Girl scouts, college sororities, boarding school.

What is central sleep apnea?

central (brain is part of CNS)), sleep (at night), apnea (effects airflow). Looking for apnea without obstructions. Looking at 5+ apneas/hour during sleep. Problem with the brains control system for ventilation (that control brain for breathing) Cheynes-Stroke breathing - crescendo then decrescendo breathing followed by stop in breathing. Normal breathing pattern is inhale/exhale changes from a normal fixed pattern. Believed heart failure/stroke/renal failure is the cause.

What are riots?

characterized by large # of people who engage in dangerous behavior, such as vandalism, violence, or other crimes. Riots are very chaotic and cost cities millions in damages. Individuals who act case aside societal norms and behave in very destructive ways, and violate laws indiscriminately (ruin property, steal, etc). Often seen as a collective act of defiance/disapproval, and can be result of a perceived issue (ex. sports game outcome, frustration of working/living conditions or conflicts between races/religions). Cause of act can be legitimate, the group acts out in ways that are illegal/damaging to society as a whole.

What is major depressive disorder?

characterized by prolonged feeling of helplessness and discouragement about the future. Individuals with this disorder have the following: o Has physical and emotional component. Sadness + SIG: E CAPS: (Acronym) § Suicidal thoughts: low self-esteem, low mood§ Interests decreased: lack of interest (anhedonia) § Guilt: § Energy decreased - lethargy (feeling fatigued) § Concentration decreased - trouble making decisions § Appetite disturbance (increased or decreased) § Psychomotor changes/symptoms (agitation or retardation) § Sleep disturbances (increased or decreased) § + Weight gain or loss.

Nativist Perspective on Language

children are born with ability to learn language. Associated with Noam Chomsky. Thought humans had a language acquisition device (LAD) that allowed them to learn language. Idea that this ability exists - all languages shared universal grammar (same basic elements like nouns, verb, etc.) So LAD enables child to pick up on understand/pick up on those types of words and their organization within a sentence for any language. o Goes along with idea there's a "critical period" (also called sensitive period), thought to be from birth to age 8-9, the period of time a child is most able to learn a language. After that, becomes harder because LAD only operates in that critical period. Once you start using it, LAD starts specializing for your language and unable to detect others. o Critical Period/Sensitive period definition: a point in early development that can have a significant influence on physiological or behavioral functioning in later life. o Investigates Transformationalist Grammar: refers to the different ways that words can be arranged to convey the same information.

What is a primary group?

closest members of the group to you. Close intimate long-term relationships. ex. in a wedding the bridesmaids/groomsmen (usually close friends and family members). Primary groups give a sense of belonging and shared identity. You have a sense of loyalty to each of the group members (group members care about you and you care about them as well). The value of the group is just being part of it itself, not in it for some sort of goal. Primary groups provide an anchorpoint. You are born into a primary group - your family. You often meet with those of your primary group face to face and you know a lot about their lives. These close relationships w/ primary group is often seen as a source of close human feeling/emotion (love, cooperation, and concern) o Primary Group vs. In-Group:§ Primary group is your core social group. Parents, close friends from childhood. Long term relationships formed which have a great social impact on the individual.§ In-group is the group you are affiliated with based on identification - can be ethnicity, nationality, gender, religion, etc.

What is categorical self?

comes once baby realizes they're separate (comes after existential self)- becoming aware that even though we're separate/distinct objects/beings, we also exist in the world with others. And each of these objects/entities has properties. Ex. age and gender are the first categories first babies learn, then skills and size. Then, as we grow older, compare ourselves with others - traits, comparisons, careers (these are more developed categories)

What is a meritocracy?

concept that people achieve social position solely based on ability and achievements. Highly idealized. Birth/parental background doesn't matter. Extreme social mobility. Equal opportunity. § "Social rewards, status, position are awarded to individuals based on their own ability to work (merit). In order for a meritocracy to operate, everyone within the society would need the same opportunity to succeed, so that rewards are actually based (primarily) on merit."

What is inclusive fitness?

concerns the # of offspring an animal has, how they support them, and how offspring support each other. Inclusive fitness is thinking about fitness on a larger scale - evolutionary advantageous for animals to propagate survival of closely related individuals and genes in addition to themselves. § This inclusive fitness concept can solve problems with evolution which states that animals (including humans) can be predisposed to act selfishly. But people are kind to others/help others. We are helpful/altruistic of those who are similar to us!

What connects the two hemispheres?

corpus callosum

What is the skeptical perspective of globalization?

critical of globalization, considers it as being regionalized instead of globalized. Third world countries aren't being integrated into global economy with same benefits as first world countries. Current economy is not leading towards global capitalism. Transnational corporations still tied to their home countries and national borders remain important. CRTIICAL.

What is sensory adaption?

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation Ex: As you push down your hand, receptors experience constant pressure. But after a few seconds receptors no longer fire.

Cannon-Bard Theory

disagreed with James-Lange, and found flaws in idea that physiological response triggered emotion. § Flaws they found: They first said that you could experience physiological response w/o emotion ex. Your heart can race if you had a long run. If only physiological response was required to produce an emotion, shouldn't anyone with a racing heart feel afraid (an emotion where your heart races as well Noticed many different emotions had same physiological responses. For example, heart racing shows feelings of anger and excitement. Two totally different emotions.Physiological response system was too slow to produce emotion that seemed to happen almost instantly. Ex. Hearing a loud sound you would feel fear or surprise almost instantly and the physiologic responses of your HR/muscle tone increase come later. § They believed physiological response and emotion occurred simultaneously.• Ex: holding your cat (event) causes your heart rate (physiological response) to increase and feel joy (emotion) at the same time. Ex2: sweating, and he labels the emotion he is experiencing as fear. § Simultaneously experience arousal and aggression Event--> Physiological Response + Emotion at same time. Acronym: C/B are next to each other in alphabet so it all occurs at the same time (physiologic response + emotion)

Dissociative Disorder

distress/disability from abnormalities of identity or memory.§ Ex: Multiple personalities, people who have lost memories for part of their lives.

Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders

distress/disability from behaviors that are unacceptably disruptive or impulsive for someone's culture. Inability to control inappropriate behaviours

Feeding and Eating Disorders

distress/disability from behavioural abnormalities related to food, § ex. Anorexia nervosa (takes in insufficient amounts of food), bulimia nervosa (binge eating then purging (induced vomiting)).

Personality Disorders

distress/disability related to personality. Involves long-term mental and behavioural features that are characteristic of a person, huge spectrum of personality types considered acceptable from a culture. Personality disorders involve ones outside those accepted of societal norms. Cluster A odd/eccentric (weird), Cluster B intense emotional/relationship problems (wild), Cluster C is anxious/avoidant/obsessive (worried)

What is normative influence?

even if you know what's right, do what group's negative actions to to avoid social rejection. § Ex: you are an expert group trainer and you know it's easier to train the dog with treats than treat it with a shock color. Even though you know training the dog with a shock color is incorrect you may still decide to go along with the group to avoid being a social outcast. You fear social rejection that can come with disagreement with the group, so you conform to even a wrongful act.

What is the sick role?

expectation in society that allows you to take a break from responsibilities. But if you don't get better or return, you're viewed as deviant and harmful to society.

What is a Gender Schema Theory?

explains how individuals should be gendered in a society

What is internal validity?

extent to which a causal conclusion based on a study is warranted. Confounding factors often impact the internal validity of an experiment.

Electroenchephalogram (EEG)

external, can't tell us about activity of individual/groups of neurons. Can only look at sum total. Can tell us about seizures, sleep stage, cognitive tasks. Not invasive! We don't get a picture of a brain from this method, but we get an EEG. Easier set up than MEG.

What is microsociology?

face to face interactions, families, schools, other social interactions. Interpretive analysis of the society, look at sample of society and how individual interactions would affect larger groups in society. Ex. doctor-patient interactions, or family dynamics. o Symbolic interactionism - social theory that's a micro-perspective, focuses on the individual and significance they give to objects, events, symbols, etc. in their lives.

What is culture shock?

feelings of disorientation, uncertainty, or even fear when they encounter unfamiliar culture practices. Ex. Moving countries, move social environments, or travels to another type of life (urban to rural). o In foreign places, weather, language, landscape, food, values and customers, way business conducted differently, stores open/close at different times, food can be completely different. Everything you are used to is no longer in place.

What is the glass ceiling effect?

females poorly represented in higher positions

What is Carl rogers' humanistic theory?

focuses on healthy personality development, and humans are seen as inherently good. The most basic motive of all 148 people is the actualizing tendency (self-actualization), innate drive to maintain and enhance oneself to full potential. It also says that people have free will. Person will grow towards self-actualization as long as there are no obstacles. focuses on the conscious, and says people are inherently good, and we are self-motivated to improve (so we can reach self-actualization). (Freud theory focuses on mental conflicts (fixations))

What is the fundamental attribution error?

focuses only on actions of others, tendency to believe that others in out-groups behave a certain way based on inherent personalities/flaws. Idea of attributing character too strongly to explain another group's actions. Real takeaway of study - how easy it is to think others are atrocious and evil, while people like us would only perform evil acts because they're misguided. Truth is we're all misguided, all susceptible to authorities in ways that many of us would find upsetting.

What is a secondary group?

formal, impersonal, temporary, and business-like relationships, based on a limited purpose/goal. Usually short-term, and only see them sometimes. Do a few goal-directed activities with these people. o Example: You do things like attending a lunch meeting to talk business. You are only part of the group to accomplish a task or for example, earn money (means to an end) "formal impersonal groups."

What does the reticular formation do?

from brainstem to other brain areas. It filters info and sends important info to the thalamus. Sleep/wake cycle (arousal). Ability to be aware.

What are the biological factors that contribute to depression?

genetic component (from family/twin studies) o Depression is super complicated though: 5-HTTLPR Gene associated with depression, but ONLY if individual is in a stressful environment. If someone is in a low stress environment, they have a decreased risk for depression. Decreased activation in prefrontal cortex (associated with difficult in generating actions and decreased decision making capacity) Lower levels of activity in reward circuit in the brain. Associated with NT - fewer receptors for serotonin (monoamine) and NE (monoamine/catecholamine).

What are the 6 universal emotions?

happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust. and surprise.

Harlow's experiment

he felt that attachment had to be influenced by more than just food. He put monkeys in cages and gave them a soft support structure to lean on in place of their mothers. He had one wire mom and a cloth one in a cage. In a few cages the wire mom gave the food and in some the cloth mom gave the food. In both situations even if the wire mom gave the food the monkey still chose to be with the cloth mother because she was softer and more comfortable.

What is unintentional discrimination?

how policies can discriminate unintentionally

Assimiliation

how we describe new information/experiences in terms of our current understanding/schemas. Acronym: assimilation has "ss" - same schema

Framing Effects

how you present the decision can affect decisions as well.o Ex. Disease that will kill 600 people, option A is 100% chance exactly 200 people saved, option B 30% chance all 600 saved and 2/3rd chance 0 will be saved. Which option do you pick? OR A. 100% chance 400 die B. 1/3 chance no one dies and 2/3 chance 600 die. o In first example, most people will pick A. In second, most pick B.

What is ego-depletion?

idea that self-control is a limited resource. If you use a lot of it, it can get used up, and less of it to use in the future which can affect a later unrelated task that also requires self-control. This is true because self-control requires lots of energy and focus. o Demonstrated by experiment that those who resisted eating cookies ended up giving up sooner on another unrelated task that also requires self-control than those who didn't resist. o Muscle is used as a metaphor for self-control. Can be strengthened with practice, but can also be fatigued/depleted with overuse. o If you work in a task that requires lots of self-control, make sure you get a lot of sleep/rest afterwards.

Monozygotic Twins

identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo

What is strain theory?

if person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, may become frustrated/strained and turn to deviance. Individuals in a group are pushed to attain certain goals, but may not have means or legitimate ways to achieve success. Society values a certain behavior but the opportunity to be successful is not made available to everyone. The lack of equal opportunity results in increased access to illegal means to achieve success. o Ex: athlete attends a school that doesn't have proper baseball training equipment or no coach, or funding. Athlete becomes frustrated and turns to deviant behavior. School lacks the resources, so athlete tries steroids to level the playing field.

What is agraphia?

inability to write

False Information

inaccurate recollections of an event. o Ex: Experiment done where participants watched a car stop at a yield sign. After the video, participants were given a written description on what happened, and some of the descriptions included false information about the car stopping- saying that the car stopped at a stop sign instead of a yield sign. Those who got the false information, more likely claimed the car stopped at a stop sign than the yield sign.

Swimming Reflex

infants in water move legs/arms in a swimming motion. Involuntarily hold breaths. Allows a small infant to swim/float for a short period of time. Disappears at 6 months of age.

Wha is the id?

innate. The reservoir of all psychic energy. The id seeks to discharge tension arising from internal needs or external stimulation. It is made up of all instincts and wants to get rid of all uncomfortable feelings. (This is called a "Drive Reduction Theory"). o "The pleasure principle"- To gain pleasure or avoid pain. To accomplish this it uses: -Reflex actions (for instance sneezing) -Primary Processes (Forming a mental image of the desired object) - Wish fulfillment- The image of your desire which temporarily restores comfort.

What are neurodevelopmental disorders?

involve distress/disability due to abnormality in development of nervous system. Includes intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorders, and ADHD. § Autism spectrum disorder is characterized by a variety of issues related to social and communication abilities, and first symptoms of the disorder typically include delayed language development and unusual communication patterns. Specific Learning Disabilities: All specific types removed from DSM V The specific learning disorder dyslexia (reading difficulty) is • characterized by problems with accurate or fluent word recognition, poor decoding, and poor spelling abilities. (Not Included in DSMV) Dyscalculia - mathematics learning disorder. Removed Dysgraphia - writing disorder - removed.§ Developmental coordination disorder is characterized by difficulties in acquiring and coordinating motor movements.

Implicit Memories

involve things you may not articulate. Implicit memory is a type of memory in which previous experiences aid the performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences. Evidence for implicit memory arises in priming, a process whereby subjects are measured by how they have improved their performance on tasks for which they have been subconsciously prepared-such as riding bike, procedural memories. All memories formed by conditioning are implicit memories. Implicit memories are formed unconsciously. All habits are procedural memories, a type of implicit memory. Memories that inform unconscious motor skills are procedural memories, a type of implicit memory. Procedural memory is long-term memory for actions or habits such as how to kick a ball or washing hands before eating. Procedural memory is type of implicit memory. Habit learning occurs in a specific type of implicit memory. Habits/Implicit memory is stored in the basal ganglia. Implicit memories are non-declarative and unconscious, while explicit memories are declarative and conscious.

What is functionalism?

is a system of thinking based on ideas of Emile Durkheim that look at society from large-scale perspective, and how each part helps keep society stable. o It says that society is heading towards equilibrium. Ex. local businesses must adapt to new ways to cater to customers (in response to a disrupter such as amazon for example) o Also called structural functionalism. Society is dependent on structures that create it, like a biological cell is dependent on parts that make it up. o Intended consequences of institutions are manifest functions, ex. businesses provide a service. School - educate people so they can get jobs. Laws - maintain social order. o Unintended consequences, ex. schools expose students to social connections/new activities, and businesses connect people across society - latent functions, indirect effects of institutions. (unrecognized consequences) o Social dysfunction is process that has undesirable consequences and may reduce the stability of society.

What is stereotyping?

is attributing a certain thought/cognition to a group of individuals, and overgeneralizing. o Examples: People who wear glasses are smarter, people who live in cities are abrasive, o Can involve race, gender, culture, religion, shoe size.o Disadvantages: it's inaccurateo Advantages: allows us to rapidly assess large amounts of social data

What is a subculture?

is culture (ideas) of a meso-level (medium) sub-community (small community) that distinguishes itself from the larger dominant culture of larger society/community. o Subculture smaller than a nation but unlike a micro-culture, it is large enough to support people throughout their entire lifespan. § Subcultures affect your life on a longer period than a micro-cultureo Meso-level = population size falls between micro and macro levels. They are medium sized groups such as communities, organizations, cities, states, clans, and tribes.o It is a sub-community = smaller community in larger one. § Subcultures are unique to the larger society but still share some of the culture of the dominant society.

What is the existential self?

is most basic part of self-concept, the sense of being separate and distinct from others. Awareness that the self is constant/consistent throughout life (Ex: if someone says they are "tired" that isn't them All the time. This is NOT their self-concept because self-concept is Consistent) § Child as young as 2-3 months realize they exist as distinct entities due to the relationship child as with the world. When someone smiles, someone smiles back. They have a relationship with objects and they are separate/distinct from that.

Dementia

is term for decline in memory and other cognitive functions to the point of interfering with normal daily life - results from excessive damage to brain tissue, ex. From strokes or other causes. Common type of dementia is Alzheimer's Disease.

What is culture lag?

is the fact culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations, resulting in social problems. Common in societies because material culture changes rapidly, while non-material culture tends to resists change.

What is stress?

is the process by which we appraise and cope with the environmental threads and challenges. It encompasses both the stressor and the stress reaction

What is a confounding variable?

it is a variable that might affect the results if not controlled for or eliminated by the researcher.

What is the crude birth rate (CBR)?

it is the number of live births per year for every 1,000 members of a population, regardless of sex ora ge. An underdeveloped country may have a CBR of 50, whereas a more developed country may have a CBR of 10.

What is instinctual drift?

it is the phenomenon whereby established habits, learned using operant techniques, eventually are replaced by innate food-related behaviors. So the learned behavior "drifts" to the organism's species-specific (instinctual) behavior. oInstinctive drift or instinctual drift is the tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response. The concept originated with B.F. Skinner's former students Keller Breland and Marian Breland when they tried to teach a raccoon to put tokens into a piggy bank. Instead, the raccoon drifted to its instinctive behavior of putting the tokens on the ground or turning them over in its paws, as they often do with food

What is the cause of depression?

lack of serotonin, may be linked to genetics and therefore epigenetic too (genes turned on or off based on environment) There are some studies that suggest abnormalities in neural pathways using certain neurotransmitters (molecules that communicate between neurons). Abnormalities in pathways cause abnormal increase or decrease activity in the brain. Collection of neurons have cell bodies in brain stem while axons project into frontal lobe/limbic system. One structure starts in the raphe nuclei of the brainstem responsible for serotonin release. Another pathway starts in the locus coeruleus, which sends long axons to cerebrum and releases norepinephrine. Also the VTA sends long axons to different areas of cerebrum, supplies dopamine.

What is macrosociology?

large scale perspective, looking at big phenomena that affect big portion of population. Social structures and institutions, whole civilizations/populations. Looking for patterns and effects the big picture has on lives on small groups. Broad social trends in cities, and statistical data (as long as you're careful about not making wrong interpretations). o Deals with matters like poverty, war, health care, world economyo Functionalism comes from macrosociology - looks at society as a whole and how institutions that make up the society adapt to keep society stable and functioning.o Conflict theory is also a macro-perspective - the idea society is made of institutions that benefit powerful and create inequalities. Large groups are at odds until conflict is resolved.

What is informative influence?

look to group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume the group is correct.§ Ex: You have never interacted with a dog before and you are uncertain about how to train a dog and you are uncertain if it's an appropriate method to use a shock color. You look for the group for guidance and you assume they are correct.

What is the activity theory?

looks at how older generation looks at themselves. Certain activities or jobs lost, those social interactions need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged and maintain moral/well-being

What is resource mobilization theory?

looks at social movements from different angle. Instead of looking at deprivation of people, focuses on factors that help/hinder a social movement like access to resources. Gathering together people of a shared idea is not allowed everywhere. Also, for a social movement you need money, materials, political influence, media, and strong organizational base to recruit members - charismatic figure needed (unite people/members/oppressed on a single idea) Ex. Martin Luther King Jr. in Civil Rights Movement (beacon to oppressed black population and gained support he needed.

What is the Feminist Theory?

macro level perspective on society, focusing on gender inequalities inherent to patriarchal capitalist societies, where men occupy governing positions in family and community. Both men and women often forced into gender-based roles. Focuses on gender differences, gender inequalities, gender oppression, and structural oppression. [Feminist theory does not intend to replace men at the top of the social ladder]

What are normative organizations?

members come together through shared goals, ex. religion groups or MADD (Mothers against Drunk Driving). Positive sense of unity and purpose.

What are coercive organizations?

members don't have choice about membership, ex. people in a prison, or the military (you need to be discharged to leave).Usually highly structured and have very strict rules

What is the back stage self?

more private area of our lives, when act is over. You can be yourself. You can do what you feel makes you comfortable. Private area of your life. § Some things in backstage maybe nobody knows about, few people who are close to you might know about some things in your backstage § Ex; guy who said he loved baseball might come home and like watching cooking shows, cooking nice meals, hanging out with his cat. Nobody knows this about him. § It is things we do behind stage. Ex; putting on makeup! Things we do to prepare for front-stage when nobody is around.

What is secondary deviance?

more serious consequences, characterized by severe negative reaction that produces a stigmatizing label and results in more deviant behavior. Ex. Teammates of an athlete label players behavior as deviant and they exclude him from practices and call him a terrible player. Reaction will be he needs to continue to use steroids to be a better player. Reaction might be to use steroids more frequently or try more dangerous forms of drug. Repeated deviance gives him a reputation of deviance and the stigma of deviance stays with him for the rest of his career

What is education as defined by the MCAT?

more than going to school, but there's a: o Hidden curriculum: we learn how to stand in line, wait our turn, and treat our peers. We internalize social inequalities, when boys and girls are treated differently by their teachers.o Expectation of teachers affects how students learn. Teachers tend to get what they expect from their students. Expectations are met.o Teachers put students in categorizations with different expectations, but what if categorization is wrong? The student might then just meet the teacher's expectations rather than exceeding them and reaching their true potential. Sometimes limiting factor comes from outside the classroom. o Sometimes limiting factor comes from outside classroom. Schools experience educational segregation and stratification, because we fund schools through property taxes, which is why different districts are funded differently. Residential segregation of education.

Frontal Lobe

motor cortex (body movements), prefrontal cortex (executive function, surprise/direct other areas of brain), Broca's area (speech production)

What is vertical mobility?

move up or down the social hierarchy. Ex. Manager at restaurant becomes CEO of fast food restaurant. But if he gets demoted to serving food, fall downwards.

What is horizontal mobility?

move within the same class. Ex. Accountant switches job to different accounting company.

What is primary deviance?

no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild and does not affect person's self-esteem. Individual is able to continue to behaves in same way without feeling immoral/wrong. Ex. All athletes of team use steroids, so the act of a player is not labeled as deviant and his actions go unnoticed.

What is the latent period of psychosexual development?

no focus of libido. A period of exploration, libido present but directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. Important in development of social and communication skills. Children concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests. Play is between same gender children. o Fixation doesn't develop into adult fixation.

What is a permissive parent/indulgent?

non-directive and lenient. Few behavioral expectations for child.

What are mores?

norms based on some moral value/belief (dependent on group's values of right and wrong). Generally produce strong feelings. Usually a strong reaction if more is violated. Ex. Truthfulness (tell the truth because it's the right thing to do, when public figures are not truthful it causes outrage because the figure has done something wrong). Don't have serious consequences. Acronym: MOREALS

What are laws?

norms still based on right and wrong, but have formal/consistent consequences. Ex. Public figure lies under oath, done something morally wrong but also violate laws of court. There is a punishment for the crime. Violation can be simple (J-walking) or severe (murder). There is not always outrage when a law is violated - depends on the law.

What are the stages of social movements?

o 1. begins with shared idea shared by a few,o 2. incipient stage - public takes notice of the situation that they consider to be a problemo 3. People begin to organize in a group and raise upo 4. They will either succeed in changing the society or have to adapt. In the end, they become part of bureaucracy they try to change. If they are successful, they become absorbed into institutions once desired changes have been achieved. If failed = they are not active anymore but leave a mark on society/culture. § Our culture and society is formed from past social movements. Even failed social movements leave a mark. [Ex: Martin Luther movement against Catholic Church resulted in Protestant Church, Martin Luther King Jr. social movement against segregation that led to civil rights movement, and Nazism left a lasting mark on world politics].

What is the attitude to behavior process model?

o An event triggers our attitude (something that will influence our perception of an object) o Then attitude + some outside knowledge (what regarded as appropriate behavior) together determines behavior. o Ex. Tommy has attitude that junk food is unhealthy, because many of his relatives have heart related diseases associated with poor eating habits. So when he's at home he does not eat chips/soda/candy because of his knowledge that these foods are bad for his health and maintains a healthy lifestyle no matter where he is. § unhealthy attitude (trigged by an event) + knowledge leads to behavior

What are the four Cluster B personality disorders?

o Antisocial: little or no regard for others. Commit crimes and show no remorse. Inconsiderate of others. [Self-explanatory. Hates/ANTI society] o Borderline: Unstable relationships, emotions are unstable, variable self-image and compulsive (which can put them in danger). People at the borderline are at the brink of an emotional/relationship issue. Ex. Displays characteristics of a stereotypical teenager. [acronym: 13 year old Borderline Brenda] o Histrionic: Are very attention seeking. Display emotions outwardly, wear bright clothes. Ex. [H for Hollywood Actresses] o Narcissistic: huge egos, need for admiration and praise, grandiose. ex. Dr. House (in TV show House...House is a show that is on Netflix), Hitler, his documentary is also on Netflix

What is the Prototype Willingness Model (PWM)?

o Behavior is a function of 6 things, the combination of which influence our behavior. Our behavior is a function of.... § Past behavior § Attitudes - explained in Attitude to behavior processing model above. Attitude à behavior § Subjective norms - what others think about our behavior § Our intentions - our behavior intentions § Our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior § models/prototyping - a lot of our behavior is carried out from prototyping/modelling.

What is communism?

o Communism - classless, moneyless community where all property is owned by community.

Dmaging effects of stress on our Metabolism

o During stress, body secretes cortisol and glucagon, which converts glycogen to glucose. Glucose increases in our blood which remains floating around in blood 100 vessels (we don't need all this extra glucose, which can exacerbate metabolic conditions like diabetes).o Too much blood sugar can also cause heart disease

What is Kohlberg's Moral development?

o Focussed on moral reasoning and difference between right and wrong.o Moral reasoning develops through level of cognitive development, and people pass through 3 stages of development (each with 2 stages) - 6 levels total§ Did research on groups of children and present children in moral dilemma situations and interview kids based on each of their conclusions in each dilemma.

What are factors that increase the likelihood to conform?

o Group size - more likely to conform in groups of 3-5.o Unanimity - when opinions of group are unanimous (everyone agrees). o Group status - why children more likely to go along with popular group. Why we trust four doctors over four gardeners about our health. o Group cohesion- if we feel no connection with group, feel less of need to go along with that group. o Observed behaviour - whether we believe our behaviour is observed. o Public response - if we think we're met with acceptance vs. shunning. (happy to conform if we will be met with shunning, but will happily not conform if we think we will be met with acceptance)

How do we define the lower, middle, and upper class?

o Lower class - manual work, labour, low-pay jobs.o Middle class - professionals, better paying jobso Upper class - very wealthy businessmen and family wealth

What is material culture?

o Material culture refers to physical and technological aspects of our daily lives, like food and houses, and phones and non-material culture (symbolic culture) doesn't include physical objects, like ideas/beliefs/values, which tend to resist change. o Examples:§ Many Technology (material culture) outpace cultural adaptation examples§ Cars first invented no laws to govern driving (no speed limits, no guidelines, lanes, stop signs, stop lights, etc). Very dangerous when cars first started entering roads but laws soon written to fix problem.

What is the elaboration Likelihood model for persuasion (ELM)?

o More cognitive approach - focuses on the why/how of persuasion. o 2 ways in which information is processed: § Central Route of Persuasion: The degree of attitude change depends on quality of the arguments by the persuader. How much we are persuaded depends on quality of persuasion. ARGUMENT/Words are central! § Peripheral Route of Persuasion: looks at superficial/expertise/non-verbal persuasion cues, such as attractiveness/status of persuader. The doctor himself is peripheral (he is the one delivering the words!) Ex; if a drug rep comes to your medical practice and tries to convince their version of a drug. Subconsciously we will be looking at quality of arguments, if they can market drug better than another company/representative and how well they present patient risks. How engaging they are, their experience with the industry. Their knowledge of the company, how well they look. We process all these cognitively and shape our attitude towards our company and ultimately our behavior.

What is a dictatorship?

o Others rule autonomously like dictatorships, no consent of citizens. [obedience to authority]

What are factors that influence our obedience?

o Our closeness to authority giving orders- more likely to accept orders from someone we respecto Physical proximity - more likely to comply with someone we are close to. In Milgram when authority standing close by/behind the experimenter (the teacher) they are more likely to obey.o Legitimacy of authority - if wearing lab coat/carry a clipboard we are more likely to obey. Shown in Milgram study.o Also institutional authority - well-respected university. Expectation that these places won't give you a harmful command. Can also be physical or symbolic (ex. police/government).o Victim distance - in original Milgram study, teacher couldn't see learner (victim). If could see participant, reduced likelihood participant (teacher) would obey experimenter. But still didn't stop everyone (30% of participants gave all shocks) o Depersonalization - when leaner/victim is made to seem less human through stereotypes/prejudices, people are less likely to object against them o Role models for defiance - more likely to disobey orders when we see others doing the same.

What is the psychosocial development theory?

o Proposed personality/identity development occurs through one's entire lifespan. o Each stage depends on overcoming a conflict, and success/failure at each stage affects overall functioning of theory. o 8 stages

What is a social stigma?

o Social stigma can be fuelled or associated with several other key concepts: stereotypes, prejudices, discrimination. Relationship/overlap between stigma and these is unclear and is variable depending on source. § Derived from symbolic interactionist perspective.§ Calls attention to how certain individuals or groups face social disapproval. Often, the social disapproval is associated with a behavior, identity, or other attribute that is considered deviant by others" § Associated with an attribute that is devalued§ o Social stigma against mental health is big problem - ex. stereotype is mentally ill are violent (cognition), I become scared of mentally ill (affect, prejudice), so may not want to live with them or hire them (behavior, discrimination) o Social-stigma and components can vary a great deal by sociopolitical context (sexual orientation for example).

What is groupthink?

occurs when maintaining harmony among group members is more important than carefully analyzing problem at hand. Happens in very cohesive, insulated groups. Often have important/respected leaders, and in the interest of group "unity" individuals suppress/sensor their own opinions. o First suggestion proposed by the leader is adopted. Especially if there is little hope of finding a better solution. Not the most effective way to make a decision and can explain what's wrong with Congress in the US. o Ex: neighborhood people decide to meet to discuss a dog exhibiting bad behavior. Leader says the dog should be put down to avoid damage to the neighborhood. Instead of arguing with the leader and having a conflict, the neighbors agree that the dog should be put down. o To avoid group think: bring in outsiders/experts, have the leader of the group not disclose opinion, discuss what should be done in smaller groups

What is prestige?

often based on occupation (ex. Being a doctor, lawyer). Minority group members have lower paid jobs typically (ex. Janitor).

What are the big 5 personality traits?

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

What is McDonaldization?

policies of fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society. Primarily, Principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, uniformity, and control - These principles have come to dominated everything, from medicine to sporting events to entertainment, § ex. movie theatres all look and work similarly, with same concession stands look same, carry same brands and same popular movies, with same seating arrangements, look the same, and #of screens is the same. All ticket systems now the same (especially online). Same pre-show entertainment. § Not necessarily a bad thing. Pervasive throughout society.

What is power?

political power, economic (unfair hiring policies to minorities), personal (laws can limit where someone lives/etc.)

What are secondary traits?

preferences or attitude. Ex. love for modern art, reluctance to eat meat.

Priming

previous experiences influence current interpretations of an event. refers to the change in the response towards a stimulus due to a subconscious memory effect. Priming is an implicit memory effect in which exposure to one stimulus (i.e., perceptual pattern) influences the response to another stimulus. Negative priming is an implicit memory effect in which prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably influences the response to the same stimulus. Caused by experiencing the stimulus, and then ignoring it. Negative prime lowers the speed to slower than un-primed levels. Positive Priming; A positive prime speeds up processing. caused by simply experiencing the stimulus. Positive priming is thought to be caused by spreading activation. This means that the first stimulus activates parts of a particular representation or association in memory just before carrying out an action or task. The representation is already partially activated when the second stimulus is encountered, so less additional activation is needed for one to become consciously aware of.

What is bureaucratization?

process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy. Ex. customer service, now move through 12 menu options before reaching someone to help you.

Crystallized Intelligence

refers to accumulated knowledge and verbal skills. crystalized increases or stays same as we move into adulthood.

What is sexuality?

refers to desire, sexual preference, sexual identity, and behavior

What is Denial?

refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities

Sleep-wake disorders

result in distress/disability from sleep-related issues. Include insomnia and breathing-related sleep disorders, abnormal behaviors during sleep.

functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

same image from MRI but can look at which structures are active! Neurons that are active require oxygen. Measuring relative amounts of oxygenated vs deoxygenated blood in the brain - we can figure out what brain areas are being used for a certain task. fMRI is more popular. (acronym: f =functional = tells us function about specific region of brain) § MRI registers magnetic changes via radio waves and fMRI is a calculated composite of several MRI images registering the changes (shows activity as colored areas over MRI). MRIs are slow but offer high resolution of soft tissue, such as the brain.

What is hyperglobalist perspective?

sees globalization as a new age in human history - countries become interdependent and nation states themselves are less important. Countries become one global society. Theorists don't agree if this good or bad. Driven by a legitimate process.

What is compliance?

situations where we do behaviour to get a reward or avoid punishment. Tendency to go along with behaviour without questioning why. Compliance goes away once rewards/punishments removed. § situation in which society does not have the support of a firm collective consciousness. Social anomie can also result in social groups disbanding, and alienation from social groups. To resolve social anomie, social norms must be strengthened and groups must redevelop sets of shared norms. Can lead to uncertainty in social situations. Means that "Compliance refers to a change in behavior that is requested by another person or group; the individual acted in some way because others asked him or her to do so (but it was possible to refuse or decline.) Like paying taxes!

What is symbolic interactionism?

society is a product of everyday interactions of individuals. Looking at how people behave in normal everyday situations and helps us to better understand and define deviance. Views of deviance include theory of differential association, labeling theory, and strain theory.

What is insight learning?

solve a problem using past skills, the "aha" moment is insight learning. Ex. Use math skills previously learned to solve a problem

What is social class?

status (social status) is relative (to have higher status you need a lower status). Social class often sets stage for prejudice (people on top maintain differences between themselves and lower class - the Just World Phenomenon - good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people, contributes to prejudice). § Ex. Of just world phenomena thinking: High social class people say they are there because they work harder and low social class people are there because they don't work hard.

What is ascribed status?

statuses you can't change, given from birth. ex. Prince of royal family

What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?

stereotypes can lead to behaviours that affirm the original stereotypes. o "City dwellers are rude" (cognition, stereotyping) -> I don't like them (affective component, prejudice) -> I will avoid them (behavioural component, discrimination) o They think I'm rude (cognition) -> They may not like me (affective)-> They avoid me (behavioural) -> City dwellers are rude § Continuous circle that positive feedbacks on itself.§ The city dwellers become ruder over time in response to our own behavior towards them.

What is the biological theory of personality?

suggests important components of personality are inherited, or determined in part by our genes.

What is the empathy-altruism hypothesis?

suggests some people are altruistic due to empathy. High empathy = high in altruistic behaviors. Those who score higher on empathy are more altruistic.

What is evolutionary game theory?

tells us those with best fit to environment will survive and pass on to offspring, and those genes will become more common in successive generations. o Reproduction and environment are central to evolutionary game theory.§ Reproduction important to game theory because it can't happen in isolation and it needs to involve others § Environment - how organism fits in with social and physical environment. Work with other organisms to find food, raise young, deal with predators. [Fitness also depends on behavior of group] Predicts the availability of resources and social behavior.

What is generalization?

tendency/ability of a stimulus similar to conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response, and more similar the stimulus is to original conditioned stimulus - the greater the conditioned response. o Has an adaptive value.o Generalization allows us to make appropriate response to similar stimuli. Ex. meeting someone new who smiles, reminds us of other smiles (both exhibit feelings of joy). Guinea pig doesn't respond to dresser drawer, which makes a sound that is different from refrigerator, this is called discrimination, when you learn to make a response to some stimuli but not others. Also has an adaptive value because you want to respond differently to related stimuli. o Ex: You wouldn't want to respond to all loud sounds in the same way. You probably want to respond differently to a loud bang of drum vs loud bang of gunshot

Covert orienting

the act of bringing the spotlight of attention on an object or event without body or eye movement

Context

the environment you encode and take the test (retrieve the information) is helpful. . Not always the case, so if you can't take test in same place, studying in different places gives you diff cues for retrieval - so multiple cues that will help you remember the material.

What are reference groups?

the group to which people refer in evaluating themselves. People's beliefs, attitudes, behaviours. Constantly looking for external groups that align with our beliefs/attitudes/behaviours. These groups influences our social decisions - our own beliefs, attitudes and behaviors. Reference groups are groups that people refer to when evaluating their [own] qualities, circumstances, attitudes, values and behaviors. "any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior"

What is the frustration-aggression principle?

the idea that frustration creates anger which can spark aggression. Almost anything can cause frustration.• Ex. Physical pain or presence of crowd. Higher temperatures can also lead to frustration. (more violent crimes when the weather is hot)

What does the Stanford prison study tell us about the relationship between social roles and behavior?

the influence situation can have on our behavior - might be due to situational attribution (due to situation), not dispositional attribution (internal characteristics/personalities of people) o It becomes much easier to behave badly towards individuals who suffer from deindividualization (loss of self) - In this case prisoners forced to dress same, and addressed as number. o Bad behavior caused cognitive dissonance - guards knowing their behavior was inappropriate, tried to reduce their mental distress by cognitive dissonance reduction - overly justified their behaviors - everything happened because prisoners were whims or they deserved it. They changed their cognition. o Also role of internalization - participants internalized their prison roles. Prisoners incorporated their roles into beliefs, and let it influence their attitudes/cognitions/behaviours.

What are folkways?

the mildest type of norm, just common rules/manners we are supposed to follow on a day to day base. Traditions individuals have followed for a long time, ex. opening the door, helping a person who's dropped item, or saying thank you. Not engaging results in a consequences that is not severe/consistent. No actual punishment.

Weber's Law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

Define Globalization

the process by which tangibles and intangibles spread across the world, primarily as a result of advances in technology and communication.

What is self-esteem?

the respect and regard one has for oneself. Different from self worth. Self worth is knowing that you are of value, lovable, and necessary to this life, and of worth. Without it, you will not have self-esteem.

What is a self-serving bias?

the tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors and put the blame for failures on external factors

What is the Young-Helmholtz theory?

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

Social Cognitive Theory

theory of behaviour change that emphasizes interactions between people and their environment. Unlikebehaviourism (where environment controls us entirely), cognition is also important. o Social factors, observational learning, and environmental factors (ex. opinions/attitudes of friends and family) can influence your beliefs.

Universal Emotions

there are 6! (picture is wrong) Happiness, Sadness, Surprise, Fear, disgust, anger

What is deindividuation?

those in group are more likely to act inappropriately because crowd conceals person's identity. Good example is behavior of some on Black Friday. Presence of large group there is violence (shoppers trample employees, shot shoppers, stolen goods from stores). Presence of large group decreases their inhibition/guilt, hence increases antisocial/deviant behavior. Another example is the internet - anonymous platform causes people to express opinions they typically would not express. (ex. Youtube comments people are nasty, cyber bullying) The bystander effect refers to a group process in which individuals observe an injustice or a crime being perpetuated and do

What is projection?

throw your attributes to someone else - like accusing another person of being jealous when you are the one being jealous. (acronym: saying PP is immature (Projection and Passive Aggression) § Can cause projective identification - that person targeted with projection can starting believing, feeling, having thoughts of the attributes that were projected to them Ex. The person now actually feels jealous and the person can believe "I am a jealous person"

Dizygotic Twins

twins who are produced when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time

Availability Heuristic

using examples that come to mind. Helpful, but our easily memorable experiences don't match real state of the world. o The availability heuristic is a decision making heuristic where choices are based on quick, easily accessible examples. o Ex. More shark attacks on news so you think a shark attack = more fatal. But, firework accidents are more fatal (have a higher risk) but are less available (less publicized).

What is a caste system?

very little social mobility, because your role is determined entirely by background you're born to and who you're married to. A lot of social stability. Ex. The Hindu caste system.

What is an authoritarian parent?

very strict, break will of child. Punishment.

Occipital Lobe

vision, "striate cortex" (striated cells)

What is obstructive sleep apnea?

when airways are obstructed. Soft tissues around our neck can relax at night and potentially cause obstruction of airflow for a short period of time. Gets worse as people get older. At nighttime, this causes snoring or gasping or pauses in breathing. At daytime, people are tired/sleepy and unrefreshed • Diagnosed by: Sleep study (a polysomnography) and looking for 15+ "apneas"/hour (Apnea - lack of airflow).

What is non-associative learning?

when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus, ex. habituation and sensitization. In habituation, person tunes out the stimulus. Dishabituation occurs when previously habituated stimulus is removed.Sensitization is increase in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus.

What is Bipolar I disorder?

when hypomania becomes manic w/ or w/o major d disorder An individual diagnosed with bipolar II has never had a manic episode.

What is identification?

when people act/dress a certain way to be like someone they respect. Will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual.

What is the front-stage self?

when people are in a social setting. Ex. someone watches baseball with friends even if he doesn't like baseball. Manipulating how he's seen to gain/make friends. "Putting on a front and acting for an audience" perhaps use this to your advantage one day. § Say "oh I love baseball" even though you don't really like baseball

What is informational social influence?

when we conform because we feel others are more knowledgeable than us, because we think they know something we don't. Internalization refers to the normal process where children learn and absorb (internalize) knowledge and rules about the world from social context, rather than through being specifically told. This is how children learn how to alter their behavior in response to the situation that they § Ex: when you move to a new place. You would ask people around you (who lived in this place for a longer period) of things to do /places to eat and go along with their suggestions.

What are taste aversions?

when you eat something because you like it, but then stop eating it because you become sick (have a bad experience). Aversions are strong, and they don't always make sense. Ex. You are eating cilantro and really like it but get sick from it. Then start hating cilantro. Also could be the chicken you were eating actually caused the sickness, but you started hating the cilantro anyways. Body connects the fact that the sickness was a result of food - not other attributes of the environment when you ate. You are more likely to get sick because of food, so the association is learnt quickly

What is public conformity?

you're outwardly changing but inside you maintain core beliefs. You only outwardly agree with the group. § Ex: you agree to the shock color in the group situation but you also know that the treats is a more effective route. You are not convinced. When you are alone you train the dog with a treat.

State-dependent

your state at the moment you encode. When you are in a certain mood when you encode you can then remember it when you are in the same mood. o Ex. If you learn something while drunk you'll remember next time you're drunk - this happens because being drunk provides an internal retrieval cue to your brain.

What happens with a baby with a secure attachment?

§ #1: Child was secure with parent and explored room, might have stayed with mother and eventually explored room (aka. child might walk back to mother at times or look back at mother, but comfortable exploring) § #2: When parent left, child became really distressed/upset § #3: when parent comes back, they would go to the mother and be happy

What does a baby with an insecure attachment do?

§ #1: children cling to mother, and stayed with mother and did not explore. § #2: When mother left became upset/distress § #3: distress did not go away when she came back. § Others were avoidant - were not upset when they left the room and were indifferent to her when she returned.

What are the four sources to look at when determining if someone has strong or weak self efficacy?

§ 1. Mastery of experience - strengthens self-efficacy § 2. Social modeling - seeing people similar to ourselves complete the same task increases self-efficacy § 3. Social persuasion - when someone says something positive to you, helps overcome self-doubt. § 4. Psychological responses - learning how to minimize stress and control/elevate mood in difficult/challenging situations can improve self- efficacy

What does the Malthusian Theory state?

§ Malthusian Theorem suggests: Run out of resources, global food shortage. We won't be able to maintain natural resources for everyone on planet. (high mortality rate) • Current: 1B suffer from malnutrition already in world of 7B § Lack of resources will lead to public health disaster and force population to stabilize- stabilize and then negative growth rate. Negative growth rate would occur when population forced to finally have lower birth rate than death rate.

What were Carl Rogers' 3 different components of self?

§ Self-image: what we believe we are. The view we have of ourselves.§ Self-esteem/self-worth: how much value we place on ourselves§ Ideal-self: what we wish/aspire to be§ When the ideal self and real self are similar, the result is a positive self- concept. When the ideal self does not match the real self, the result is incongruity.§ Explain actions through self-concept and incongruence

Modified Semantic Network

• Modified Semantic Network: every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge. Some links might be shorter/longer for different individuals and there may be direct links for higher order categories to exemplars. o Spreading activation: Says all ideas in your brain are connected together. Pulling up one memory pulls up others as well. § Example: saying fire engine activates truck, fire, red which makes it easier to identify/retrieve those items.