PSYC 256 FINAL
Labeling factorial designs
# of levels of 1st IV x # of levels of 2nd IV
file drawer problem
- A problem relating to literature reviews and meta-analyses based only on published literature, which might overestimate the support for a theory because studies finding null effects are less likely to be published than studies finding significant results, and are thus less likely to be included in such reviews.
field setting
- A real-world setting for a research study.
conceptual replication
- A replication study in which researchers examine the same research question (the same conceptual variables) but use different procedures for operationalizing the variables. See also direct replication, replication-plus-extension
theory-testing mode
- A researcher's intent for a study, testing association claims or causal claims to investigate support for a theory.
scientific literature
- A series of related studies, conducted by various researchers, that have tested similar variables
reversal design
- A small-N design in which a researcher observes a problem behavior both before and during treatment, and then discontinues the treatment for a while to see if the problem behavior returns
stable-baseline design
- A small-N design in which a researcher observes behavior for an extended baseline period before beginning a treatment or other intervention, and continues observing behavior after the intervention.
cultural psychology
- A sub discipline of psychology concerned with how cultural settings shape a person's thoughts, feelings, and behavior, and how these in turn shape cultural settings
meta-analysis
- A way of mathematically averaging the effect sizes of all the studies that have tested the same variables to see what conclusion that whole body of evidence supports.
open science
- As part of a study's publication process, the practice of sharing one's data and materials freely so others can collaborate, use, and verify the results.
experimental realism
- The extent to which a laboratory experiment is designed so that participants experience authentic emotions, motivations, and behaviors
ecological validity
- The extent to which the tasks and manipulations of a study are similar to real-world contexts; an aspect of external validity
generalization mode
- The intent of researchers to generalize the findings from the samples and procedures in their study to other populations or contexts
preregistration
- The practice of posting a study's method, hypotheses, or statistical analyses publicly, in advance of data collection
direct replication
-A replication study in which researchers repeat the original study as closely as possible to see whether the original effect shows up in the newly collected data. See also conceptual replication, replication-plus-extension.
cell
A condition in an experiment; in a simple experiment, a cell can represent the level of one independent variable; in a factorial design, a cell represents one of the possible combinations of two independent variables
p-hacking-
A family of questionable data analysis techniques, such as adding participants after the results are initially analyzed, looking for outliers, or trying new analyses in order to obtain a p value of just under .05, which can lead to nonreplicable results.
· nonequivalent control group interrupted time-series design
A quasi-experiment with two or more groups in which participants have not been randomly assigned to groups; participants are measured repeatedly on a dependent variable before, during, and after the "interruption" caused by some event, and the presence or timing of the interrupting event differs among the groups.
replication-plus-extension-
A replication study in which researchers replicate their original study but add variables or conditions that test additional questions. See also conceptual replication, direct replication.
interaction effect
A result from a factorial design, in which the difference in the levels of one independent variable changes, depending on the level of the other independent variable; a difference in differences. Also called interaction.
multiple-baseline design-
A small-N design in which researchers stagger their introduction of an intervention across a variety of contexts, times, or situations.
small-N design
A study in which researchers gather information from just a few cases
single-N design
A study in which researchers gather information from only one animal or one person
factorial design - A study in which there are two or more independent variables, or factors.
A study in which there are two or more independent variables, or factors.
quasi-experiment
A study similar to an experiment except that the researchers do not have full experimental control (e.g., they may not be able to randomly assign participants to the independent variable conditions).
participant variable
A variable such as age, gender, or ethnicity whose levels are selected (i.e., measured), not manipulated
reversal design
ABA or ABAB implement treatment and measure DV, remove treatment and measure Dv Addresses maturation, history and regression
wait-list design
An experimental design for studying a therapeutic treatment, in which researchers randomly assign some participants to receive the therapy under investigation immediately, and others to receive it after a time delay
nonequivalent control group design -
An independent-groups quasi-experiment that has at least one treatment group and one comparison group, but participants have not been randomly assigned to the two groups.
nonequivalent control group pretest/posttest design
An independent-groups quasi-experiment that has at least one treatment group and one comparison group, in which participants have not been randomly assigned to the two groups, and in which at least one pretest and one posttest are administered
What are the types of independent group factorial designs
Cross factorial and IV x PV designs
replicable
Describing a study whose results have been reproduced when the study was repeated, or replicated. Also called reproducible. See also conceptual replication, direct replication, replication-plus-extension
why is it hard to replicate studies
External validity (small and biased sample) statistical validity (p hacking, stat fluke) Construct (original study and new on has varying variables) internal validity (problems with design confounds)
marginal means
In a factorial design, the arithmetic means for each level of an independent variable, averaging over the levels of another independent variable.
main effect
In a factorial design, the overall effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable, averaging over the levels of the other independent variable
Variations on factorial designs
Within groups: manipulate all Its as within groups
Factorial designs are
a study with 2 or more IV's
Factorial designs
a study with 2 or more IVs
1) Susan designed a study in which she had a group of younger adults (18 to 24 years old) and older adults (50 to 65 years old). She had both groups recite a poem by memory once in front of an audience of 50 people and once in a room by themselves. She counterbalanced the order of these tasks between participants. She had the participants rate their level of anxiety right before they recited the poem each time. Which of the following is the factorial notation for this design? a. 2 × 2 b. 1 × 2 c. 2 × 4 d. 2 × 2 × 2
a. 2 × 2
1) How many independent variables and how many cells are there in a 2 × 3 × 4 study? a. 3 independent variables, 24 cells b. 2 independent variables, 9 cells c. 2 independent variables, 4 cells d. 3 independent variables, 9 cells
a. 3 independent variables, 24 cells
1) "Most theory testing is done on WEIRD people" means which of the following? a. Most participants are Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic. b. People who volunteer for psychology studies are unusual in some way. c. Most psychologists go into the field because they have personal problems they hope to solve. d. Most people who participate in studies are white, empathetic, individualistic, reliable, and dedicated.
a. Most participants are Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic.
1) Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. What is the most important finding of this study? a. The effect of the alcohol commercial on alcohol consumption depended on whether the viewer was usually a heavy drinker or a light drinker. b. The alcohol commercial increased the alcohol consumption of all viewers. c. The effect of the alcohol commercial on alcohol consumption was unpredictable. d. The alcohol commercial had no effect on the consumption of alcohol
a. The effect of the alcohol commercial on alcohol consumption depended on whether the viewer was usually a heavy drinker or a light drinker.
1) Which of the following is an example of a field setting? a. a neuropsychological lab with an MRI machine b. a biology lab with galvanic skin-response detectors c. a psychology lab with EEG apparatus d. a preschool playground with video cameras
a. a neuropsychological lab with an MRI machine
1) Roediger and McDermott (1995) conducted a study involving a paradigm initially developed by Deese (1959), which produces false recall of a word when a participant is given a list of words to recall that centers on a particular word but does not include it. For example, if participants were given a list that included sandal, towel, sunscreen, and waves, then they would falsely remember the word beach even though it was not on the list. They did two studies based on Deese's original study. In the first, they used the same word lists Deese used; in the second experiment, they used new sets of stimulus words. Which is the term for the second study they ran? a. direct replication b. conceptual replication c. meta-analysis replication d. replication-plus-extension
a. direct replication
1) Horselenberg et al. (2003) conducted an experiment based on Kassin and Kieche (1996) in which the participant was falsely accused of striking a computer key that caused the data to be deleted. The earlier study showed 69% of the participants were willing to sign a confession that they had struck the key. The Horselenberg et al. study included a change in procedure by which the signed confession included giving up part of the participation fee. In their study, the researcher made the accusation rather than a peer, so that the situation more closely paralleled false confessions of a crime. In doing so, which of the following did the researchers most clearly increase? a. experimental realism b. situational variation c. internal validity d. larger effect size
a. experimental realism
1) A drought in California created the opportunity for a quasi-experiment on the effectiveness of fines on water conservation (Agras et al., 1980). Three comparable cities were considered - two that instituted fines at different times and a third that did not. Water consumption data for the 3 years before the onset of the fines were used as baseline and subsequent consumption data were gathered through the end of the drought. Effectiveness of fines was assessed by examining consumption the following month. In this study, researchers capitalized on real-life opportunities to study phenomena. Therefore, they maximized which type of validity? a. external b. statistical c. construct d. internal
a. external
1) In a quasi-experiment by Minke (2011), the effectiveness of Skejby, a Danish half-way house that mixes offenders with non-offenders, was compared with that of the control condition of half-way houses housing only offenders. Measurement of effectiveness was based on rate of recidivism of former inmates. If those inmates who were sent to prison from their half-way houses for violations were not included in the recidivism measurement, which threat to internal validity would this potentially pose? a. history b. selection c. maturation d. attrition
a. history
1) What is it called when the effect of one independent variable depends on the level of another independent variable? a. interaction b. overall effect c. mediation d. main effect
a. interaction
1) A drought in California created the opportunity for a quasi-experiment on the effectiveness of fines on water conservation (Agras et al., 1980). Three comparable California cities were considered - two that instituted fines at different times and a third that did not institute fines. Water consumption data for the 3 years before the onset of the fines were used as baseline and subsequent consumption data were gathered through the end of the drought. Effectiveness of fines was assessed by examining consumption the following month. With regard to the monitoring of water consumption, which type of design was this? a. multiple baseline b. stable baseline c. reversal d. small-N design
a. multiple baseline
1) A drought in California created the opportunity for a quasi-experiment on the effectiveness of fines on water conservation (Agras et al., 1980). Three comparable cities were considered - two that instituted fines at different times and a third that did not. Water consumption data for the 3 years before the onset of the fines were used as baseline and subsequent consumption data were gathered through the end of the drought. Effectiveness of fines was assessed by examining consumption the following month. In this study, researchers capitalized on real-life opportunities to study phenomena. Therefore, they maximized which type of validity? a. external b. statistical c. construct d. internal
a. multiple baseline
1) Which of the following is NOT a way that researchers in a quasi-experimental study attempt to achieve internal validity? a. randomly assigning participants to conditions b. matching participants c. seeking out naturally occurring comparison groups d. implementing a wait-list policy
a. randomly assigning participants to conditions
1) If you repeat a study and the results are the same as the first time, which term can be used to describe the results? a. replicable b. obvious c. redundant d. repetitive
a. replicable
1) Dr. Reynolds developed a treatment for social anxiety disorder. In his initial test of the treatment, he found it was effective in decreasing social anxiety symptoms in adults who only had social anxiety. Because Dr. Reynolds knows people who have social anxiety disorder also often are depressed, he designs a second study to test whether his treatment decreases social anxiety symptoms in two different groups of people - those who have social anxiety disorder only and those who have both social anxiety disorder and depression. This second study would be which of the following? a. replication-plus-extension b. conceptual replication c. direct replication d. meta-analysis replication
a. replication-plus-extension
1) Horselenberg et al. (2003) conducted an experiment based on Kassin and Kieche (1996) in which the participant was falsely accused of striking a computer key that caused the data to be deleted. The earlier study showed 69% of the participants were willing to sign a confession that they had struck the key. The Horselenberg et al. study included a change in procedure by which the signed confession included giving up part of the participation fee. Horselenberg et al. conducted their study in the Netherlands and found similar results to the Kassin and Kieche study, which was conducted in the United States. That this finding was observed in multiple contexts supports which validity? a. statistical b. external c. internal d. construct
a. statistical
1) Lisa is interested in how well people are able to detect whether another person is a "cooperator," a "competitor," or an "individualist" simply by looking at a picture of the person's face. She wants to know which kind of face can be identified most easily and whether this varies by the race of the person in the picture. She designs a 2 × 3 within-group design where she has participants in her study look at faces of African American people and Caucasian people who are "cooperators," "competitors," or "individualists." The participants try to identify the personality of the person in each picture and Lisa keeps track of the number of pictures accurately identified for each picture type. Which is the dependent variable? a. the number of pictures accurately identified b. race of the participant c. race of the personality in the picture d. personality of the person in the picture
a. the number of pictures accurately identified
1) Susan ran a study in which she had a group of younger adults (18 to 24 years old) and a group of older adults (50 to 65 years old). She had both groups recite a poem by memory once in front of an audience of 50 people and once in a room by themselves. She counterbalanced the order of these tasks between participants. She had the participants rate their level of anxiety right before they recited the poem each time. Susan found a main effect for age such that younger people reported being more anxious than older people. She found a main effect for audience size such that people were more anxious in the room with 50 people than they were in the room by themselves. She did not find an interaction in the results. If Susan were to graph her results, which of the following would they look like? a. two parallel, diagonal lines b. two parallel, horizontal lines c. two parallel, vertical lines d. two crossed lines
a. two parallel, diagonal lines
When do you prioritize external validity for replicability
applied research: frequency claims, association claims Cross cultural psychology
1) Which of the following phrases would be a clue that the study described in a popular media article was a factorial design? a. "controlling for" b. "it depends" c. "is the reason for" d. "is more likely"
b. "it depends"
1) Lisa is interested in how well people are able to detect whether another person is a "cooperator," a "competitor," or an "individualist" simply by looking at a picture of the person's face. She wants to know which kind of face can be identified most easily and whether this varies by the race of the person in the picture. She designs a 2 × 3 within-group design where she has participants in her study look at faces of African American people and Caucasian people who are "cooperators," "competitors," or "individualists." The participants identify the personality of the person in each picture and Lisa keeps track of the number of pictures accurately identified for each picture type. How many cells was each participant in? a. 1 b. 6 c. 2 d. 3
b. 6
1) A researcher wants to run a 2 × 3 mixed factorial designs. The first factor is within-subjects. The second factor is between-subjects. If the researcher wants 20 observations per cell, which of the following is the correct number of participants he will need in total? a. 40 b. 60 c. 120
b. 60
1) Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and rated satisfaction of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. How many cells are there in this study? a. 1 b. 8 c. 16 d. 3
b. 8
1) Which of the following statements is TRUE of external validity? a. Studies must take place outside the laboratory to have external validity. b. External validity is based on how the sample is obtained rather than the size of the sample. c. A population always refers to the population of the Earth. d. The larger the sample, the better.
b. External validity is based on how the sample is obtained rather than the size of the sample.
1) Which of the following does NOT characterize a small-N design? a. Individuals' data are presented, as opposed to comparing group averages. b. Results are analyzed in terms of statistical significance. c. Each participant is treated as a separate experiment. d. Researchers collect a lot of information on relatively few cases.
b. Results are analyzed in terms of statistical significance.
1) Which of the following is a method for addressing concerns about external validity in a small-N study? a. Take advantage of real-world opportunities. b. Specify a limited population to generalize to. c. Set up a comparison group. d. Nothing; it is not possible to achieve external validity in a small-N design.
b. Specify a limited population to generalize to.
1) A school district is comparing two reading programs for high school students reading below grade level. Two very similar schools are used to test the programs, using a different program at each school. Students participating in the programs are pretested for their reading abilities and the mean scores are similar at both schools. The reading program implemented at high school A is known to be much more rigorous than the program implemented at high school B. The posttest shows more improvement at high school A, but more of the students dropped out of the program. Which threat to internal validity does this pose? a. maturation b. attrition c. selection d. history
b. attrition
1) Horselenberg et al. (2003) conducted an experiment based on Kassin and Kieche (1996) in which the participant was falsely accused of striking a computer key that caused the data to be deleted. The earlier study showed 69% of the participants were willing to sign a confession that they had struck the key. The Horselenberg et al. study included a change in procedure by which the signed confession included giving up part of the participation fee. This was which type of study? a. confirmation b. conceptual replication c. replication d. meta-analysis
b. conceptual replication
1) Which of the following is NOT a form of replication in psychological research? a. meta-analysis replication b. conceptual replication c. replication-plus-extension d. direct replication
b. conceptual replication
1) Dr. Joseph thinks most people are generally trusting of strangers. He did a study at his university in the United States to test this idea, and the results confirmed his hypothesis. Dr. Joseph is discussing the results of this study with Dr. Ming, a friend who is a psychology researcher in China. Dr. Ming thinks people in Eastern cultures, such as China, are less trusting of strangers than are people in Western cultures, such as the United States. Dr. Joseph and Dr. Ming decide to run a second study in which they have a group of participants in China and a group of participants in the United States both complete the task used in Dr. Joseph's study. This second study is an example of which of the following? a. developmental psychology b. cultural psychology c. cognitive psychology d. clinical psychology
b. cultural psychology
1) Which is the term for a replication study in which a researcher evaluates the same research question but uses different procedures? a. meta-analysis replication b. direct replication c. conceptual replication d. replication-plus-extension
b. direct replication
1) In quasi-experiments, researchers lack full experimental control. Therefore, which type of validity must they assess to make sure they can draw firm conclusions from their results? a. statistical b. external c. construct d. internal
b. external
1) Dr. Reynolds develops a treatment for social anxiety disorder. After he has shown his treatment to be effective in very controlled laboratory studies, he decides to test it in other settings. He collaborates with clinicians who work in a variety of clinical settings across the country. Dr. Reynolds trains the clinicians on his treatment but doesn't supervise them closely. He also allows patients with some common co-occurring disorders, such as depression, to participate in the study. This study is in _________ mode. a. data-generating b. generalization c. theory-testing d. analysis
b. generalization
1) In _________ mode, external validity matters much less than internal validity. a. theory-testing b. generalization c. analysis d. experimental realism
b. generalization
1) Gathercole and Baddeley (1990) examined phonologic memory skills in children with disordered language development, using two control groups, one of which comprised much younger children who were matched on verbal abilities. If they had done a follow-up study a year later, which type of threat to internal validity would this age difference most likely have caused? a. maturation b. history c. regression d. selection
b. history
1) After implementation of a new city law, a restaurant chain began displaying the nutrition labels for their menu items. The restaurant owner recorded sales of the 15 highest-calorie menu items on three occasions: once the month before the change in menu display, once the week of the change in menu display, and once the month after the change in menu display. The owner observed that the sale of the high-calorie menu items dropped, while overall sales remained steady. Which is the independent variable in this study? a. energy content in the menu items b. menu labeling c. sales for the month following the menu change d. sales for the month preceding the menu change
b. menu labeling
1) Interactions allow researchers to examine which of the following variables? a. mediating b. moderating c. main effect d. confounding third
b. moderating
1) Yan and Sengupta (2011) examined the effects of price, attractiveness, and consumer on the perceived tastiness and rated satisfaction of a dish of fried rice. The study was a 2 × 2 × 2 design that varied price (inexpensive or expensive), picture (attractive or unattractive), and consumer (self or classmate) in a between-subjects design. What of the following is a dependent variable? a. price b. tastiness c. consumer d. picture
b. tastiness
1) Which of the following are the two main reasons researchers use factorial designs? a. to use fewer participants and to test the limits of an effect b. to test the limits of an effect and to test theories c. to increase construct validity and to test theories d. to increase construct validity and to increase internal validity
b. to test the limits of an effect and to test theories
Cautions of meta analysis
beware of publication bias limited by studies that you include
1) Lisa is interested in how well people are able to detect whether another person is a "cooperator," a "competitor," or an "individualist" simply by looking at a picture of the person's face. She wants to know which kind of face can be identified most easily and whether this varies by the race of the person in the picture. She designs a 2 × 3 within-group design where she has participants in her study look at faces of African American people and Caucasian people who are "cooperators," "competitors," or "individualists." The participants try to identify the personality of the person in each picture and Lisa keeps track of the number of pictures accurately identified for each picture type. Caucasian "competitors" were identified more easily than the other two Caucasian personality types, but there was no difference in accuracy for African American faces. Which of the following does this describe? a. a two-way interaction between Caucasian and personality b. a three-way interaction between race, personality, and accuracy c. a two-way interaction between race and personality d. a main effect
c. a two-way interaction between race and personality
1) Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. Which of the following is a participant variable in this study? a. amount of alcohol consumed during the movie b. young adults who consume large amounts of alcohol each week c. amount of alcohol consumed by the young adult during the week d. type of alcohol commercial shown
c. amount of alcohol consumed by the young adult during the week
1) Which of the following designs is one in which there are two or more independent variables? a. concurrent measures b. longitudinal c. factorial d. multiple regression
c. factorial
1) Which type of claim is always done in generalization mode? a. association b. causal c. frequency d. relational
c. frequency
1) After implementation of a new city law, a restaurant chain began displaying the nutrition labels for their menu items. The restaurant owner recorded sales of the 15 highest-calorie menu items on three occasions: once the month before the change in menu display, once the week of the change in menu display, and once the month after the change in menu display. The owner observed that the sale of the high-calorie menu items dropped, while overall sales remained steady. Which type of design is this? a. nonequivalent control group design b. nonequivalent groups time-series design c. interrupted time-series design d. reversal design
c. interrupted time-series design
1) Two universities are involved in a study of the effects on student retention and attitude toward campus life, based on a pre-freshman-year summer visit program one of the schools had implemented. The schools, both state universities in the same state, were closely matched in student-body characteristics. In the fall of the first year of the program, the school that was serving as the control was struck by a rare fall tornado, which did damage to several campus buildings. Which type of threat to internal validity would this cause? a. selection history b. regression c. maturation d. selection
c. maturation
1) Which is the term for a quasi-experimental design with at least one treatment group and one comparison group, but in which the participants have not been randomly assigned to the groups? a. reversal design b. stable-baseline design c. nonequivalent control group design d. small-N design
c. nonequivalent control group design
1) In a quasi-experiment by Minke (2011), the effectiveness of Skejby, a Danish half-way house that mixes offenders with non-offenders, was compared with that of the control condition of half-way houses housing only offenders. Measurement of effectiveness was based on rate of recidivism of former inmates. If inmates are allowed to choose their own half-way house, which threat to internal validity would this potentially pose? a. history b. selection c. regression d. testing
c. regression
1) Dr. Joseph thinks most people are generally trusting of strangers. He did a study at his university in the United States to test this idea, and the results confirmed his hypothesis. Dr. Joseph is discussing the results of this study with Dr. Ming, a friend who is a psychology researcher in China. Dr. Ming thinks people in Eastern cultures, such as China, are less trusting of strangers than are people in Western cultures, such as the United States. Dr. Joseph and Dr. Ming decide to run a second study in which they have a group of participants in China and a group of participants in the United States both complete the task used in Dr. Joseph's study. This second study is a ____________. a. meta-analysis replication b. direct replication c. replication-plus-extension
c. replication-plus-extension
1) Roediger and McDermott (1995) conducted a study involving a paradigm initially developed by Deese (1959), which produces false recall of a word when a participant is given a list of words to recall that centers on a particular word but does not include it. For example, if participants were given a list that included sandal, towel, sunscreen, and waves, then they would falsely remember the word beach even though it was not on the list. They did two studies based on Deese's original study. In the first, they used the same word lists Deese used; in the second experiment, they used new sets of stimulus words. Which is the term for the first study they ran? a. conceptual replication b. meta-analysis replication c. replication-plus-extension d. direct replication
c. replication-plus-extension
1) Ellen is an elementary school teacher who has a very disruptive child in her classroom. She wants to see whether using a good-behavior point system will be effective for managing this child's behavior. She begins by noting the child's behavioral outbursts for a week before she begins the point system, then she tries using the point system for 2 weeks and notices a drop in the child's outbursts. For the next 2 weeks, she discontinues using the point system and she notes an increase in the child's outburst. Which kind of design is Ellen using to test this intervention? a. stable baseline b. interrupted time-series design c. reversal d. multiple baseline
c. reversal
1) After implementation of a new city law, a restaurant chain began displaying the nutrition labels for their menu items. The restaurant owner recorded sales of the 15 highest-calorie menu items on three occasions: once the month before the change in menu display, once the week of the change in menu display, and once the month after the change in menu display. The owner observed that the sale of the high-calorie menu items dropped, while overall sales remained steady. Which is the dependent variable in this study? a. restaurant sales overall b. menu labeling c. sales for high-calorie menu items d. the nutritional value of the menu items
c. sales for high-calorie menu items
1) In a nonequivalent control group design, participants in the control group may match the treatment group on an important factor. This is an attempt to prevent which threat to internal validity? a. regression b. history c. selection d. maturation
c. selection
1) A study by Grimstvedt et al. (2010) of the effects of signage on stair use in university buildings examined the effect of placing signs encouraging stair use near elevators. Based on their design, Blake is designing a study for her campus. The initial part of the study will be a month-long measuring of elevator and stair use in four buildings on the campus. This will be followed by the treatment, which is the simultaneous posting of signs at each of the four locations. Elevator and stair use will then be measured for another month. Which type of design is this? a. interrupted time-series b. matched groups c. stable baseline d. multiple baseline
c. stable baseline
1) In a factorial-design study, which effect is usually considered the most important? a. the overall effect b. the main effect of the second independent variable c. the interaction d. the main effect of the first independent variable
c. the interaction
1) Dr. Reynolds develops a treatment for social anxiety disorder. In his first studies of his new treatment, his goal is to see if the treatment works under very controlled conditions. He only accepts patients who do not have any other disorders and randomly assigns the patients to his treatment and a wait-list control group. He also supervises each case very closely to ensure the therapists are sticking to his treatment manual. This study is in _________ mode. a. analysis b. data-generating c. theory-testing d. generalization
c. theory-testing
1) Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. Which of the following is a factor in this study? a. young adults who consume small amounts of alcohol each week b. young adults who consume large amounts of alcohol each week c. type of commercial shown d. amount of alcohol consumed during the movie
c. type of commercial shown
1) In a quasi-experiment by Minke (2011), the effectiveness of Skejby, a Danish half-way house that mixes offenders with non-offenders, was compared with that of the control condition of half-way houses housing only offenders. Measurement of effectiveness was based on rate of recidivism of former inmates. Which was the dependent variable in this study? a. length of time in half-way house b. severity of crime committed c. type of half-way house d. rate of recidivism
c. type of half-way house
1) Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. Which type of design is this? a. nested factorial design b. mixed factorial design c. within-groups factorial design d. independent-groups factorial design
c. within-groups factorial design
Types of independent group factorial designs
cross factorial: study each possible combo of 2 manipulated IVs IV x PV designs: study that includes one manipulated IV and one participant variable that is not manipulated but treated as IV
1) In their examination of 100 studies, the Open Science Collaboration (OSC) found that only 39% of the studies clearly replicated. Many researchers proposed a variety of reasons for why these replication attempts failed. Which of the following is NOT a proposed reason for the failed replications? a. Data and materials from the original study were shared freely online. b. Researchers ran additional participants after looking at the data. c. The replication context was too different from the original study. d. Hypotheses were created after collecting the data.
d. Hypotheses were created after collecting the data.
1) Julie works at a large gym. She wants to do a study of the effect on self-esteem and mood of having a personal trainer. She collects a list of members at her gym who would like to have a personal trainer. She assigns half of them to have a trainer right away and half of them to wait several months before being assigned a trainer. She measures self-esteem and mood in all of the participants over the next several months, when only one of the groups would have a trainer. Which advantages does Julie's design have over selecting a group of people at the gym who were already using personal trainers and a group who was not using trainers? a. She is preventing a regression to the mean. b. She is preventing a selection effect. c. She is preventing a maturation threat. d. She is preventing a history threat.
d. She is preventing a history threat.
1) Which of the following is the "file-drawer problem" in psychology? a. Famous psychologists are more likely to be published than unknown psychologists. b. Studies done by friends of the editors of journals are more likely to be published. c. Results of research in areas of public interest are more likely to be published. d. Significant relationships are more likely to be published than null effects.
d. Significant relationships are more likely to be published than null effects.
1) Which of the following is composed of several studies on a particular topic, often conducted by many different researchers? a. the file-drawer problem b. the scientific literature c. a field setting d. a meta-analysis
d. a meta-analysis
1) Roediger and McDermott (1995) conducted a study involving a paradigm initially developed by Deese (1959), which produces false recall of a word when a participant is given a list of words to recall that centers on a particular word but does not include it. For example, if participants were given a list that included sandal, towel, sunscreen, and waves, then they would falsely remember the word beach even though it was not on the list. They did two studies based on Deese's original study. In the first, they used the same word lists Deese used; in the second experiment, they used new sets of stimulus words. This study is in _________ mode. a. theory-testing b. analysis c. generalization d. data-generating
d. data-generating
1) Ecological validity is considered to be an aspect of which of the four validities? a. internal b. construct c. statistical d. external
d. external
1) Researchers are conducting a repeated-measures quasi-experiment. Which type of threat to internal validity should concern the researchers if they notice the participants are taking less and less time to complete the assessment questionnaires that are administered weekly? a. testing b. selection c. history d. instrumentation
d. instrumentation
1) Calculating which of the following allows us to examine the main effect of one variable? a. moderating variables b. factorial designs c. interaction effects d. marginal means
d. marginal means
1) Which type of analysis is being used when a researcher mathematically averages the results of many studies that have been completed with the same variables? a. effect size measurement b. analysis of variance c. replication-plus-extension d. meta-analysis
d. meta-analysis
1) Susan designed a study in which she had a group of younger adults (18 to 24 years old) and older adults (50 to 65 years old). She had both groups recite a poem by memory once in front of an audience of 50 people and once in a room by themselves. She counterbalanced the order of these tasks between participants. She had the participants rate their level of anxiety right before they recited the poem each time. Which type of study design is this? a. within-groups factorial design b. independent-groups factorial design c. concurrent measures design d. mixed factorial design
d. mixed factorial design
1) A psychologist is working with the parents of four children who exhibit violent behaviors toward each other. The parents have been instructed to record the number of these behaviors each child exhibits in the pre-dinner hour for 1 week. The parents then begin using a positive reinforcement technique to shape the behavior of the youngest child while continuing to record violent behaviors. The recording continues and the technique is used on one additional child each week. By the end of 6 weeks, there is a significant decrease in violent behaviors for each of the children. Which type of design is this? a. reversal b. interrupted time-series c. stable baseline d. multiple baseline
d. multiple baseline
1) Julie works at a large gym. She wants to do a study of the effect of having a personal trainer on self-esteem and mood. She collects a list of members at her gym who would like to have a personal trainer. She assigns half of them to have a trainer right away and half of them to wait several months before being assigned a trainer. She measures self-esteem and mood in all of the participants over the next several months, when only one of the groups would have a trainer. Which kind of design is Julie using? a. stable-baseline design b. reversal design c. wait-list design d. multiple-baseline design
d. multiple-baseline design
1) A company that owned several hospitals in rural areas of the south went bankrupt and, over a couple of months, closed the hospitals it operated. Researchers became aware of this situation and used public health records to document average age at death of residents in those communities where the hospitals closed and in communities that were matched on several variables but did not lose their hospitals. The researchers collected death records for several years before and after the closure of these hospitals to look at the effect the closure had on life expectancy. Which type of research design are the researchers using? a. interrupted time-series design b. nonequivalent control group pretest/posttest design c. nonequivalent control group design d. nonequivalent control group interrupted time-series design
d. nonequivalent control group interrupted time-series design
1) Dr. Joseph thinks most people are generally trusting of strangers. He did a study at his university in the United States to test this idea, and the results confirmed his hypothesis. This study is in _________ mode. a. experimental realism b. generalization c. analysis d. theory-testing
d. theory-testing
1) In a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design, what are all the possible effects to test? a. three main effects and a three-way interaction b. two main effects and a two-way interaction c. three main effects, three two-way interactions, and three three-way interactions d. three main effects, three two-way interactions, and a three-way interaction
d. three main effects, three two-way interactions, and a three-way interaction
1) The phrase "the difference in differences is different" suggests the presence of which type of interaction? a. crossover b. nonsignificant c. two-way d. three-way
d. three-way
1) Which of the following is NOT a reason for a researcher to select a quasi-experimental design? a. the opportunity to take advantage of real-world occurrences to study phenomena and events b. to avoid the ethical issues a true experiment would cause c. to enhance external validity d. to improve internal validity
d. to improve internal validity
1) Jane is conducting a study on the effects of meditation on stress with highly anxious and non-anxious participants. She finds that overall, highly anxious participants reported greater levels of stress and that, overall, participants in the meditation group reported lower levels of stress than the group that did not practice meditation. She also found that the impact of meditation on lowering stress was particularly strong for participants who were highly anxious. Which of the following is a correct description of the results? a. no main effects and an interaction b. one main effect and an interaction c. two main effects and an interaction d. two main effects and no interaction
d. two main effects and no interaction
1) Lisa is interested in how well people are able to detect whether another person is a "cooperator," a "competitor," or an "individualist" simply by looking at a picture of the person's face. She wants to know what kind of face can be identified most easily and whether this varies by the race of the person in the picture. She designs a 2 × 3 within-group design where she has participants in her study look at faces from African American people and Caucasian people who are "cooperators," "competitors," or "individualists." The participants try to identify the personality of the person in each picture and Lisa keeps track of the number of pictures accurately identified for each picture type. Which of the following correctly lists all the differences that must be examined? a. two main effects and two interactions b. three main effects and one interaction c. three main effects and two interactions d. two main effects and one interaction
d. two main effects and one interaction
benefits of a meta analysis
discover trends discover new patterns and test new questions
when to use small n
evaluating change in one participant when you want info that could get lost in group comparison
Small n designs: when to use them?
evaluating change in single participant when you want info that would get lost in group comparison
benefits of within groups
fewer participants reduced noise between cells
When would you use a quasi experimental design?
has an Iv with at least two levels actual manipulation not under experimenters control Implement some controls for threats to internal validity
Three way designs
ie. 2x2x2 factorial
benefits of mixed designs?
increase # of levels of IV curvilinear relationships compares more than 2 groups
What four validities do small n designs address
internal external (low) Construct (observational Statistical (n/a)
problems with small n
limited external validity possible ethical problems (ABA designs)
Interpreting Factorial designs
main effects: is there a significant difference between levels of one IV on the DV, averaging across levels of the other IV look for diffs in marginal means main effects may be significant of non sig Main effects are less important than interactions
Mixed factorial designs
manipulate one IV as between groups and one Iv as within groups
threats to small n design
maturation, history, regression
diffs between correlational and QED
more control measures taken
Challenge for within groups
need to control for order effects
Types of quasi experiments
nonequivalent control groups design (compare 2+ existing groups)
Types of Quasi experimental designs
nonequivalent control groups design: compare 2+ existing groups (they are not the same at the start, no random assignment, usually preexisting groups, commonly used in education Interrupted time series design: measure DV repeatedly before, during and after event Nonequivalent control groups interrupted time series design-measure DV repeatedly in 2+ existing groups
Labeling
o # of levels 1stIV x # of levels of 2ndIV o Demo experiment o These are determined by number of IVs
What are the components of a QED?
o Has an IV with at least two levels o Actual manipulation not under experimenter's control o Implement some controls for threats to internal validity
How do we interpret factorial designs?
o Main effects: is there a significant difference between levels of one IV on the DV, averaging across levels of the other IV § Look for differences in marginal means § Main effects may be significant or nonsignificant § Main effects are less important than interactions o Interactions § Is there a difference in the effect of one IV on the DV depending on the level of a second IV § Visually you can look for non-parallel lines in order to find an interaction § If interactions significant, become more important than main effects
What are the variations on the factorial designs
o Mixed factorial designs: manipulate one IV as between groups and one IV within groups
What are the variations of factorial designs
o Within groups factorial designs: manipulate all IVs as within groups § Benefits · Fewer participants · Reduced noise between cells because same participants in each cell § Challenges · Need to control for order effects
Quasi and Correlational Comparison: similarities
often variables are measured more than manipulated no random assignment
interrupted time-series design
quasi-experiment in which participants are measured repeatedly on a dependent variable before, during, and after the "interruption" caused by some event.
components of a small n design
repeated measurement of DV in one participant Actively manipulated IV
Components of small n
repeated measurement of DV in one participant actively manipulated IV
Why are factorial designs good?
show interxns b/t factors more closely approximate real life compare subgroups of ppl greater experimental control
Types of small n designs
stable baseline design multiple baseline designs reversal design
Types of small N : stable baseline
stable baseline: multiple pretests prior to intervention this addresses maturation and regression
Multiple baseline
stagger intro of intervention across time or situations for one or more people Addresses maturation, history
Cross factorial
study each possible combo of 2+ manipulated IVs
IV x PV designs
study that includes one manipulated IV and one participant variable that is not manipulated but treated as IV Allow you to examine situational and personal causes of behavior
benefits of small n
takes advantage of far medical cases lots of detail can have high internal validity
When do you use a quasi experimental design
when its hard to use causal studies
Why are experiments with more than one IV beneficial?
· Can show interactions between factors · More closely approximate real life o Usually driven by more than one thing · Allows you to compare IVs effect on subgroups of people (does it generalize) · Greater experimental control over extraneous variables
