PSYC 180 Midterm #1

Ex vulnerable narcissistics

-. They feel helpless, anxious and victimized when people don't treat them like royalty. EX: As adolescents, they overreact to break-ups. Just like those with Borderline Personality Disorder, vulnerable narcissists are preoccupied with fears of rejection and abandonment. They swing back and forth between feeling superior and inferior depending on what's going on in their life at the moment. A setback (such as a bad grade or fight with a friend) can bring them to therapy. But when the crisis is over, they drop out. VN's appear to be over-compensating for low self-esteem and a deep-seated sense of shame that may date back to early childhood. They developed the behaviors as a coping mechanism to deal with neglect, abuse or a neglectful style of parent-child attachment (meaning the parents never developed a close bond with their child, so he never felt safe and secure in his parents' love). As adults, VNs care about how their partners see them and try to get respect. But ironically, they get defensive at suggestions that they change. They may have hidden affairs, yet accuse the other partner of being unfaithful and obsess about preventing that from happening. An Example John, a truck driver, is a vulnerable narcissist. He prides himself on his technical abilities to deal with any problem situation. He has a good reputation at work for his skills, but others are offended by his arrogance. They try to avoid him and put him down behind his back. He marries Sandy, who has an administrative job. He feels easily threatened by Sandy's success and independence. But Sandy is quite codependent and spends a lot of effort "fixing" him, helping him feel great about himself. He complains to her about how people mistreat him at work and don't appreciate how special he is. He talks a lot about quitting his job and working with people who appreciate him. But he never does. He also complains that his friends "turn against" him when they seem to avoid him or have other priorities. He blames Sandy when things go wrong around the house while he's on the road, and she has learned not to argue back. When Sandy gets a raise at work, John insults her and claims she must be sleeping with her boss. He demands that he determine how they spend their increased pay. Sandy sometimes hints about divorcing him, but he says he would kill himself if she did--so she doesn't.

correlation coefficient

-: A number based on a statistical analysis that is used to describe the degree of association between two variables The correlation coefficient ranges from -1.00 to +1.00 A negative number means an inverse relationship A positive number means a direct relationship The higher the correlation coefficient (whether positive or negative), the stronger the association between the two variables A correlation of 0 means there is no correlation Correlation does not equal causation! -positive correlation= points lie close to a straight line, which has positive gradient - as one variable increases the other increases -negative correlation= points lie close to a straight line, which has negative gradient-> as one variable increases, the other decreases -no correlation= no pattern to the points-> no connection between the two variables

genotype and phenotype

-A person's genetic heritage—the actual genetic material—is called a genotype. Example___eyes__ -The way an individual's genotype is expressed in observed and measurable characteristics is called a phenotype. Example__color of eyes____ -Phenotypes include physical traits and psychological characteristics -For each genotype, a range of phenotypes can be expressed. -Can we predict any characteristic trait just by looking at genes alone?NO- traits are still shaped by the environment -• Each genotype has range of phenotypes that can be expressed

genetic process

-A single gene is rarely the source of a protein's genetic information, much less of an inherited trait -Rather than being a group of independent genes, the human genome consists of many collaborative genes -The term gene-gene interaction is increasingly used to describe studies that focus on the interdependence of two or more genes in influencing characteristics, behavior, diseases, and development -behavior genetics field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in human trait development (heredity and enviro interact to produce development) -> use twin and adoption studies (adoption studies seek to discover whether the behavior and psychological characteristics of adopted children are more like those of their adoptive parents) -• Twin studies: identical twins (monozygotic) -> give them test and see how similar their results are • Identical twins separated at birth= how can see if it is genes or environment If similarity then must be genes bc share that • Fraternal twins raised in separate enviros are less similar than identical twins separated at birth • Adoption studies Family adopted more than 1 child and see how similar they are, don't share genes so if similar trait then must be due to environment

identity vs. isolation

-Adolescents in a romantic relationships are in the process of constructing their own identities, and each person provides the other with a context of identity exploration. 1. Identity formation is linked to having intimate relationships -> adolescents who know themselves are likely to engage in long-term relationships and those who are in long-term relationships gradually solidify their identities 2. Intimate connections look different for male and female adolescents - males seem to be more interested in the superficiality of the relationship (looks, status) and females seek a partner they can depend on 3. Major break-ups in adolescence and emerging adulthood can lead some to re-evaluate their identities - adolescents will more easily change who they are for their relationships, until they eventually form a solid sense of identity

What is rank-order stability in the Big Five personality traits?

-Although traits change as we move from childhood to adolescence and adulthood, for the most part, we maintain our position in comparison to our cohort

Neurons during adolescence

-Another important aspect of the brain's development in adolescence is the dramatic increase in connections between neurons, a process that is called synaptogenesis Synaptogenesis begins in infancy and continues through adolescence Researchers have discovered that nearly twice as many synaptic connections are made than will ever be used by adolescence. The connections that are used are strengthened and survive, while the unused ones are replaced by other pathways or disappear (are "pruned" during adolescence. -The term white matter is used to describe the whitish color of myelinated axons, and the term gray matter refers primarily to dendrites and the cell body of the neuron. -A significant developmental change in adolescence is the increase in white matter and the decrease in gray matter in the prefrontal cortex Increases in white matter across adolescence is due to increased myelination. -• Increase of connection b/w neurons-> synaptogenesis Pathways that aren't strengthened can disappear by late adolescence

Columbine Massacre

-April 29th, 1999 Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold -Why did they do it? o Toxic social environment o Intended as a mass bombing o They wanted to be famous o At first many people saw as we won't see it again, it's a fluke → obviously didn't go that way -school shooting that was initially a failed bombing -After Columbine school shootings by adolescents, psychologists scrambled to explain why. Self-esteem rose to the top: California implemented the the "Task Force on Self-Esteem and Personal and Social Responsibility" to the tune of $245,000 per year. Do you think low self-esteem was the primary reason for the columbine massacres (and other school shootings)? Actually it was probably their high self-esteem that may have lead them to perceive the teasing by other classmates as threats to their inflated self-worth

growth spurts in puberty

-Because growth slows throughout childhood, puberty brings forth the most rapid increases in growth since infancy -Occurs approximately two years earlier for girls (age 9) than boys (age 11) on average -Girls increase in height about 3½ inches per year; boys, about 4 inches -Weight gain follows roughly the same developmental timetable as height gain -Fifty percent of adult body weight is gained during adolescence -Girls gain an average of 18 pounds in one year; boys gain an average of 20 pounds -At the beginning of adolescence, girls tend to be as tall as or taller than boys of their age, but by the end of the middle school years most boys have caught up with them, or in many cases even surpassed them in height. -The growth spurt typically begins before menarche and ends earlier for girls. The growth spurt for boys begins later and ends later than it does for girls. -boys starting later but gaining more in weight and height so bc of this by the time hit 18,19,20 boys pass females -9,10,11 see height changes for girls, 13,14,15 boys see great differences in height

What defines adulthood differs across cultures

-Collectivist cultures: 1. Israel - completing military service 2. Argentina, Chile, India - being able to support a family financially -Individualistic cultures (Canada and US) 1. accepting responsibility for oneself 2. making independent decisions 3. becoming financially independent -in US most widely recognized marker of entry into adulthood is: holding a more or less permanent, stable, full-time job or career, economic independence (achieving this is a long process though) -in developing nations, the most widely recognized marker of entry into adulthood is marriage, and it usually occurs much earlier

4 identity statues young ppl go through: diffusion, moratorium, foreclosure, achievement

-Diffusion= A status that combines no exploration with no commitment -Moratorium=Involves exploration but no commitment -Foreclosure= No exploration but commitment -Achievement= Making personal, occupational, and ideological choices -o Foreclosure: I'll just do whatever my parents tell me to do ex: become a doctor; truly don't want it but follow steps laid out o Diffusion: drop out, flip out, don't worry, no real aspirations o In Moratorium: trying to figure it out, parents allowing choice path, ex: get to take many different classes, allowed to explore o Achievement: getting to where they need to be, ex: need to apply to college, get there • Young adults 12-20 o Being in moratorium or diffusion correlated with higher levels of depression and delinquency → (probably why so many kids do drugs in college) • Changes in Identity Status o As you get older more people switch to identity achievement, in moratorium also increases a bit, identity diffusion and foreclosure are high in the teens but goes doen when you're older -highest diffusion in early adolescence -moderate foreclosure in early adolescence -increases in moratorium in young adulthood -gains in identity achievement throughout young adulthood

3 types of temperament that people are born with?

-Easy (40%)= This child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines, and adapts easily to new experiences. -Difficult (10%)= This child reacts negatively to many situations and is slow to accept new experiences. -Slow-to-warm-up=This child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood. -Temperament: An individual's behavioral style and characteristic way of responding, usually apparent in the first 6 months of life Many psychologists emphasize that temperament forms the foundation of personality. The close link between temperament and personality in adolescence is supported by research that connects some of the Big Five personality factors to temperament categories. -Across a number of longitudinal studies, an easy temperament in childhood is linked with more optimal development and adjustment in adolescence and adulthood. -Difficult kids are more likely to become bullies in adolescence -Slow-to-warm kids end up being very shy adolescents -Temperament in infancy predicts certain personality traits in adolescence, but they may change somewhat in adulthood

Erikson psychosocial theory: intimacy vs. isolation

-Find a partner to share experiences with; form intimate, loving relationships with other people. -o Age - early adulthood o Find a partner to share experiences with; form intimate, loving relationships with other people o Success - love, strong relationships o Failure - not love and stuck, afraid of rejection, loneliness and isolation

Ex: grandiose narcissistics

-Grandiose NPs Characterized by extraversion, dominance and attention-seeking. Grandiose narcissists are less sensitive and more confident. They know they are superior and will seek revenge or go into a vicious rage against those who don't treat them with respect or dare to give them negative feedback. They appear to have no sense of shame about themselves and truly have very high self-esteem. Their parents or caregivers may have treated them as superior from early childhood, so unlike VNs, they are not compensating for anything. They're simply acting out their expectations. They don't care as much about how their partners see them and may easily walk out of the relationship if they don't get the respect and admiration they know they deserve. They may openly have multiple relationships/affairs and pride themselves on how many people see how wonderful they are. Like people with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), they can be very aggressive and dominance-seeking without empathy or remorse. An Example Fred, a physician, is a grandiose narcissist. He met Sharon, a nurse, at the hospital where he works. He divorced his first wife (who helped put him through medical school) and married Sharon, an attractive "trophy wife." Their relationship revolves around his career. Everyone thinks Fred is a great guy—fun and witty. But behind the scenes he belittles Sharon and occasionally slaps her for acting "stupid." He doesn't want her to work, so she gives up her career to raise several children. In the meantime, Fred has several short affairs with other secretaries and nurses, which he doesn't hide. He gets furious with Sharon when this upsets her. When the children get older, she wants to return to work. But he mocks her abilities. So she devotes herself to volunteer work related to the children's activities. One day, Sharon gets cancer. Fred gets the best treatment for her. But while she is in the hospital, he also develops a more substantial relationship with another nurse at work. When she finds out, Sharon is crushed--not only about the affair, but his undeniable inability to emotionally support her

Obesity and malnutrition also affect pubertal timing

-Higher weight, especially obesity, is linked to earlier pubertal development Recent studies of more than 46,000 children and adolescents in 34 countries found that obesity was linked to earlier onset of menarche (Currie & others, 2012) and puberty began earlier in overweight boys and later in underweight boys (Tomova, Robeva, & Kumanov, 2015). Other scientists have hypothesized that the onset of menarche is influenced by the percentage of body fat in relation to total body weight Anorexic adolescents whose weight drops dramatically and females who participate in certain sports (such as gymnastics and swimming) may not menstruate. In boys, undernutrition may delay puberty (Susman, Dorn, & Schiefelbein, 2003). -too much "nutrition or food" can lead to early pubertal timing -rates of obesity especially high in US -o Higher weight- earlier puberty o Menarche- body fat in relation to body weight o Anorexia leads to later puberty

Independent Variable, Dependent Variable, Random assignment, experimental group, control group

-Independent variable: The factor that is manipulated Dependent variable: The factor that is measured Researchers manipulate the independent variable by giving different experiences to one or more experimental groups and one or more control groups Experimental group: A group whose experience is manipulated Control group: A group that is treated like the experimental group in every other way except for the manipulated factor - gets placebo, sugar pill An important principle is random assignment: assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance Reduces the likelihood that the results will be affected by preexisting differences between the groups

Time Magazine article, 2013

-Main Claims in this article: Millennials' development is stunted: more people ages 18 to 29 live with their parents than with a spouse-> o **Need more degrees to get jobs to build a family** (actual reason) The incidence of narcissistic personality disorder is nearly three times as high for people in their 20s as for the generation that's now 65 or older Flaws in the study: 1. There are no jobs! This generation is the first in U.S. history to enter adulthood in worse economic shape than their parents. The unemployment rate for millennials is higher than it was for their parents at the same age, and they have higher student debt. Less likely to own homes More likely to live at home Yes, people are marrying later and the economy sucks. 2 . Basically, it's not that people born after 1980 are narcissists, it's that young people are narcissists, and they get over themselves as they get older. -> so can't compare 20yrs olds to 65 year olds because narcissism declines with age -o Every generation has called the one before it narcissistic, lazy, etc. -TIME ARTICLE HAS IT WRONG

Narcissism

-Narcissism: A self-centered and self-concerned approach toward others. This lack of awareness contributes to adjustment problems One study revealed that narcissistic adolescents were more aggressive than other adolescents but only when they were shamed. The extent to which recent generations of adolescents (sometimes referred to as Generation Me) have higher self-esteem and are more narcissistic than earlier generations is controversial! -vulnerable narcissistics= tend to be more emotionally sensitive, yet feel entitled to admiration and loyalty from others Ex: as adolescents, they overreact to break-ups -grandiose narcissistics= less sensitive and more confident, seeking admiration at all costs. characterized by 1. extroverted 2. dominate conversations 3. attention seeking

What else do traits predict in adolescence ? (John, Caspi, & Robins, 1994)

-Pittsburgh Youth Study: poor inner-city sample of Whites and Blacks -Juvenile delinquency (drug use, arrests)= low agreeableness and conscientiousness -school performance (grades)= high conscientiousness and high openness; C= working hard, focus on tasks, O= enjoying learning and understanding things/ideas -interpersonal effects = high extraversion= #of sex partners, high agreeableness= likability (Rated by interviewer) -The higher in openness an adolescent is, the more likely the person engages in risk-taking behaviors related to substance use (e.g., drinking and driving).

puberty

-Puberty occurs in early adolescence that provides stimulation for the rapid physical changes that take place during this period of development. Puberty takes place between 9 and 16 years of age for most individuals. -Puberty is not the same as adolescence -Puberty is not a single, sudden event -We do not know precisely what initiates puberty -For virtually everyone, puberty ends long before adolescence is exited -Puberty occurs between ages 9 to 16. While most changes occur within the first 4 years, height, weight, and muscles are added until age 20 or so, and many more years are required to reach psychological and social maturity. -Weight, body fat, and the hormone leptin are hypothesized to trigger the onset of menarche.

Sarah-Jayne Blakemore 's TED talk

-Sarah-Jayne Blakemore studies the social brain — the network of brain regions involved in understanding other people — and how it develops in adolescents. -the prefrontal cortex is not fully developed in adolescents which results in 1. poor decision making 2. adolescents not good at planning 3. hard time inhibiting inappropriate behavior 4. trouble understanding others -decrease in gray matter in the prefrontal cortex in adolescence leads to what? synaptic pruning= getting rid of synpases that aren't used and ones we do use are strengthened -activity in the medial prefrontal cortex area decreases in adolescence- Ex: see things from their point of view and not others point of view -According to Dr. Blakemore's talk, the limbic system is hyper-sensitive to rewards in adolescence. Conversely, the prefrontal cortex (which would stop us from taking risks) is still developing in adolescence. -most late adolescents and adults use the same decision-making processes, but adolescents are more likely than adults to take risks, why? 1. adolescence decide negative consequences are less negative than adults would 2. adolescence crave and feel more sensation to drugs they are taking -> drugs makes adolescents feel better than it would for adults 3. adolescence interested in how others view them - follow peers

self-esteem (baseline and barometric)

-Self-esteem -Refers to a person's overall sense of worth and well-being -Baseline Self-esteem: Stable, enduring sense of worth and well-being -Barometric Self-esteem: Fluctuating sense of worth and well-being as one responds to different thoughts, experiences, etc., through the course of a day -Baseline: most days you feel either high or low depending of which you have Barometric: How you feel about yourself as the day goes on -researchers have found that self-esteem often decreases when children make the transition from elementary school to middle or junior high school -For most adolescents and emerging adults, the emotional discomfort of low self-esteem is only temporary, but for some, low self-esteem can develop into other problems. Low self-esteem has been implicated in overweight and obesity, anxiety, depression, suicide, and delinquency. -the strongest predictors of high self-esteem in adolescence in the US and other developed countries is physical appearance, followed by scholastic achievements, social acceptance, and athletic competence -Peer judgments gain increasing importance in adolescence. The link between peer approval and self-worth increases during adolescence. An important point is that research on self-esteem is correlational rather than experimental-> if a correlational study reveals an association between self-esteem and depression, it could be equally likely that depression causes low self-esteem or low self-esteem causes depression

shared vs. non-shared experiences

-Shared: Same family, same school, neighborhood - Non-shared: friends, birth order, teachers -Behavior geneticist Robert Plomin (2004) has found that common rearing, or shared environment, accounts for little of the variation in adolescents' personality or interests -Evocative genotype-environment correlations and active genotype-environment correlations create a non-shared environment, accounting for many of the differences among siblings. -*nonshared shape who you are more than shared

Standardized tests

-Standardized tests have uniform procedures for administration and scoring and measure various traits and characteristics in a population, such as intelligence or aptitude. In the past, IQ tests given to adolescents have suffered from major issues in this country: -measure ability adolescents have -tests may suffer from reliability and validity -> Ability to reproduce results vs things measure what they are supposed

Negative stereotyping of adolescents

-Stereotype: A generalization that reflects our impressions and beliefs about a broad category of people Stereotypes about adolescents are plentiful, and have changed little in the last 50 years "They are all lazy" "All they think about sex" "They are so self-centered" -adolescent generalization gap= refers to generalizations that are based on information about a limited, often highly visible group of adolescents ((lots of research on adolescents so someone from a different generation makes stereotypes about another generation) -In matters of taste and manners, the youth of every generation have seemed radical, unnerving, and different from adults. Acting out and boundary testing are time-honored ways in which adolescents move toward accepting, rather than rejecting, parental values.

what is the looking glass self

-The looking glass self refers to how adolescents believe others view them, and this helps shape their identities. -sensitive to others' judgements -highly self-consciousness -reflected appraisals- internalize others' evaluations of us -form the basis of the adolescent's self-esteem

-the most important structural changes in the brain in adolescence

-The prefrontal cortex - is the highest level of the frontal lobes, involved in reasoning, decision making, and self-control—it continues emerging through the adult years, approximately 18 to 25 years of age -> judgment region that reigns in intense emotions but doesn't finish developing until at least emerging adulthood (like 25), decision making, planning, control impulses, delay gratification, isn't fully formed until around 25 -The corpus callosum - is a large bundle of axon fibers that connects the brain's left and right hemispheres, thickens in adolescence, improving adolescents' ability to process information -> these nerve fibers connect the brain's two hemispheres; they thicken in adolescence to process information more effectively -The limbic system - is the seat of emotions and where rewards are experienced. It matures much earlier than the prefrontal cortex and is almost completely developed by early adolescence -The amygdala - is especially noted for emotions -Although adolescents are capable of very strong emotions, their prefrontal cortex hasn't adequately developed to the point at which they can control these passions - fear and aggression

Optimistic Bias

-The tendency to assume that accidents, diseases, and other misfortunes are more likely to happen to others than ourselves is called -Comes from health psychology research The tendency to assume that accidents, diseases, and other misfortunes are more likely to happen to others rather than ourselves Adolescents tend to have a stronger optimistic bias than adults "I won't get pregnant" "I won't get pulled over" -due to lack of experience and inability to predict future events -o Adolescents have stronger optimistic bias • Goes down when you get older → prefrontal cortex develops and we can think more rationally, also bad things will happen to you as you get older and you change the way you think • Optimistic Bias: Smoking o Adolescents believed less than adults that they would die from smoking even they smoked for 30+ years, also believed they could quit if they started

Epigenetic view

-The view that emphasizes that development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and the environment -In this example, the environment determines whether the gene gets turned on -Recent studies have found support for the interaction between the 5-HTTLPR gene and stress levels in predicting depression in adolescents. -Ex: 5-HTTLPR gene only flipped on if enviro caused it to happen with stress • Behaviors have genetic loading that gives ppl propensity for specific developmental trajectory -bi-directional interchange b/w environment and genes

Experimental research

-To study causality, researchers turn to experimental research An experiment is a carefully regulated procedure in which one or more factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated, while all other factors are held constant Experiments demonstrate cause and effect Nonexperimental research methods (descriptive and correlational) cannot establish cause and effect because they do not involve manipulating factors in a controlled way -gold standard

Pubertal caveat

-Virtually all the studies considered in the order of pubertal development have been conducted on White adolescents in the West Three studies demonstrate the variations that may exist in other groups Worthman, 1987 Lee, Chang, and Chan, 1963 Herman-Giddens et al., 1997; 2001 -Kenya (Worthman)= boys show the first physical changes in puberty before their female peer -> a reversal of the Western pattern -African American Girls (Hermes-Giddens)= many african american girls at age 9 (50%) were found to begin developing breast buds and public hair considerably earlier than white girls (15%) -Chinese girls (lee, chang, chan) = pubic hair began to develop in most girls about 2 years after the development of breast buds and only a few months before menarche -> in sharp contrast to western studies, which found pubic hair and breast buds developed together about 2 years before menarche -these three studies show the importance of investigating ethnic differences in rates, timing, and order or pubertal events

Observation

-When we observe scientifically, we often need to control certain factors that determine behavior but are not the focus of our inquiry For this reason, research is often conducted in a laboratory, a controlled setting with many of the complex factors of the "real world" removed -• Naturalistic observation- preferred but rarely happens bc is creepy- go to school and watch kid -advantage= 1. obtain data about a truly natural behavior rather than a behavior that is in reaction to contrived experimental situation -disadvantage= 1. if participants realize they are being observed, their behaviors becomes unnatural 2. difficult and time-consuming, controls are lacking 3. difficult to generalize the results of the research

more research methods: naturalistic experiments

-adoption and twins separated at birth. If adopted, it may be said that similarities between adoptive parents and children are due to the environment, and similarities between bio and child are genes. For twins, similarities in fraternal twins may be compared to identical twins - basically you subtract the correlation for the fraternal twins from the MZ twins and multiply the number by 2, and that will give researchers what is known as a heritability coefficient MZ twins separated at birth -advantages= insights into gene-enviro interactions -disadvantages= rare to find MZ twins separated at birth, adoptive families might share characteristics - they are not random sample from the enviro -experiments that happen naturally, not manipulated by experimenter -• Know how much enviro influences - identical adopted twins - same DNA but separated at birth so grew up in different environments so tells you how much enviro. Affects -> differences must be attributed to environment • Adoption studies= similarities between kids must be from enviro bc have different DNA

Descriptive Research

-aims to observe and record behavior -By itself, descriptive research cannot prove what causes a phenomena, but it can reveal important info about ppl's behavior -ex: age, gender, demographic -mostly describing

Observed correlation as permissive parenting increases, adolescents' self-control decreases

-an observed correlation between two events cannot be used to conclude that one event causes the second event. Other possibilities are that the second event causes the first event or that a third event causes the correlation between the first two events -could be permissive parenting causes adolescents' lack of self-control -could be adolescents' lack of self control causes permissive parenting -could be a third factor such as genetic tendencies or poverty causes both permissive parenting and adolescents' lack of self control -always three arrows and possible explanations in the correlations we see -permissive parenting= o More likely to be a friend, very involved, best friends, parents let you get away with everything, don't punish

sex hormones males and sex hormones females

-androgens= main class of male sex hormone (result in rise in testosterone for boys) estrogens= main class of female sex hormones (result in rise in estradiol in females) -there are sex differences in hormonal changes during puberty -Increases of these hormones in the body are responsible for most changes in puberty. E and T are produced in both males and females and throughout childhood these hormones are about the same in boys and girls. However, once puberty begins, the balance changes dramatically By mid-teens, Estradiol is about 8 times as high for females and for boys levels of testosterone are about 20 times as high -first hormones that come in puberty -• Testosterone could play large role in sexual activity and desire and because men have more testosterone are much more likely to have increased sexual desires during puberty whereas women don't report having that

Case Studies

-are in-depth examinations of single individuals. Case studies are often done when examining extreme behaviors among adolescents (violence and drug dealing). -advantage 1. provide dramatic, in-depth portrayal of ppl's lives -disadvantages= 1. subject of case study is unique, with genetic makeup and personal history that no one else shares 2.. case studies involve judgements of unknown reliability 3. psychologists who conduct case studies rarely check to see whether other psychologists agree with their observations -done with adolescents with major problem (violent and drug use- like conduct disorder)

personality development over the life span

-continuity= how consistent are ppl over time? -change= how much do ppl change in general? -coherence= how and why do individuals develop in unique ways? -personality consistency over time -Becomes consistent around age of three years -Consistently peaks around age 50 -Is relatively enduring across life span -Consistency across the life course at various age periods. Personality becomes more consistent with age.  -Roberts and colleagues Personality changes most in young adulthood and majority of traits become more positive -Srivastava and colleagues Similar results Women are more emotionally stable after age 30; men stay same -causes of change= maturation and environment (happy, stable home environment)

Longitudinal research

-data are collected on the same participants over time on at least two or more occasions -Ex: hours of employment and substance abuse in adolescents -advantage= 1. may help determine causation -disadvantage= 1. expensive 2. attrition (ppl drop out of study) 3. time consuming 4. change in researchers -a year of a lifetime, how do ppl change over time -• Most ppl looking at development like adoslescence focus on longitudinal studies • Measure same person over time - measure them at 12, 13, 18

Ware & John (1995) Punctuality study

-does conscientousness predict differences in punctuality? -measured punctuality at 8am appointments and 5pm appointments for participation in a lab study -effect of situation= everyone arrives late for morning appt, on time/early for afternoon apt. -effect of trait= those high in conscientousness consistently arrived 5 minutes earlier than those low C (across both situations) -effects appear small in any situation (5 min late for low C participants) but these effects accumulate oer the life time (2hrs of work missed in a month) -• Everyone showed up late, those who were conscientious showed up only 2 minutes late • At 5 pm conscientious showed up five minutes early, everyone else showed up on time

Heredity-Environment Correlations

-emphasize how heredity directs the kind of environmental experiences individuals have -passive genotype-environment correlations= Passive - adolescents inherit the genes, and the environment also helps develop the skill. EX: genes: spatial skills. Environment: Dad is an architect and daughter draws along with him -> • Trait for high kinesthetic ability and did b-ball player so he plays w/ you everyday • Parents aren't purposefully trying to train kid -evocative genotype-environment correlations= Evocative - adolescents genetic properties evoke environmental support. Mom notices that Timmy begins to read, so she buys him books which encourage further reading. Or a hostile person evokes hostility from others, further reinforcing the hostile behavior -> • Parents paying attention to you • Parents see you like to read so give you books to read • Parent pushes you to what you are good at • Genes evoking behaviors from parents that will allow you to express your natural tendencies -active genotype-environment correlations= adolescent actively seeks out environments that suit their genetic tendencies. The emerging adult who doesn't may seek employment instead of college -> • You yourself have figured out what you are good at/not good at and you pick your environment that is good for you and your genes -all three of these assume a causal arrow going from genes to environment

More research methods in developmental psyc: ethnography

-ethnography= participant obervation, Margaret Mead in Samoa • Similar to case studies • Goes to certain culture and immerses themselves in that culture (margaret mead in samoa - move to that culture and observe adolescence there - enjoyed a lot of casual pre-marital sex, out in the open, accepted, mostly free to explore sexuality) -advantage= observe ppl in their daily enviro, rich data -disadvantage= researcher must give up own life for a time; may become so entrenched they form relationships and bias their results "going native"

Millennials

-generation born between 1980 and 1995-97 -first cohort to come of age and enter emerging adulthood in the new millennium and have received a good deal of attention by researchers (cohort= group of people who are born at similar point in history and share similar experiences as a result) 2 characteristics of millennials 1. ethnic diversity- as their ethnic diversity increased over prior generations, many adolescents and emerging adults are more tolerant and open-minded than counterparts in previous generations (millennials have by far the most ethnic diversity in this country) 2. increase in their use of media and technology (use more media technology compared to any other generation prior)

Correlational Research

-goes beyond describing phenomena to provide information that will help us to predict how people will behave -the more strongly two events or characteristics are correlated, the more effectively we can predict one event from the other -in correlational research, the goal is to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics -most psyc research is this -o Understand how two levels or more are related to one another o More strongly are related, more effectively we can predict one from the other but cannot talk about which causes which, if one is present, so is the other o Negative= inverse relationship (as one variable goes up, the other goes down o Positive= both variables traveling together (both going up or both going down) - direct relationship o Closer you are to zero the more negligible the relationship is .19 might exist purely due to chance o High the correlation coefficient is .9 or -.9 the stronger the relationship is o Correlation doesn't mean causation o Pos= .8 (right to left) o Neg= -.8 (left to right) o No correlation= no triangle o Closer to making a triangle, stronger the relationship is -in correlational research the goal is to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics

extraversion

-greater like of others, assertive, talkative, more leadership and friends, often more sexual partners -warmth -gregariousness -assertiveness -activity -excitement-seeking -positive emotions

Erikson psychosocial theory - identity vs. role confusion

-has 8 developmental stages across entire life span, each with an age-related crisis to be resolved, if success then move to next stage, if failure then stagnate, social problems -Age: Adolescence -Teenage-years: "Who am I and where am I going?" -Choosing values/goals consistent with newly-formed identity -Crisis: identity conflict -Success sense of identity -Failure confusion; lost identity -Identity is who a person believes he or she is, representing a synthesis and integration of self-understanding. -Two core ingredient of Erikson's theory of identity development is role experimentation. During moratorium and before they reach a stable sense of self, adolescents try out different roles and behaviors. -As adolescents gradually come to realize that they will soon be responsible for themselves and their lives, they search for what those lives are going to be. -Erikson argued that by late adolescence, vocational roles become central to identity development, especially in a highly technological society like that of the United States - Choosing values/goals consistent with newly-formed identity

Adolescent Egocentrism

-having difficulty distinguishing your own thinking about yourself from the thoughts of others -The ability to understand the thoughts and feelings of others Rarely occurs to them to ask how your interests may differ from their own -imaginary audience= Results from adolescents' limited capacity to distinguish between their thinking about themselves and their thinking about the thoughts of others -personal fable= The belief in an imaginary audience that is highly conscious of how you look and act leads to the belief that there must be something special, something unique about you -Imaginary - Stronger when formal operations is first developing and adolescents are just distinguishing between their own perspectives and others' because adolescents think about themselves so much, they believe others must be thinking about them as well Makes adolescents self-conscious Getting humiliated in school - everybody knows about it. Personal - may believe they can become rock stars also leads to optimistic bias. These diminish with age but never disappear entirely for most of us -o Imaginary audience - think everyone is noticing them, paying attention to you, stay with you in your 20s and decreases in your 30s - results from adolescents' limited capacity to distinguish between their thinking about themselves and their thinking about the thoughts of others o Personal fable - the belief in an imaginary audience that is highly conscious about your appearance - leads to belief you're special

globalization and hybrid identity

-hybrid= integrating local culture with elements of global culture -Many young people around the world develop a bicultural identity in relation to the global culture -However, in recent years we have seen an increase in the pervasiveness of identity confusion/ marginalized identity

Openness to experience

-imaginative and creative, higher edu achievement, more in creative jobs, distinctive work and home environments, often physical response to aesthetic experience -fantasy -aesthetics -feelings -actions -ideas -values

normative change in personality

-in general ppl become more assertive, warm, agreeable, conscientious and emotionally stable over time -openness increases early in life and decreases in old age -greatest period of normative change occurs between ages 20 and 40

asynchronicity

-in growth explains the gangly look in early adolescence -in what order to body parts develop? 1. feet, hands, head 2. arms and legs 3. torso, chest and shoulders are the last -Girls gain hip width while boys gain shoulder width, as associated with estrogen and testosterone The later growth spurt of boys produces a greater leg length in boys than in girls Boys' facial structure becomes more angular during puberty, whereas girls' facial structure becomes rounder and softer

Cross-sectional

-involves studying ppl all at one time -Example: In a study, physical exercise among adolescents was found to be related to happiness. The more adolescents exercised the happier they tended to be. -positive correlation -three possible causal relationships exist: 1. Being happy leads to the desire to exercise 2. Exercise makes you happy 3. A third variable causes both (e.g., a new boyfriend or girlfriend) -advantages= researchers do not have to wait for individuals to grow older -disadvantages= gives no information about how individuals change or about the stability of their characteristics -• Looking at ppl at different ages at the same time (looking at ages 10, 12, 15, 17 and compare scores, lump them together

Creation of the concept of adolescence

-late 19c to early 20c -G. Stanley Hall - referred to adolescence as time of "Storm and stress" -Anna Freud- adolescent emotional upheaval is pervasive -o Expectation that everything should be difficult during adolescence -these scientists perpetuated idea that adolescence is time of turmoil

late maturation - boys

-late maturing boys show evidence of problems -compared with boys who mature "on time", late maturing boys tend to experience: 1. alcohol/substance use 2. delinquency 3. lower grades in school

late maturation girls

-late maturing girls have few of the problems that early-maturing girls have -although they can suffer from 1. teasing 2. negative body image (during the years when other girls have begun to develop) -however, by their late teens they tend to have a more favorable body image than other girls -why? they are more likely to end up with the lean body build that tends to be regarded as attractive in western cultures - When do mature are leaner, fitter and more body ideal type we praise in US

the truth about males

-males have no sperm in their testes when they are born and do not produce any until they reach puberty -the average age that sperm production begins (spermarche) is approximately 12 years old -boys produce sperm in astonishing quantities- there are between 30 and 500 million sperm in the typical male ejaculation, which means they produce millions of sperm everyday -why so many sperm? because the female body sees the sperm as a foreign object and attacks it so need a lot to get one to reach the egg

more research methods: biological measurements

-measurement of biological factors (timing of puberty) -tanner (timing and sequence of pubertal change) -• Hormones, how they structure • Genes even • Tanner in 1960s and 70s followed adolescents from 10 to 18 boys and girls and brought them into lab periodically and measured data for pubic hair growth and penis growth and how nipples and breasts developed -- Hormonal functioning, brain activity during behavior, chemical structure of genes. Tanner was a biologist in the UK that studied physical development in puberty in the 60's and 70's, establishing typical ages of development for white boys and girls -advantage= precise measurements -disadvantage= expensive (fmri machines) and cannot speak to causation

Surveys

-most popular way of collecting data in psyc and among adolescents -questionnaires or special interviews administered to a large, random group of people to ascertain their self-reported attitudes or behaviors -advantages= 1. easy to collect 2. cheap 3. can ask personal questions that cannot be observed -disadvantages= 1. wording of questions can have major affect on answers 2. participants may answer questions in a way they think is socially acceptable or desirable rather than telling what they truly think or feel

Robert Rosenthal Study

-o Went into elementary schools and said certain kids in the classroom were going to bloom that year (total lie, picked names out of the hat), did this with hundreds of schools, every time same outcome, for teacher, kids who were going to bloom did bloom, started succeeding, were happier, and their IQ scores changed (went up 1 to 3 points) simply because he told the teachers that this kid is special -> went in with a belief about that kid so they spent more time with those kids and it was that extra attention that was making them perform better -> self-fulfilling propechy o As parents if we believe our kids will be difficult, we will look for them to be difficult and overreact about it and eventually it will happen and will get worse -self-fulfilling prophecy

Methods for collecting data

-observation -surveys -standardized testing -case studies

the facts about females

-once a female reaches her first menstrual period (menarche; about 12.5), one egg develops into a mature egg (ovum) about every 28 days -can a female produce more than one egg? YES! May result in fraternal multiplying (fraternal twins) -females release about 400 eggs over the course of their reproductive lives (even more for women who produce double eggs)

Truth of "storm and stress" myth

-only 20% of adolescents experience great turmoil, the majority in western cultures -why mostly in west? parents don't give kids enough responsibility so rebel- this doesn't seem to be an issue in other cultures -also parents are waiting apprehensively and bracing themselves for turbulent adolescent period so create self-fulfilling prophecy where that then happens because they are expecting it -pop psychologists keep this myth alive -We think it has something to do with the self-fulfilling prophecy= if you believe something will happen, it will happen - you do stuff to make that happen

conscientiousness

-organized, planning ahead, goal-oriented, effective impulse regulation, delayed gratification, following rules and norms -competence -order -dutifulness -achievement-seeking -self-discipline -deliberation

American students who rate their abilities above average

-over the last four decades there has been a dramatic rise in the number of students who describe themselves as being 'above average' in areas of academic ability, drive to achieve, mathematical ability and self-confidence -researchers found disconnect between student's opinions of themselves and actual ability -• Questionnaire asking adolescence in 1965 and then adolescents in 2010- confidence is higher in 2010 (are you better than everyone else around you)- growing trend now that ppl believe they are better than everyone else

personality development in adolescence

-personality= the enduring personal characteristics of individuals -an increasing number of studies involving the big five factors focus on adolescents -the major finding in the study of the big five factors in adolescence is the emergence of conscientiousness as a key predictor of adjustment and competence

neuroticism (emotional stability)

-poor coping skills under stress, poorer health, more job burnout and change, more negative emotions, more impulsivity -anxiety -angry hostility -depression -self-consciousness -impulsiveness -vulnerability to stress

muscle mass and body fat in puberty

-prior to puberty boys and girls are very similar in muscle mass -during puberty, body fat increases more for girls than for boys -before puberty boys and girls are about equal in strength and athletic performance -hips and shoulders widen for both boys and girls, but shoulders more for boys and hips more for girls -As pubertal change proceeds, girls often become more dissatisfied with their bodies, probably because their body fat increases -In contrast, boys become more satisfied as they move through puberty, probably because their muscle mass increases -• around age 15 boys gain much more muscle mass • during puberty, body fat increases more for girls than for boys • girls gaining much more fat and boys gaining more muscle mass - boys more likely to be satisfied with body than girls

agreeableness

-prosocial/communal orientation to others, lower cardiovascular health risk, empathy, enjoyment-seeking, less likely to be competitive, hostile, jealous or indifferent -trust -straightforwardness -altruism -compliance -modesty -tender-mindedness

effect of sociocultural and environmental factors on puberty

-recent research indicates that cultural variations and early experiences may be related to earlier pubertal onset -adolescents in developed counties and large urban areas reach puberty earlier than their counterparts in less developed countries and rural areas. WHY? nutrition -children who have been adopted from developing countries to developed countries often enter puberty earlier than their counterparts who continue to live in developing countries. WHY? NUTRITION

Adolescents in the US

-recent trends of why adolescents not achieving adulthood successfully 1. math and science skills are declining (esp. compared to many Asian countries) 2. college graduation rates are lowering (used to be highest, now not even in top 10) (bc college so expensive) 3. alcohol use is on the rise (20% before legal age) 4. pregnancy rates continue to soar (33% by age 20) -adolescents who grow up in poverty represent special concern -> in 2013, 19% of US children and adolescents were living in families below poverty line, higher figure than in other industrialized nations (pregnancy rates much higher for these adolescents)

Global Perspective on adolescence

-researchers have found both similarities and differences in the experiences of adolescents in different countries -Some experts argue that adolescence is typically thought of in a "Eurocentric" way (Nsamenang, 2002) WEIRD samples: Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic Technology and telecommunication has resulted in adolescents who are very similar in dress, hairstyles, music and slang (Larson, Wilson, & Rickman, 2009).

self-understanding in adolescence (abstraction and idealism, differentiation, the fluctuating self)

-some important dimensions of adolescents' and emerging adults' self-understanding -1. abstraction and idealism: Many adolescents begin to describe themselves in idealistic ways, such as, "I'm good-looking" "I have lots of friends" "I'm good at soccer" -> Think of themselves in abstract thought and idealism → I'm the best at soccer, I'm the most artistic (can be good and bad) -differentiation= Separate "selves" begin to develop in adolescence, and may stay with some through adulthood, or others will settle on the same self despite context. Adolescents begin to see themselves (who they are) as dependent on context. "When I'm with my friends, I'm like this" "When I'm with my parents, I'm like this."-> Acting different ways with different people, parents, partner, friend Learning to reconcile all of them - get better as you get older -the fluctuating self= Mainly this refers to the fact that adolescents can switch mood very easily. They do not have a good handle on their emotions, and are not as good as adults when it comes to controlling themselves in certain situations. - Can switch moods much more easily than adults because they are learning how to deal with and handle adult emotions

how do sex hormones work in males and females?

-testosterone in males results in 1. development of external genitals (penis) 2. increase in height 3. voice changes (deeper) 4. also linked to sexual desire and activity -estradiol in females results in: 1. breast development 2. uterine development (getting ready to get pregnant) 3. skeletal changes (occur in hips to get ready to have children) -the identity of hormones that contribute to sexual desire and activity in adolescence is less clear for girls than it is for boys

perspective taking: an aspect of social cognition

-the ability to understand the thoughts and feelings of others -studies show adolescents who are able to take the perspective of others tend to be: 1. popular - bc they can figure out how the things they say might please or displease others, sympathy for others 2. prosocial- being kind and considerate to others -Young children tend to assume that topics about themselves are of great interest not only to themselves, but also to others -Just as you understand that another person has a perspective that is different from you own, you also realize that other persons understand that you have a perspective that is different from theirs -ex: think their conversation about the lives of their barbies is incredibly interesting)- little kids struggle with this

early maturation girls

-the effects of early maturation are especially negative for girls -early maturating girls are at risk for a variety of problems 1. eating disorders 2. substance abuse 3. delinquency 4. conflicts with parents -why? Why? Early maturing girls may appeal more to boys - especially older boys. This may make them more likely to hang out with boys and possibly skip school and use drugs. This causes conflicts with parents. As early maturing girls age, they are also more likely to gain weight, thus they may end up struggling with eating disorders. - US probably has to do w. weight gain and nutrition-> more weight probably earlier puberty • Why problems? Mature earlier appealing to older boys, who likely experiment with drugs and alcohol so causes conflict w/ parents Mature early gain weight so eating disorder to control weight later in life

early maturation -boys

-the effects of early maturation tend to be positive for boys -early maturing boys have: 1. more favorable body image 2. higher popularity -not everything is favorable, they tend to be involved in 1. substance abuse 2. delinquency 3. sex

Gonadarche

-the period most ppl think of as puberty -involved maturation of: primary sexual characteristics= ovaries in females, testes in males and secondary sexual characteristics= pubic hair, breast, and genital development -In the United States, the gonadarche period begins at approximately 9 to 10 years of age in non-Latina white girls, and 8 to 9 years in African American girls -In boys, gonadarche begins at about 10 to 11 years of age

Obesity in US

-the proportion of 15 year olds who are obese in the US is far greater than in other developed countries 4 factors 1. fast food - 1/3 of all american adolescents eat fast food at least one meal per day (plus portions have increased) (#1 in world for fast food) 2. decline of physical activity (decline steep from 9 to 15, at 9 it is about 3 hours a day, by 15 it is less than an hour) 3. screens - the influence of watching tv/video games (eat more when watching a screen) 4. school lunches - schools increase availability of sodas and junk food (poor schools have the worst food bc soft drink companies pay schools that need money to have their items)

Emerging adulthood

-transition from adolescence to adulthood -extended adolescence -approx. ages 18-25 5 key features: 1. identity exploration: capabilities, limitations, values and beliefs 2. instability - moving, relationships, jobs (most likely to move between ages 18 and 35 - 25yrs moving most) 3. self-focused- begin to rely on themselves instead of parents 4. the age of possibilities: a time when individuals have an opportunity to transform their lives - optimism, high hopes and expectations 5. feeling in-between - emerging adults don't feel fully like an adult (by age 36 most of us know we have hit adulthood) -some cultures do not have emerging adulthood stage, why? developing countries don't have this emerging adulthood stage, especially simple cultures, adulthood comes quickly -> by 18 you are married and doing work that your parents are doing, skip over emerging adulthood in developing countries -> in many cultures marriage determines the beginning of adulthood (US is average age 26 which is lowest among developed nations)

downward secular trend in age of menarche in Western countries

-why? nutrition and access to medical care -lowest age of menarche in developed countries because nutrition and medical care

Sleep duration and hours of screen use among adolescents

-• Negative correlation • Possible causal arrows: are 3 of them • 1st arrow= lack of sleep causes more hours of screen time • 2nd arrow= more hours of screen time causes lack of sleep • 3rd arrow= more schoolwork you have, more time you will spend on screen and less time on sleep

1. contradictions within the self, 2. real versus ideal, true versus false selves (real self, possible self) 3. social comparison

1. contradictions within the self= Early adolescents have the most selves, and they struggle with the selves that contradict (e.g., ugly vs. attractive; caring vs. uncaring; nice vs. mean). By late adolescence, most adolescents have ditched several selves and have a more general theory of who they are as a whole. -I'm mean in one situation v. i'm a great sister, i'm cute v. i'm ugly 2. real vs. ideal/ possible self= Adolescents are much more likely to show their false selves when they are with friends or romantic partners. The possible self includes what an adolescent wants to become, and also who they do not want to become. -real self= person they actually are in the moment -possible self= all I need to do is get good grades and go to college and get the job, relies on optimism -false self is often shown to our friends, our boss, our romantic partners -> not good, longer you hang on to the false/possible self, makes it harder to acclimate in life --what Predicts an adolescent's success in finding their authentic self? Support from parents (don't true to force you in a box or to do stuff) being true to yourself greatly increases quality of life, don't force yourself to be someone you are not 3. social comparison= During this stage, adolescents compare themselves with others, and realize that others are making comparisons about them. -start to notice what everyone else is doing around them -figure out who they are by comparing themselves to others

Why are most adolescents getting too little sleep?

1. electronic media usage 2. too much caffeine 3. changes in the brain 4. early school start times -A 30-minute delay in school start time was linked to improvements in adolescents' sleep, alertness, mood, and health The American Academy of Pediatrics recently advocated that schools institute start times from 8:30 to 9:30 a.m. to improve students' academic performance and quality of life -if given the chance, adolescents would sleep 9.5 hours a night -correlational study on lack of sleep: : Adolescents who got less than 7.7 hours of sleep per night on average had more emotional and peer-related problems, high anxiety, and a higher level of suicidal ideation-> probably 3rd variable like stress or problems at home -experimental study on lack of sleep: 5 nights with 6.5 hours sleep OR 5 nights with 10 hours of sleep. Sleep problems during adolescence were associated with a lower level of working memory and in turn this lower level of working memory was linked to greater risk taking -> lack of sleep does cause these factors though -more sleep 10+ hours increase working memory and perform better on exams, faster response rate, less risk taking *sleep does help you function

the Big Five Factors

1. openness to experience 2. conscientiousness 3. extraversion 4. agreeableness 4. neuroticism (emotional stability)

Factors that contribute to millennials as "Me" generation

1. parents (parents seeking approval of children instead of the reverse -> more like friends) 2. social media (self focus on posts and more you post the more you are thinking of yourself and wanting ppl to respond, looking for attention-> this actually isn't the case though, posting on social media actually gives you shot of dopamine) 3. extracurricular activities and too many trophies (told you are smart, special in your own way)

advantages and disadvantages Experimental research

Adv 1. precise control 2. cause and effect Disadv- 1. artificial and require great control 2. can't be used to explore some research questions because of ethical concerns and some manipulations of variables are difficult or impossible

Advantages and Disadvantages of correlational research

Advantage-1. cheap 2. can look at things you cannot ethically test like spanking and aggression -Disadvantage= 1. illusory correlations 2. third variable problem 3. cannot talk about cause and effect

Generation Z

Generation Z (also known as Centennials, iGeneration, Post-Millennials, Plurals, or the Homeland Generation in the United States) is the demographic cohort after the Millennials. There are no precise dates for when this cohort starts or ends; demographers and researchers typically use starting birth years ranging from the mid-1990s to the mid-2000s, and as of yet there is little consensus about ending birth years. A significant aspect of this generation is the widespread usage of the Internet from a young age; members of Generation Z are typically thought of as being comfortable with technology, and interacting on social media websites for a significant portion of their socializing. Some commentators have suggested that growing up through the Great Recession has given the cohort a feeling of unsettlement and insecurity.

Uses of correlations

Prediction If there is a relationship between two variables, we can make predictions about one from another. Validity Concurrent validity (correlation between a new measure and an established measure). -• Highly correlated, measuring the thing that we think we should be measuring Reliability Test-retest reliability (are measures consistent).= get exact same score today as you do six months from now Inter-rater reliability (are observers consistent).- give measure to parents, friends, roommates and if have good inter-rater reliability they will say the same things -Ex: if adolescent uses drugs, then can predict lower GPA

Which meta-traits fall under stability (self-control), and which ones fall under engagement?

Stable= Agreeableness Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability (Neuroticism) -Engagement= Extraversion, Openness -stability= desire to maintain a sense of order in their lives, greater impulse control -engagement= desire to engage in the world, constantly soaking up novelty from the environment

Adolescence

the period of transition between childhood and adulthood that involves biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes -the key task is preparation for adulthood -in the US and most other cultures today, adolescence begins at approx. 10 to 13 yrs of age and ends in late teens (18 or 19) -Early adolescence= middle school/ junior high school years -late adolescence- 15 or 16 upwards