PSYC 260 Final

several reasons positive mood increases helping

• positive mood indicates that the environment is not dangerous and therefore that we can safely help others • we like other people more when we are in good moods • helping makes us feel good about ourselves, thereby maintaining our positive mood

Moods are particularly important and informative when

they are created by the person we are interacting with - mood that is created by causes other than the other person can also influence liking

Some people are more likely than others to show ingroup favoritism because

they are particularly likely to rely on their group memberships to create a positive social identity • Collective Self-esteem scale

6 necessary conditions for contact hypothesis (MECISM)

• mutual interdependence • equal status • common goal • informal, interpersonal contact • social norms of equality • multiple contacts

stages of helping (NIAK)

• notice that someone needs help • interpret the scene correctly • Assume responsibility to prevent diffusion • Know how to help

social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979)

• part of the self-concept • signal to others group membership • striving toward greater self-worth

Entitativity refers to the perception that members of a group have independent identities and responsibilities.

False

Entitativity (FISS)

"groupiness;" the perception, either by the group members themselves or by others, that the people together are a group - frequent interaction and communication (this does NOT equal proximity) - interdependentce - similarity (cognitive factor) - social identity

Cognitive Process Losses: Lack of Information Sharing

- group discussion will only improve the quality of a group's decisions if the group discusses the information that is most useful to the decision that needs to be made • group members tend to discuss information that they all have access to while ignoring equally important information that is available to only a few of the members

Self affirmation

(affirming your core values) moderates threat-perform relationship • Doesn't even need to be related to threat

task combination

- Additive - Compensatory or averaging

Reducing Stereotyping of Others

- Devine (1989) → Dissociation Model

group member performance

- Disjunctive - Conjunctive

task division

- Divisible - Unitary

Gray (2010) turning the weak into the might

- Group 1 → received money - Group 2 → $ to give to charity of choice -- Then made to hold 5 lb weight up for 5 min --- Group 2 held weight 20% longer than group 1 ----- Doing good (or evil) makes people physically stronger aka expend more effort/feet more confident

task assessment

- Maximizing - Intellective

Measuring Stereotypes Indirectly

- Most people do not want to admit—either to themselves or to others—that they hold stereotypes or that they are prejudiced toward some social groups - Bogus Pipeline Procedure (Jones & Sigall, 1971) - assessing nonverbal behaviors such as speech errors or physical closeness - use reaction-time measures to assess this activation and thus to learn about people's stereotypes and prejudices

Similarity

- One determinant of entitativity is a cognitive one, the perception of similarity • A group can only be a group to the extent that its members have something in common - People generally get together to form groups precisely because they are similar - groups tend to fall apart because the group members become dissimilar and thus no longer have enough in common to keep them together

conformity pressures have a strong impact on jury decision making

- The strong influence of the majority is probably due to both • informational conformity (i.e., that there are more arguments supporting the favored position) • normative conformity (people are less likely to want to be seen as disagreeing with the majority opinion)

Ingroup Favoritism Has Many Causes

- a natural part of social categorization—we categorize into ingroups and outgroups because it helps us simplify and structure our environment - occurs at least in part because we belong to the ingroup and not the outgroup • like people who are similar to and perceive ingroup as similar - self-enhancement - particularly likely to show ingroup favoritism when we are threatened or otherwise worried about our self-concept - we may be able to feel good about our group memberships even when our own individual outcomes are not so positive • Schmitt, Silvia, and Branscombe (2000)

Personality factors that predict prejudice (CLAS)

- collectivism - LOW humanism/egalitarianism - Authoritarianism - Social dominance orientation (SDO)

ostracism

- cyberball experiments • 3 players throwing ball, then two players leave the 3rd out and the left-out person feels bad/mad - ostracism makes people reach out to exes even if the breakup was bad

Need for Relationships

- evolution "the social animal" - self-esteem - fulfillment - self concept - satisfaction_/ - mortality salience and relationships - ostracism- self-esteem

Bogus Pipeline Procedure (Jones & Sigall, 1971)

- experimenter first convinces the participants that he or he has access to their "true" beliefs - Once the participants are convinced that the researcher is able to assess their "true" attitudes, it is expected that they will be more honest in answering the rest of the questions they are asked because they want to be sure that the researcher does not catch them lying • suggests that people may frequently mask their negative beliefs in public—people express more prejudice when they are in the bogus pipeline than they do when they are asked the same questions more directly

Which of the following is the best example of discrimination?

A software company gives preference to men when hiring programmers.

the social identity they receive from being good group members

- groups that have well-defined (extreme) beliefs are better able to produce social identity for their members than are groups that have more moderate (and potentially less clear) beliefs - Group polarization effects are stronger when the group members have high social identity

Ringelman (1913) → investigated the ability of individuals to reach their full potential when working together on tasks

- had individual men and groups of various numbers of men pull as hard as they could on ropes while he measured the maximum amount that they were able to pull - Because rope pulling is an additive task, the total amount that could be pulled by the group should be the sum of the contributions of the individuals - Found that adding individuals to the group increased the overall amount of pulling on the rope (the groups were better than any one individual), he also found a substantial process loss • the loss was so large that groups of three men pulled at only 85% of their expected capability, whereas groups of eight pulled at only 37% of their expected capability

The Outcomes of Ingroup Favoritism

- ingroup members are rated as having more positive characteristics than are outgroup members - People also take credit for the successes of other ingroup members - remember more positive than negative information about in-groups - are more critical of the performance of outgroup than of ingroup members - believe that their own groups are less prejudiced than are outgrips - describe the ingroup and its members as having broad positive traits but describe negative ingroup behaviors in terms of the specific behaviors of single group members • allow us to spread positive characteristics to all members of our ingroup but reserve negative aspects for individual group members, thereby protecting the group's image

Hate Groups & Extreme Prejudice

- institutionalized stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination • "this is what life is;" indoctrination - outgroup derogation is injunctive social norm (carries a moral component) • it's your moral duty, it's right to hate this group; it's morally wrong to not hate • Deindividuation of members • Self perception → they believe they are on the side of good - stay consistent despite wrongness by • confirmation bias • cognitive dissonance

Interdependence and Commitment

- long-term relationships are more complex than short-term ones - the partners in close relationships increasingly turn to each other not only for social support but also for help in coordinating activities, remembering dates and appointments, and accomplishing tasks

stereotypes and prejudices are learned through many different processes

- makes them more likely to form and harder to change - learn stereotypes in part through • communications with parents and peers • the behaviors we see portrayed in - Madon et al (2001)

there IS a "right and wrong" time to get married - moderating factors of marriage (CHEM)

- moderating factors • commitment • homogamy (similarity) • equality • maturity

Social Categorization occurs

- occurs spontaneously, without much thought on our part because we are constantly bombarded with information - occurs so quickly that people may have difficulty not thinking about others in terms of their group memberships

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

- participants are asked to classify stimuli that they view on a computer screen into one of two categories by pressing one of two computer keys - When the responses are arranged on the screen in a "matching" way, such that the male category and the "strong" category are on the same side of the screen (e.g., on the right side), participants can do the task very quickly and they make few mistakes - when the images are arranged such that the women and the strong categories are on the same side, whereas the men and the weak categories are on the other side, most participants make more errors and respond more slowly • show that even participants who claim that they are not prejudiced do seem to hold cultural stereotypes about social groups

use reaction-time measures to assess this activation and thus to learn about people's stereotypes and prejudices

- participants are asked to make a series of judgments about pictures or descriptions of social groups and then to answer questions as quickly as they can, but without making mistakes. The speed of these responses is used to determine an individual's stereotypes or prejudice • Implicit Association Test (IAT)

commitment increase causes...

- perceive partner as more attractive - less imagining other partners - less interest in other partners - less aggressive toward partner

Proximity

- perception of shared experiences - you are likely to marry someone who's pretty similar to you because, unless you travel widely, most of the people you meet are going to share your cultural background and therefore have some of the values that you hold - the person you marry probably will live in the same city as you, attend the same college, take similar classes, and be pretty similar to you in most respects - simply being around another person also increases liking

The Benefits of Social Categorization

- provides us with information about the characteristics of people who belong to certain social groups • using social categories will only be informative to the extent that the stereotypes held by the individual about that category are accurate - argued that there is a kernel of truth in most stereotypes, and this seems to be the case - might simply make our life easier • things are complicated, and we reduce complexity by relying on our stereotypes - promotes survival • allows us to more quickly identify potential threats - stimulus automatically activates relevant categories • cue salience • associated with stimulus --> process for all stimuli

getting past stereotype threat

- reduce the self-concern that is engaged when we consider the relevant negative stereotypes • Manipulations that affirm positive characteristics about oneself or one's group reduce stereotype threat - Just knowing about stereotype threat may reduce it

Internet Relationships

- research shows that using the Internet actually has a positive influence on our close relationships - people who reported using the Internet more frequently also reported spending more time with their family and friends and indicated having better psychological health - The Internet also seems to be useful for helping people develop new relationships, and the quality of those relationships is as good as or better than those formed face-to-face

Similarity leads to attraction for a variety of reasons

- similarity makes things easier - relationships with those who are similar to us are also reinforcing • Sharing our values with others and having others share their values with us help us validate the worthiness of our self-concepts • Finding similarities with another makes us feel good and makes us feel that the other person will reciprocate our liking for them familiarity = safety

Gersick (1988, 1989) → observed a number of teams as they worked on different projects

- teams were selected such that they were all working within a specific time frame, but the time frame itself varied dramatically - found that each of the teams followed a very similar pattern of norming and performing • the team established well-defined norms regarding its method of attacking its task in its very first meeting • midway through the time it had been given to complete the project (and regardless of whether that was after 4 meetings or after 12), the group suddenly had a meeting in which it decided to change its approach

Markus found...

- the difficult task was performed more slowly overall - the participants performed the easy task faster but the more difficult task slower when a confederate was present in the room - it did not matter whether the other person was paying attention to their performance or whether the other person just happened to be in the room working on another task—the mere presence of another person nearby influenced performance

groups have been found to better share information when

- the group members believe that there is a correct answer that can be found if there is sufficient discussion - they are forced to continue their discussion even after they believe that they have discussed all the relevant information

Triplett (1898) → investigated how bicycle racers were influenced by the social situation in which they raced

- the racers who were competing with other bicyclers on the same track rode significantly faster than bicyclers who were racing alone, against the clock • Triplett hypothesized that people perform tasks better when the social context includes other people than when they do the tasks alone

other types of rewards that we gain from helping others

- the status we gain as a result of helping • we gain a reputation as a person with high status who is able and willing to help others, and this status makes us better and more desirable in the eyes of others - helpers are healthy

Moral Hypocrisy

- these goals may not always be easy for us to follow because they represent a classic case in which one of the basic human motives (other-concern) conflicts with another basic human motive (self-concern) • Trying to do the best thing for ourselves in the short term may lead us to take the selfish road—taking advantage of the benefits that others provide us without returning the favor • we may be particularly likely to act selfishly when we can get away with it

Physical Attractiveness (YAS)

- universal/innate → youthfulness, averageness, similarity -- 0.7 waist to hip (women) and waist to shoulder (men) ratio - cultural --- societal group --- media --- cultural customs - situations -- influences our perception

When Ingroup Favoritism Does Not Occur

- when the members of the ingroup are clearly inferior to other groups on an important dimension • Members of low-status groups show less ingroup favoritism than do members of high-status groups and may even display outgroup favoritism, in which they admit that the other groups are better than they are - when a member of one's own group behaves in a way that threatens the positive image of the ingroup → black sheep effect

Which of the following is perceived as the most attractive waist-to-hip ratio for women and wait-to-shoulder ratio for men?

.7

most effective group size

4-5 people

In an experiment on attraction, participants were asked to rate how attractive they found a series of facial pictures. Which of the following would be rated most attractive?

A composite of 50 faces

Social Loafing

A group process loss that occurs when people do not work as hard in a group as they do when they are alone

Identify the team in which member characteristics are most crucial. A. A team of doctors who perform surgeries B. A group of workers who clean roads C. Workers in an automobile assembly team D. Clerks who perform routine calculations

A team of doctors who perform surgeries

Information sharing within a group decreases if the group is given assurance that the group has plenty of time to make its decision

False

Storming stage

As the group members begin to get to know each other, they may find that they don't always agree on everything - members may attempt to make their own views known, expressing their independence and attempting to persuade the group to accept their ideas - may occur as the group first gets started, and it may recur at any point during the group's development, particularly if the group experiences stress caused by a negative event - some conflict among group members may in fact be helpful to the group → conflict may increase the productivity of the group, unless the conflict becomes so extreme that the group disbands prematurely

Identify the features that relate the most to a maximizing task. Feature 1: Work can be distributed among individuals. Feature 2: Group input can be combined such that the performance of individuals is averaged. Feature 3: Task performance is measured on the basis of how rapidly the group works. Feature 4: Task performance is measured by counting the number of units produced per hour.

Features 3 and 4

Which of the following is the most accurate description of commitment?

Feelings and actions that keep partners working together to maintain a relationship

age increasing at first marriage

• more opportunities for women • more secular • living longer • more education which pushes back marriage

Predictors of prejudice

B = f (person, situation)

Which of these is a good way to avoid groupthink? A. Have a strong leader who does not encourage dissent B. Encourage divergent ideas C. Assign a devil's advocate D. Use mind-guards

B. Encourage divergent ideas C. Assign a devil's advocate

According to Tajfel & Turner's (1979) social identity theory, we have a tendency to ______________ the in-group, and ______________ the out-group.

Bolster; derogate

Which of the following is a technique that is frequently used to produce creative decisions in working groups?

Brainstorming

Carol and Rudolph, two individuals who work in the same office, have similar education and belong to the same race and religion. Both have similar levels of intelligence and attractiveness. Which of the following is a valid observation of this situation?

Carol and Rudolph are likely to like each other.

Choose the correct answer based on the statements given below. Statement 1: Chris takes a road accident victim to hospital. Statement 2: Chris took the victim to hospital with the expectation that someone else may help him in return some day.

Chris's act is an example of indirect social exchange if both the statements are true

Group performance deficits due to Social Loafing (Latane, Williams, & Harkins, 1979) can be caused by _______________ loss and/or _______________ loss.

Coordination; motivation

Markus (1978) found that having other people around leads to an increase in performance on what kind of tasks?

Easy or well-practiced tasks

Pretend that you are "on the prowl" (i.e., looking for a significant other). When you are out searching for that significant other this weekend, you would likely...

End up with a person who is close to your own physical attractiveness level

difficult to characterize what makes a group a group

Entitativity

Identify the event that relates to the concept of entitativity. Event 1: A group of individuals who spend time together are seen as a group although their togetherness is not to achieve any goals. Event 2: A group of intelligent people work as a team to produce great results. Event 3: Two brilliant tennis players do not produce good results when they play as a team. Event 4: Workers produce more when they work in small groups.

Event 1

Identify the examples that refer to communal relationships. Example 1: James gives up his job to live with his wife who is working in a distant city. Example 2: Alfred and Jenifer live together and each keeps track of how they help each other. Example 3: Ella chooses to work as a part time employee to support her husband and kids. Example 4: Veronica and Alvin often fight about each others' contributions to their marriage.

Examples 1 and 3

A conjunctive task is one in which the groups' performance is determined by its best group member.

False

Companionate love is based on passion and to a large extent on arousal.

False

Dependency-oriented help is partial and temporary and provides information to others.

False

Illusion of group effectivity

The tendency to overvalue the productivity of groups • the productivity of the group as a whole is highly accessible, and this productivity generally seems quite good • group members hear many ideas expressed by themselves and the other group members, and this gives the impression that the group is doing very well, even if objectively it is not • group members receive a lot of positive social identity from their group memberships which lead them to believe that the group is strong and performing well

social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) ch 12

categorization leads to in groups and out groups - in groups → favoritism & heterogeneity - out groups → derogation & homogeneity • leads to stereotyping

Matt has been part of his law firm's advanced research team for 8 years. In that time, Matt's team has not brought in any outsiders or consults. Based on this knowledge, what is likely an issue for Matt's team?

Groupthink

Which of the following is used define an outcome that occurs when a group, as a result of a flawed group process and strong conformity pressures, makes a very poor decision?

Groupthink

Which of these is NOT a good way to avoid groupthink? A. Have a strong leader who does not encourage dissent B. Encourage divergent ideas C. Assign a devil's advocate D. Use mind-guards

Have a strong leader who does not encourage dissent Use mind-guards

UNC's Kurt Gray (2010) found that an initial act of pro-sociality caused participants to ___, compared to participants who did not commit an initial pro-social act (i.e., donate to charity).

Hold a 5-lb weight out to their side significantly longer

Which of the following is an example of empty love? A. Dana is passionate about a person who is not committed to her. B. Maria's partner is close to her but is not passionate about her. C. Gary has an intimate relationship with a girl he is not passionate about. D. Hugo is committed to his marriage without passion or intimacy.

Hugo is committed to his marriage without passion or intimacy.

Which of the following is a test that can measure implicit (i.e., non-conscious) racism?

IAT

Choose the right answer based on the following observations. Observation 1: Members of a group have minimal interactions with each other. Observation 2: Stable norms and roles exist for the group as a whole.

If true, observation 1 will weaken the perception of entitativity among employees.

Social facilitation

The tendency to perform tasks better or faster in the presence of others

Monica is the CEO of a private company. In a meeting, she criticizes Team A for their poor performances and threatens them that she will disband the team. In the meeting, she also praises Team B for their commendable work. Choose the correct answer based on this situation.

In this situation, Team A is more likely to show ingroup favoritism than Team B.

As the number of bystanders who are present at an emergency ___, the probability that any one bystander will help ___, and the length of time that passes before help occurs ___.

Increases; decreases; increases

• Investment Model of Relationships

Rewards \ Alternatives→Commitment→Prosocial→satisfaction Investments_/ • Don't measure relationships tit for tat but if cost overwhelms rewards you will likely leave relationship consider rewards of relationship, the potential alternative relationships you could be in, and the time you have invested in the relationship which should make you feel more committed and in turn more prosocial behavior which will increase relationship satisfaction

Social Inhibition

The tendency to perform tasks more poorly or slower in the presence of others

Which of the following statements is true of autonomy-oriented help? A. It can be a potential blow to his or her self esteem. B. It is more likely to clash with recipients' view of themselves. C. It is partial and temporary and provides information to the other. D. It solves an individual's problem by direct interference.

It is partial and temporary and provides information to the other.

Which of the following accurately defines discrimination?

It refers to unjustified negative behaviors toward members of outgroups based on their group membership.

Which of the following is an example of member characteristics of a team of workers who build houses?

Knowledge of operating concrete mixers

A group of interviewers are more likely to award the interviewees moderate or high scores rather than low scores. Which of the following refers to this tendency?

Leniency bias

_____ refers to the tendency of juries to vote for acquittal more often than they vote for guilt, all other factors being equal.

Leniency bias

Your attraction to someone is best defined as how much you

Like and want to affiliate with that person

Herman is a student of the University of California. Which of the following, if true, will make his university student membership more salient than usual?

The university team recently won a really important game of football.

Which of the following observations is true about the adjournment stage of group development?

Members are likely to show resistance during this stage.

When the outcome of the group performance is better than would be expected on the basis of the members characteristics (the group pulls harder than expected)

there is a process gain

Melinda belongs to a work team that provides support to a company's customers. Which of the following, if true, will reduce the likeliness of social loafing in Melinda's performance?

Most tasks that Melinda performs are evaluated independently by her boss.

gender differences in helping behavior

No main effect

Which of the following observations is indicative of the avoidant attachment style? Observation 1: Rose considers her parents available and responsive caregivers. Observation 2: Teresa is afraid of her parents and has a cold relationship with them. Observation 3: Liza is overly dependent on her parents Observation 4: Robert demands more affection from his parents.

Observation 2

attractive people are seen as

better friends and partners

Wright et al (1997)

Participants were four groups of 14 students, and each group spent a whole day in the lab - On arrival, 7 participants were assigned to the "green" group, and 7 to the "blue" group, supposedly on the basis of similar interests. • Group members wore their color t-shirt - Then one participant was randomly selected from each group and went to a different room where they engaged in a relationship-building task - then they were reunited with their original groups, where they were encouraged to describe their experience with the other group member in the friendship-building task - In the final phase, the groups then engaged in another competitive task, and participants rated their thoughts and feelings about the outgroup and its members again • group relationships, which were becoming more negative, changed to being more positive after the intervention

Which of the following is best suited for extended-contact hypothesis?

Paul, who works with Molly in the same firm, is friends with Molly's African-American friend, Stevenson.

collectivism

People with strong goals toward other-concern display less ingroup favoritism and less prejudice

Research has found at least some evidence for the idea that physically attractive people are actually more sociable than unattractive people. Which of the following is a valid explanation of this finding?

Physical attractiveness leads to self-fulfilling prophecies.

Annie was murdered in a hotel room. A group of individuals partying in an adjacent room failed to notice Annie's screams. Which of the following phenomena caused this?

Pluralistic ignorance

Harry lives with his friends in a big apartment. One day, Harry was alone at home and he started hearing weird noises outside his apartment. Harry never heard these noises before though the noises were always there. Which of the following is a valid explanation of this phenomenon?

Presence of others diverts one's attention away from the environment.

Jen is in a chemistry class and has a huge semester long-project to complete with a group. Jen's group has 10 people in it because the project is so large, and the professor does not utilize team evaluations. What is likely to result in Jen's group?

Social Loafing

Which of the following is a valid observation of our social categorization?

Social categorization occurs spontaneously, without much thought on our part.

Which of the following defines the positive self-esteem that we get from our group memberships?

Social identity

self-esteem

Sociometer hypothesis (leary et al. 1995)

Why does Stereotype Threat happen?

Stereotyped individuals are afraid that their behavior may "prove the stereotype"

Stasser and Titus (1985)

Students read descriptions of two candidates, A which had more positive qualities than B, for a hypothetical student body presidential election and then met in groups to discuss and pick the best candidate - in groups in which all the members were given all the information about both candidates, the members chose Candidate A 83% of the time after their discussion - in groups where each member of the group received only part of the information • the information favoring Candidate B was shared, but the information favoring Candidate A was not, only 18% of the groups chose A, whereas the others chose the inferior candidate

Which of the following is the best example of ingroup favoritism?

Teachers assign better grades to their mentees than others.

Because groups consist of many members, group performance is almost always

better than the performance of an individual acting alone, and group decisions are generally more accurate than the decisions of any one individual

when the outcome of the group performance is worse than would be expected on the basis of the members' characteristics

there is a process loss

Which of the following groups would have the highest entitativity? A. A group of people standing in line for McDonalds B. The UNC basketball team C. A psychology class D. A large group of peers in the quad

The UNC basketball team

the goal of creating a common group identity

The attempt to reduce prejudice by creating a superordinate categorization • interdependence and cooperation → common ingroup identity → favorable intergroup attitudes

Willie is a member of a charitable organization. Which of the following, if true, would increase the likeliness of Willie experiencing groupthink?

The charitable organization is a cohesive group.

Contact hypothesis

The idea that intergroup contact will reduce prejudice - 6 necessary conditions - Brown v BoEd (1954) - May increase other-concern

Myers and Kaplan (1976)

The juries in this research were given either strong or weak evidence about the guilt of a defendant and then were either allowed or not allowed to discuss the evidence before making a final decision. • Demonstrating group polarization, the juries that discussed the case made significantly more extreme decisions than did the juries that did not discuss the case

Which of the following is a situation in which the members of a group are unlikely to show ingroup favoritism?

The members of a group believe that they are clearly inferior to the other group.

black sheep effect

The strong devaluation of ingroup members who threaten the positive image and identity of the ingroup

Which of the following is true about physically attractive people

They tend to have a higher self-esteem They tend to make more money They tend to be more popular

Which of the following is NOT true about physically attractive people:

They tend to smell better

how effective is brainstorming

there is very little evidence to suggest that it works • Paulus and Dzindolet (1993) - production blocking • Evaluative apprehension • social loafing

A unitary task is one in which the work cannot be divided up among individuals.

True

An individual will help another individual if there is a sense of perceived similarity.

True

Charles works harder when his performance is evaluated individually rather than as a part of a group. This is an example of social loafing.

True

Conservatives are likely to believe that people get what they deserve in life.

True

Secure attachment style is a healthy attachment style seen in children.

True

Stereotypes are beliefs about the characteristics of the groups around us.

True

The Jigsaw Classroom is an approach to learning in which students from different racial or ethnic groups work together.

True

Ultimate attribution error results in the tendency for competing groups to perceive each other extremely and unrealistically negatively.

True

It is easier to get answers from an Internet users group when the questions are directed to a smaller set of users. This occurrence exemplifies diffusion of responsibility.

True; Difficult

self-enhancement

We want to feel good about ourselves, and seeing our ingroups positively helps us do so - Being a member of a group that has positive characteristics provides us with the feelings of social identity • Social Identity

25 employees of an organization are seated on the same floor. If true, which of the following would strengthen the perception of entitativity among the employees?

When employees share the same values and beliefs

Process Gain

When groups work better than we would expect, given the individuals who form them • Weber and Hertel (2007)

Which of the following is a benefit of social categorization? A. It is an effective method to reduce discriminative practices in the society. B. It helps people reduce the tendency to be prejudiced. C. It provides information about people who belong to certain groups. D. It reduces the stereotypical tendencies of people.

Which of the following is a benefit of social categorization? It provides information about people who belong to certain groups.

Neir et al (2001)

White and Black interviewers asked White students attending a football game to help them by completing a questionnaire. The data were analyzed both by whether the request was to a White (ingroup) or Black (outgroup) student and also by whether the individual whose help was sought wore the same hat that they did or a different hat. • Results supported the common ingroup identity model. Helping was much greater for outgroup members when hats were the same.

Latané, Williams, and Harkins (1979)

blindfolded participants were placed in a room with a microphone and were instructed to shout as loudly as they could when a signal was given; some told they were shouting alone, others told they were shouting in groups • Individuals who were asked to shout as loudly as they could shouted much less so when they were in larger groups, and this process loss was the result of both motivation and coordination losses

Zebrowitz et al

both men and women prefer facial features with youthful characteristics

Social Identity Approach

a group is a group when the members experience social identity—when they define themselves in part by the group that they belong to and feel good about their group membership

oxytocin

a hormone that is important in female reproduction and that also influences social behaviors, including the development of long-term romantic attachments. - Levels of oxytocin increase when mothers nurse their infants, and its presence helps mothers and infants bond - Oxytocin leads us to trust and cooperate with others and to respond positively to others who are members of our in-groups - The experience of romantic love is also associated with the release of oxytocin

juries that are evenly split (three to three or six to six) tend to show

a leniency bias by voting toward acquittal more often than they vote toward guilt, all other factors being equal

men have a preference for women with

a low waist-to-hip ratio (i.e., large hips and a small waist), a shape that is likely to indicate fertility - women prefer men with a more masculine-appearing waist to hip ratio (similar waist and hip size) • both above may be due more to averageness than specific ratio

Authoritarianism

a personality dimension that characterizes people who prefer things to be simple rather than complex and who tend to hold traditional and conventional values; positively correlated with prejudice • have a need to self-enhance and in part because they prefer simplicity and thus find it easy to think simply • less authoritarianism = less ingroup favoritism • cognitive inflexibility, steeped in tradition

Social dominance orientation (SDO)

a personality variable that refers to the tendency to see and to accept inequality among different groups • acceptability of some people having more than others, inequality

Social group

a set of individuals with a shared purpose and who normally share a positive social identity - form the basis of human culture and productivity - produce some of our most profound disappointments • sometimes create the very opposite of what we might hope for

Social group (ch.11)

a set of individuals with a shared purpose and who normally share a positive social identity - form the basis of human culture and productivity - produce some of our most profound disappointments • sometimes create the very opposite of what we might hope for

Reciprocity norm

a social norm reminding us that we should follow the principles of reciprocal altruism • forms the basis of human cooperation and is found in every culture - do unto others as you would have them do unto you

Dutton and Aron (1974)

bridge study

Helping is strongly influenced

by affective variables • the parts of the brain that are most involved in empathy, altruism, and helping are the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex, areas that are responsible for emotion and emotion regulation

Men are much more willing to have

casual sex than are women, and their standards for sex partners is lower - men are more likely to wish they had had sex with more partners • may be evolutionary to spread genes - women wish they had tried harder to avoid getting involved with men who did not stay with them • may be evolutionary because raising children takes a lot of effort

attractive people are seen as having

a variety of positive characteristics • more sociable, altruistic, and intelligent than unattractive people • more likely to be offered jobs • may live longer

Group Polarization

after discussion, the attitudes held by the individual group members become more extreme than they were before the group began discussing the topic - the polarization can be explained in terms of diffusion of responsibility - Because the group as a whole is taking responsibility for the decision, the individual may be willing to take a more extreme stand, since he or she can share the blame with other group members if the risky decision does not work out • "risky shift" (1960-1970

Which of the following is a necessary condition for the success of inter-group contact in reducing prejudice? A. mutual interdependence B. contact must occur under friendly informal conditions C. equal status D. common goals E. all of the above

all of the above

Both men and women experience jealousy

although they experience it to different extents and in different ways - Men are more jealous than women overall and are more concerned than women about sexual infidelities of their partners • Men need to be particularly sure that their partners are sexually faithful to them to ensure that the time they spend raising children is spent on raising their own children, not those of others - women are relatively more concerned about emotional infidelities of their partners • women's concern with emotional fidelity fits with a focus on maintaining the relationship intact

Empathy

an affective response in which a person understands, and even feels, another person's distress and experiences events the way the other person does • a biological aspect of human nature—an emotion that is an integral part of being human—and that is designed to help us help • allows us to quickly and automatically perceive and understand the emotional states of others and to regulate our behavior toward others in coordinated and cooperative ways • may also create other emotions

triangular model of love

an approach that suggests that there are different types of love and that each is made up of different combinations of cognitive and affective variables, specified in terms of passion, intimacy, and commitment • only consummate love has all three components

jigsaw classroom

an approach to learning in which students from different racial or ethnic groups work together, in an interdependent way, to master material. • Long-term prejudice reduction

Prejudice

an unjustifiable negative attitude/affect toward an outgroup or toward the members of that outgroup • can take the form of disliking, anger, fear, disgust, discomfort, and even hatred • Correll et al.

everyday "minor" forms of discrimination can be problematic because they may produce

anger and anxiety among stigmatized group members and may lead to stress and other psychological problems

Altruism

any behavior that is designed to increase another person's welfare, and particularly those actions that do not seem to provide a direct reward to the person who performs them

Partners who are able to remain similar in their values and other beliefs

are going to be more successful

Szymanski & Harkins, 1987

argues that we are particularly influenced by others when we perceive that the others are evaluating us or competing with us • This makes sense because in these cases, another important motivator of human behavior—the desire to enhance the self—is involved in addition to arousal

Newcomb (1961)

arranged for male undergraduates, all strangers, to live together in a house while they were going to school • The men whose attitudes were similar during the first week ended up being friends • Those who did not initially share attitudes were significantly less likely to become friends

Macrae et al

asked British college students to write about skinheads • some asked to NOT use stereotypes; others not instructed • After they had suppressed their stereotypes, these beliefs quickly popped back into mind, making it even more likely that they would be used immediately later

Darley and Batson (1973) (seminary students)

asked students in a religious seminary to prepare a speech for presentation to other students - one half of the seminarians prepared a talk on the parable of the altruistic Good Samaritan; the other half prepared a talk on the jobs that seminary students like best - expectation was that preparing a talk on the Good Samaritan would prime the concept of being helpful for these students - made to be early, on time, or late for their speech and they passed someone needing help • The seminary students were less likely to help a person in need when they were in a hurry than when they had more time, even when they were actively preparing a talk on the Good Samaritan

assessing nonverbal behaviors such as speech errors or physical closeness

asking participants to take a seat on a chair near a person from a different racial or ethnic group and measuring how far away the person sits

Collective Self-esteem scale

assesses the extent to which the individual values his or her memberships in groups in public and private ways, as well as the extent to which he or she gains social identity from those groups

Diffusion of responsibility

assume other people will do something

women have lower status than men, and as a result, they may find it important to

attempt to raise their status by marrying men who have more of it • greatest in cultures in which women are less well educated, poorer, and have less control over conception and family size - Men who, on average, already have higher status may be less concerned in this regard, allowing them to focus relatively more on physical attractiveness

in relationships that last, the partners are

aware of the needs of the other person and attempt to meet them equitably. But partners in the best relationships are also able to look beyond the rewards themselves and to think of the relationship in a communal way

children who develop secure attachments with their parents as infants are

better able to create stable, healthy interpersonal relationships with other individuals, including romantic partners, as adults

what causes stereotype threat?

caused by both cognitive and affective factors • cognitive → individuals who are experiencing stereotype threat show an impairment in cognitive processing that is caused by increased vigilance toward the environment and attempts to suppress their stereotypical thoughts • affective → stereotype threat creates stress as well as a variety of affective responses including anxiety

Communal Relationships

close relationships in which partners suspend their need for equity and exchange, giving support to the partner in order to meet his or her needs, and without consideration of the costs to themselves (Clarke & Mills, 1979) - Happier relationships - Provide benefits to fulfill needs - Increased by Reciprocal self-disclosure

persuasive arguments approach

cognitive approach that assumes there is a set of potential arguments that support any given opinion and another set of potential arguments that refute that opinion - an individual's current opinion about the topic is predicted to be based on the arguments that he or she is currently aware of - During group discussion, each member presents arguments supporting his or her individual opinions - because the group members are initially leaning in one direction, it is expected that there will be many arguments generated that support the initial leaning of the group members - As a result, each member is exposed to new arguments supporting the initial leaning of the group, and this predominance of arguments leaning in one direction polarizes the opinions of the group member

what factors may help groups exist

cognitive factors --> perceived similarity, communication, interdependence, and structure are part of what we mean by being a group, they do not seem to be sufficient • Groups may be seen as groups even if they have little independence, communication, or structure • this is because affective factors may also play a role

Stereotypes can easily influence our judgments and responses because they are _____.

cognitively accessible

Walster et. Al

college boys and girls randomly paired at a "computer dance" then interviewed separately about their own preferences and characteristics • the only important determinant of participants' liking for their date was his or her physical attractiveness

In the context of recategorization, superordinate goals result in a(n) _____.

common group identity

to figure out benefits of the group

compare potential productivity of the group to the actual productivity • the difference between the expected productivity of the group and the actual productivity of the group (i.e., the extent to which the group is more or less than the sum of its parts) is determined by the group process

Group support systems

computer systems that allow individuals to work together on creativity tasks • electronic brainstorming is more effective than face-to-face brainstorming in large part because it reduces the production blocking that occurs in face-to-face group • reduces evaluation apprehension, particularly when the participants' contributions are anonymous

Anxious partners also see more

conflict in their relationships and experience the conflicts more negatively

if you believe that prejudice is wrong, you must

confront it when you see it happening • Czopp, Monteith, and Mark (2006)

A group of workers work together in the assembly line of a company that manufactures plastic goods. The speed at which the group works is dependent on the slowest worker in the line. This is an example of _____ tasks.

conjunctive

Batson et al (1999) coin toss

created a simple moral dilemma in the laboratory that pitted the desires of individual student research participants against the interests of other students and compared what the students said they should do with what they actually did - two tasks -- In the positive task the participants would engage in an interesting task and have an opportunity to compete for a $30 prize -- in the neutral task the task was described as boring and there was no opportunity to win anything - The moral dilemma was created when the experimenter informed the student participants that there was another student who had supposedly come to the experiment at the same time, and that each student had to be assigned to one of the two tasks. Furthermore, it was the job of the student participant to determine who should get which task - The students were told that they could make the decision however they wanted and that the other student would never know who had made the decision. And they were also given a coin that they could use to help them make the decision if they wanted to use it. The coin was clearly marked—on one side it said "SELF to POSITIVE" and on the other side it said "OTHER to POSITIVE." The participants were then left alone in a room and asked to determine who should get the positive task and then to indicate what they thought the right decision should be - It appears that the students who flipped the coin wanted to be fair—they flipped the coin to see who would get the positive task. But in the end, they did not act on the principles of fairness when doing so conflicted with their self-interest. Rather, they tended to accept the results of the coin toss when it favored them but rejected it when it did not

Islen et al. (1972)

created a variety of situations designed to put people in good moods - In each of these cases, the participants who had been provided with the pleasant experience indicated more positive mood in comparison with other participants who had not received the positive experience—and they also expressed more liking for other things and other people • if you want to get someone to like you, put them in a good mood

when is stereotype threat created?

created in situations that pose a significant threat to self-concern, such that our perceptions of ourselves as important, valuable, and capable individuals are threatened

Diehl and Stroebe (1987)

created production blocking in the individual conditions through a turn-taking procedure, such that the individuals, who were working in individual cubicles, had to express their ideas verbally into a microphone, but they were only able to speak when none of the other individuals was speaking - Having to coordinate in this way decreased the performance of individuals such that they were no longer better than the face-to-face groups

we are also likely to help more often when we

model the helpful behavior of others - Viewing positive role models provides ideas about ways to be helpful to others and gives us information about appropriate helping behaviors • Hearold (1980) • Anderson and Bushman (2001)

the likelihood of poor information search and information sharing, such as that which occurs in groupthink, can be reduced by

creating situations that foster open and full discussion of the issues • ensure that the group has plenty of time to make its decision and that it is not rushed in doing so • have the group break up into smaller subgroups for discussion which increases the amount of discussion overall and allows more group members to air more ideas • using a devil's advocate - an individual who is given the job of expressing conflicting opinions and forcing the group (in a noncombative way) to fully discuss all the alternatives • An effective leader makes sure that he or she does not state his or her opinions early but rather, allows the other group members to express their ideas first and encourages the presentation of contrasting positions

situation factors that predict prejudice

depend on group norms • high conforming pressure • high groupthink • high group polarization

Bob, an eight year old child seeks his mother's help to write an assignment. Bob's mother writes the assignment herself. This is an example of _____ help.

dependency-oriented

more exposure to discrimination increase

depression, anger, and anxiety and lower levels of life satisfaction and happiness

people desire and need to

develop close relationships with others, particularly those others who help us engage in reproduction and child rearing and who provide social support

Stereotypes and prejudices may create

discrimination

larger groups are more able than smaller ones to

diversify into specialized roles and activities • this is likely to make them efficient in some ways larger groups • BUT also more likely to suffer from coordination problems and social loafing • Because individuals in larger groups are less likely to feel that their effort is going to make a difference to the output of the group as a whole or that their contribution will be noticed and appreciated by the other group members

Diversity in gender and ethnic background in group members may be

either beneficial or harmful to a group

Discrimination influences the daily life of its victims in areas such as

employment, income, financial opportunities, housing and educational opportunities, and medical care

Process losses are caused by

events that occur within the group that make it difficult for the group to live up to its full potential

People like people who

express ingroup favoritism better than those who are more egalitarian

Prejudice can also be reduced for people who have friends or who are friends with members of the outgroup, even if the individual does not have direct contact with the outgroup members. This is known as the _____.

extended-contact hypothesis

Preference for youthful partners is more important for women than for men.

false

Social categorization is an undesirable tendency with which individuals are born.

false

as a relationship progresses, the partners come to know each other more fully and care about each other to a greater degree, feeling

feeling increasingly closer to each other • closeness marked by reciprocal self-disclosure

Stereotype Threat

feeling of unease or anxiety that interferes with cognitive functioning (cognitive load) that makes performance worse - Our stereotypes influence not only our judgments of others but also our beliefs about ourselves, and even our own performance on important tasks • these beliefs may be positive, and they have the effect of making us feel more confident and thus better able to perform tasks • sometimes these beliefs are negative, and they create negative self-fulfilling prophecies such that we perform more poorly just because of our knowledge about the stereotypes

Mike seeks financial help from Kevin to carry out a surgery for his mother. Kevin is most likely to help Mike if he _____.

feels that mike is an individual like him

Steele and Aronson (1995) [class]

female Asian participants brought in to take a math test - participants filled out cover page where they had to identify sex clearly -- participants performed worse --- identifying sex provoked stereotype threat - does making the self more relevant just make people more nervous? -- No difference between performance marking race and not marking race suggesting that stereotype is real - NOT limited to cognitive tasks -- White boys did worse when reminded of race on tasks specifically natural athletic ability

Both very attractive and very unattractive people are likely to be

more arousing than are people who are more average in attractiveness, and this arousal may create strong feelings of like or dislike

Moreland and Beach (1992)

female confederates attend a large lecture class of over 100 students 5, 10, or 15 times or not at all during a semester. At the end of the term, the students were shown pictures of the confederates and asked to indicate if they recognized them and also how much they liked them - The number of times the confederates had attended class didn't influence the other students' recognition of them, but it did influence their liking for them

Weber and Hertel (2007)

found in a recent meta-analysis that individuals can in some cases exert higher motivation when working in a group compared with working individually, resulting in increased group performance - particularly true for less capable, inferior group members who seem to become inspired to work harder when they are part of a group

Tsui, Egan, and O'Reilly (1992)

found that highly diverse groups had lower cohesion and lower social identity in comparison with groups that were more homogeneous - if there are differences in status between the members of the different ethnic or gender groups (such as when men have higher status than women), members of the group with lower status may feel that they are being treated unfairly, particularly if they feel that they do not have equal opportunities for advancement, and this may produce intergroup conflict

Paulus and Dzindolet (1993)

found that social loafing in brainstorming groups occurred in part because individuals perceived that the other group members were not working very hard, and they matched they own behavior to this perceived norm

Strube et al (1981)

found that the presence of spectators increased the speed of joggers only when the spectators were facing the joggers and thus could see them and assess their performance

Jones (1974)

found that the skill of individual baseball players accounted for 99% of the team performance on baseball teams (and thus group process accounted for only 1%) but that the skill of individual basketball players accounted for only 35% of the team performance on basketball teams (and thus group process accounted for 65%)

Relationship (dis)Satisfaction

four horsemen of the apocalypse (Gottman) - criticism - defensiveness - stonewalling - contempt • open, clear communication is best antidote

Groups have more entitativity when the group members have

frequent interaction and communication with each other. - Interaction does not equal proximity • Particularly important when it is accompanied by interdependence

Linville and Jones (1980)

gave research participants a list of trait terms and asked them associate traits with their ingroup or an outgroup • Used fewer terms to describe outgroup and more to describe ingroup

Adjournment stage

group eventually comes to an end - Because... • the task for which the group was formed has been completed • the group members have developed new interests outside the group - frequently stressful, and participants may resist the breakup

Pluralistic Ignorance

group is doing something contrary to the situation so you assume they know something you don't and you follow them

brainstorming is less effective than expected because

group members are required to do other things in addition to being creative • modifications of the original brainstorming procedures have been found to be quite effective in producing creative thinking in groups • Techniques that make use of initial individual thought, which is later followed by group discussion, represent the best approaches to brainstorming and group creativity

One study has found that after group discussions on racial issues, students low in prejudice were even less prejudiced, whereas students moderate or high in prejudice became even more prejudiced. These findings support the notion of

group polarization

Wood (1987)

groups composed of both men and women tended to outperform same-sex groups - groups made up only of men performed well on tasks that involved task-oriented activities - groups of women did better on tasks that involved social interaction

"risky shift" (1960-1970)

groups make risker decisions than individuals but not always! - Only applies when group feels similarly to your beginning attitude and the more you discuss, the more polarized you become - Reaffirm stances by sticking with group and becoming more polarized • Diversity decreases polarization Initial attitudes become stronger after group interaction

Process Loss

groups perform more poorly than we would expect, given the characteristics of the members of the group.

Irving Janis (1970s)

groupthink

physically attractive people are seen as

more dominant, sexually warm, mentally healthy, intelligent, and socially skilled than are physically unattractive people - because of this, they receive many social benefits from others • get better grades on essay exams • more successful on job interviews • receive lighter sentences in court judgments - seen as these things, but also ARE these things • likely due to self-fulfilling prophecies

Schmitt, Silvia, and Branscombe (2000)

had groups of female college students perform a creativity task and then gave them feedback indicating that although they themselves had performed very poorly, another woman in their group had performed very well - in some experimental conditions, the women were told that the research was comparing the scores of men and women (which was designed to increase categorization by gender) • In these conditions, rather than being saddened by the upward comparison with the other woman, participants used the successful performance of the other woman to feel good about themselves, as women

Mackie (1986)

had participants listen to three people discussing a topic, supposedly so that they could become familiar with the issue themselves to help them make their own decisions. However, the individuals that they listened to were said to be members of a group that they would be joining during the upcoming experimental session, members of a group that they were not expecting to join, or some individuals who were not a group at all. - the perceived norms of the (future) ingroup were seen as more extreme than those of the other group or the individuals, and that the participants were more likely to agree with the arguments of the ingroup

Czopp, Monteith, and Mark (2006)

had white participants do a task that naturally elicited stereotyped responses, then confederates confronted those responses - Although the confrontation made the person dislike the confederate, they made fewer prejudiced and stereotyped responses on later tasks

Correll et al.

had white participants shoot black or white people if they thought they had a weapon • Shot at black people more than white people even when there was no weapon

People who are happily married are also

happier overall and have better psychological and physical health. And at least for men, marriage leads to a longer life

partners must refrain from engaging in behaviors that are

harmful to the relationship, such as cheating on a partner, because these are naturally disruptive to a happy relationship • jealously can harm relationships

although helping others can be costly to us as individuals, altruism does

have a clear benefit for the group as a whole • in an evolutionary sense the survival of the individual is less important than the survival of the individual's genes • if a given behavior such as altruism enhances our reproductive success by helping the species as a whole survive and prosper, then that behavior is likely to increase fitness, be passed on to subsequent generations, and become part of human nature

The presence of others who expect us to do well and who are thus likely to be particularly distracting has been found to

have important consequences in some real-world situations • Baumeister and Steinhilber (1984) → found that professional athletes frequently performed more poorly than would be expected in crucial games that were played in front of their own fans

As small working groups, juries

have the potential to produce either good or poor decisions, depending on many factors - a good decision is based on both person characteristics and group process • group process plays a more important role in the outcome of jury decisions than do member characteristics

Most develop

healthy or secure attachment styles

other determinants of perceived attractiveness

healthy skin, good teeth, smiling, good grooming

Evolutionary psychologists have proposed that we experience romantic love to

help increase our evolutionary fitness • love helps couples work together to improve the relationship by coordinating and planning activities and by increasing commitment to the partnership • may help people avoid being attracted to other people who may pose a threat to the stability of the relationship

people who feel primarily distress tend to

help only if they cannot avoid the negative affect they are experiencing by leaving the scene of the person in need.

a good way to reduce prejudice is to

help people create closer connections with members of different groups • Contact hypothesis

Sechrist and Stangor (2001)

high or low racist White college students were provided with information indicating that their prejudiced or unprejudiced beliefs were either shared or not shared by the other students at their university - students were asked to take a seat in a hallway to wait for the next part of the experiment - A Black confederate was sitting in one seat at the end of the row, and the dependent measure was how far away the students sat from her • Low racist White college students sat closer to the Black confederate when they had been told that their beliefs were shared with other whites at the university • High racist White college students sat farther away from the Black confederate when they had been told that their beliefs were shared with other whites at the university

we want to be around

high status people but this is limited by the principles of social exchange • The basic principles of social exchange and equity dictate that there will be general similarity in status among people in close relationships because attractiveness is a resource that allows people to attract other people with resources • When attractiveness doesn't match, we may well assume that the less attractive partner is offering some type of (perhaps less visible) social status in return

the perceived closeness between romantic partners can be a better predictor of

how long a relationship will last than is the number of positive feelings that the partners indicate having for each other

when our contributions to the group are

identifiable as our own, and particularly when we receive credit for those contributions, we feel that our performance counts, and we are less likely to loaf

Social allergy phenomenon

if you start out with a slightly negative view then exposure, hatred may occur

Adrian believes groups are much more productive than individuals. This is an example of _____.

illusion of group effectivity

stereotypes and prejudice are powerful largely because they are

important social norms that are part of our culture

In many experiments, they have found that when empathy is high

most people help regardless of whether or not they can easily escape the situation

evolution "the social animal"

in the past, if we weren't social, we died

partners must share

in the sense that they are willing to express their thoughts about each other

Positive moods have been shown to

increase many types of helping behavior and it's easy to put people in a good mood

from age 3-6 children's tendency to favor ingroup

increases and begins to influence their behavior

the existence of a rival outgroup

increases polarization as the group members attempt to differentiate themselves from the other group by adopting more extreme positions

attachment style

individual differences in how people relate to others in close relationships • learned in childhood as children develop either a healthy or an unhealthy attachment style with their parents

Because they are so highly cognitively accessible, and because they seem so "right," our stereotypes easily

influence our judgments of and responses to those we have categorized

Mary thinks that the women in her office are friendlier than the men. This is an example of _____.

ingroup favoritism

The black sheep effect is likely to occur when an _____.

ingroup member violates group norms

Dobris Networks Inc. provides network traffic awareness, analysis, and control solutions for broadband service providers in USA. The company plans to expand its business in Austria. The directors of the company want a group of top level managers to take a call on the expansion strategy by studying the situation on hand. The task assigned to the group is an example of _____ tasks.

intellective

Norma, your friend, tells you that she is deeply in love with Albert. Norma is experiencing a(n) _____.

interpersonal attraction

stage 2 of helping: interpret

interpret situation properly - Pluralistic Ignorance

When the partners in a relationship feel that they are close, and when they indicate that the relationship is based on caring, warmth, acceptance, and social support, we can say that the relationship is

intimate • likely to think of the couple as "we" rather than as two separate individuals • better able to maintain positive feelings about the relationship while at the same time being able to express negative feelings and to have accurate (although sometimes less than positive) judgments of the other • may also use their close partner's positive characteristics to feel better about themselves

affect

is particularly important in interpersonal relationships

- Process losses in groups occur in part simply because

it is difficult for people to work together

coordination losses

it is difficult to perfectly coordinate the input of the group members, the likely result is a process loss - become more problematic as the size of the group increases because it becomes correspondingly more difficult to coordinate the group members

contact will only be effective if

it provides information demonstrating that the existing stereotypes held by the individuals are incorrect - Intergroup contact is also more successful when the people involved in the contact are motivated to learn about the others - interdependence this motivation • jigsaw classroom

commitment and interdependence help relationships

last longer, but they also make breakups more difficult

Our stereotypes and prejudices are _____.

learned through many different processes

Group members with lower status may have

less confidence and thus be unlikely to express their opinions

education makes us

less prejudiced • due in large part to the new social norms that people are introduced to in school • Sechrist and Stangor (2001)

Anxious men and women tend to be

less warm with their partners, are more likely to get angry at them, and have more difficulty expressing their feelings

those with youthful faces are more

liked, judged as warmer and more honest, and receive other positive outcomes - also seem as less competent however

Companionate love

love that is based on friendship, mutual attraction, common interests, mutual respect, and concern for each other's welfare

Altruism can even be found in

low-level organisms, such as the cellular slime molds

The pain of a loss may be

magnified when people feel that they have been rejected by the other • makes people sad, angry, more likely to break social norms, and more focused on self-concern • The ability to effectively self-regulate is lowered, and people are more likely to act on their impulses • people who have been rejected are also more motivated by other-concern; they are particularly likely to try to make new friends to help make up for the rejection

interacting with others over the Internet helps us

maintain close ties with our family and friends and in many cases helps us form intimate and rewarding relationships

although contact may improve prejudice, it may

make it worse if it is not implemented correctly • groups are going to have better attitudes toward each other when they see themselves more similarly to each other—when they feel more like one large group than a set of smaller groups • Sherif, Harvey, White, Hood, and Sherif (1961)

alternative approach

makes use of the affective feelings that we have toward the groups that we belong to

Ultimate attribution error

making trait attributions in ways that benefit one's ingroups, just as they make trait attributions that benefit themselves • results in the tendency for each of the competing groups to perceive the other group extremely and unrealistically negatively

Batson et al. (1983, study 2) shock vid

male and female college students watched another person of the same sex who they thought was working on series of tasks in the next room (the person was actually on a prerecorded videotape, although the participants did not know that) - During the time the students were watching, and as part of the experiment, the other person also supposedly received some mild electric shocks - The students who were observing were randomly assigned to one of two experimental conditions -- The students who were in the easy-escape condition were told that although the other person would be completing 10 shock trials, they only needed to watch the first two, after which they could leave -- The students in the difficult-escape condition, however, were told that they would need to watch all 10 of the shock trials - when the participants knew that they could leave relatively quickly (the easy-escape condition), then the people who were feeling empathy helped, whereas those who were feeling distress did not. - when the participants knew that they were going to have to view all the trials (the difficult-escape condition), the participants who felt distress were more likely to help than were those who were feeling empathy

White et al (1981)

male college students, were asked to complete a number of different tasks in a laboratory setting - the men were asked to run in place for either a short time (15 seconds) or a longer time (120 seconds) - Then the men viewed a videotape of either an attractive or an unattractive woman who was supposedly a sophomore at the college -- she talked about her hobbies and career interests and indicated that she was interested in meeting people and did not have a boyfriend --- found that the heart rate and other signs of physiological arousal were higher for the participants who had exercised longer --- They did not find that the arousal created by running in place for 2 minutes increased or decreased liking directly, but they did find an interaction between arousal level and the attractiveness of the woman being judged

for men we also prefer

masculine faces in addition to youth • masculine → low, broad jaws and with pronounced bone ridges and cheekbones

Bond and Titus (1983)

meta-analysis found that the presence of others did significantly increase the rate of performance on simple tasks and decrease both the rate and the quality of performance on complex tasks

Groups that set specific, difficult, and yet attainable goals are

much more effective than groups that are given goals that are not very clear - some evidence that it is useful to let the group choose its own goals rather than assigning goals to the group • tend to select more challenging goals, and because they have set them themselves, they do not need to be convinced to accept them as appropriate - even assigned goals are effective as long as they are seen as legitimate and attainable

stage 1 of helping: notice

must capture the attention of others

One difficulty with many working groups is that

once they have developed a set of plans or strategies, these plans become established social norms, and it becomes very difficult for the group to later adopt new, alternative, and perhaps better, strategies

Production Blocking

only one person can speak at a time, and this can cause people to forget their ideas because they are listening to others, or to miss what others are saying because they are thinking of their own ideas; although individuals working alone can spend the entire available time generating ideas, participants in face-to-face groups must perform other tasks as well, and this reduces their creativity • Diehl and Stroebe (1987)

Drive Arousal Model (Zajonc, 1965)

other present - arousal -- well-learned>perform better (social facilitation) -- new/novel>perform worse (social inhibition)

helping is both part of

our basic human biological nature and also in part learned through our social experiences with other people • people will be more likely to help when they receive rewards for doing so

Our reactions to others are influenced not only by

our genetic relationship to them but also by their perceived similarity to us • help friends more than we help strangers • help members of our in-groups more than we help members of out-groups • help people who are more similar to us more generally - possible that similarity is an important determinant of helping because we use it as a marker—although not a perfect one—that people share genes with us

we are indeed particularly helpful to

our kin

Social Categorization distorts...

our perceptions → we tend to exaggerate the differences between people from different social groups while also perceiving members of groups (and particularly outgroups) as more similar to each other than they actually are - overgeneralization makes it more likely that we will think about and treat all members of a group the same way • Tajfel and Wilkes (1963) - outgroup homogeneity

stereotypes are often used

out of our awareness, which makes it very difficult for us to correct for them

anxious/ambivalent attachment style

overly dependent upon the parents and continually seeking more affection from them than they can give; anxious about whether the parents will reciprocate closeness -feel negatively about themselves; positive thoughts of other

hormone most directly involved in interpersonal attraction

oxytocin

Nominal group technique

participants first work alone to generate and write down their ideas before the group discussion starts, and the group then records the ideas that are generated. In addition, a round-robin procedure is used to make sure that each individual has a chance to communicate his or her ideas

People in long-term relationships who are most satisfied with their partners report that they still feel

passion for their partners—they still want to be around them as much as possible, and they enjoy making love with them • the more they love their partners, the more attractive they find them • the high levels of passionate love that are experienced in initial encounters are not likely to be maintained throughout the course of a long-term relationship, more likely to be companionate love

The male sex hormone testosterone also relates to liking, but particularly for

passionate love • related to an increased sex drive in both men and women • over the long term, testosterone does not help people stay together • men in long-term relationships have relatively lower levels of testosterone, and people who are married have lower levels of testosterone in comparison with people who are single

Breaking up is painful, but

people do recover from it, and they usually move on to find new relationships

Regan et al (1972) camera

students were led to believe that they had broken another person's camera, which in turn made them feel guilty. Then another person presented a need for help • the students who were feeling guilty were more likely to help the second person than were those who were not feeling guilty

Proximity Liking

people tend to become better acquainted with, and more fond of, each other when the social situation brings them into repeated contact

fearful-avoidant attachment

people who are not meeting goals of either self-concern or other-concern - negative thoughts of self and partner

Baaren, Holland, Kawakami, and van Knippenberg (2004)

people who had been mimicked were more likely to help, by picking up pens that had fallen on the floor and by donating to a charity • likely due to perceived similarity

mindguards

people whose job it is to help quash dissent and to increase conformity to the leader's opinions

secure attachment styles

perceive their parents as safe, available, and responsive caregivers and are able to relate easily to them so the parents successfully create appropriate feelings of affiliation and provide a secure base from which the child feels free to explore and then to return to • positive feelings about themselves and also about others

stereotype threat

performance decrements that are caused by the knowledge of cultural stereotypes • women do worse at math when reminded of that stereotype

Once they become established, stereotypes (like any other cognitive representation) tend to

persevere • stereotypes are maintained because information that confirms our stereotypes is better remembered than information that disconfirms them • difficult to change because they are so important to us—they become an integral and important part of our everyday lives in our culture

Evaluators tend to give better grades to good-looking students than the unpleasant ones. This tendency is due to the _____ stereotype.

physical attractiveness

both men and women value

physical attractiveness, as well as certain personality characteristics, such as kindness, humor, dependability, intelligence, and sociability; this is true across many different cultures - physical attraction is most important for men and youthfulness is more important to them than to women • younger people may be more fertile - social status of potential partner is more important for women

Anderson and Bushman (2001) video games

playing violent video games led to a decrease in helping

actual productivity =

potential productivity − process loss + process gain

Calvin hates the members of a certain religious community. The negative attitude that Calvin displays toward the community is an example of _____.

prejudice

The Extended-Contact Hypothesis

prejudice can also be reduced for people who have friends who are friends with members of the outgroup, even if the individual does not have direct contact with the outgroup members himself or herself - Wright et al (1997)

Madon et al (2001)

presented U.S. college students with a list of 84 trait terms and asked them to indicate for which groups each trait seemed appropriate - participants tended to agree about what traits were true of which groups, and this was true even for groups of which the respondents were likely to never have met a single member

Extreme levels of diversity, however, may be

problematic for group process • may be harder for diverse groups to get past the formation stage and begin to work on the task, and once they get started, it may take more time for them to make a decision • more turnover over time • increased conflict

If dominant response is correct

process gain • Likely when task is relatively easy or learned very well

If dominant response is incorrect

process loss • Likely when task is difficult or not well learned

group diversity may produce either

process losses or process gains, but it is difficult to predict which will occur in any given group • When the diversity experience is not too extreme, and when the group leaders and group members treat the diversity in a positive way, diversity may encourage greater tolerance and also have a variety of positive group functions for the group

Kelley, Condry, Dahlke, and Hill (1965)

put individuals into separate booths and threatened them with electrical shock but each person could avoid the shock, however, by pressing a button in the booth for 3 seconds - But the situation was arranged such that only one person in the group could press the button at one time, and so the group members needed to coordinate their actions - found that larger groups had significantly more difficulty coordinating their actions to escape the shocks than did smaller groups

The strategy of busing, initiated after the Supreme Court's decision in the case Brown versus Board of Education in 1954, helped in:

reducing the number of segregated schools in the U.S.

Close relationship

relationships between people that are characterized by loving, caring, commitment, and intimacy - Determined by biological, evolutionary, individual, and cultural factors - Help us meet the goals of self-concern and other-concern

Exchange Relationships

relationships in which each of the partners keeps track of his or her contributions to the partnership

Interdependent

relying to a great degree on each other to meet their goals

The attachment styles that we develop in childhood

remain to a large extent stable into adulthood

Groups in which the members are more physically separated and thus have difficulty communicating with each other may find that

reorganize themselves to improve communication

Tajfel and Wilkes (1963)

research participants judged the length of six lines • found that the lines were perceived differently when they were categorized, such that the differences between the groups and the similarities within the groups were emphasized

we tend to prefer people who

seem to like us about as much as we like them • Relationships in which one person likes the other much more than the other likes him or her are inherently unstable because they are not balanced or equitable

Maner et al (2008)

selecting a sample of participants who were currently in a committed relationship and manipulating the extent to which the participants were currently experiencing romantic love for their partners - One half of the participants (the romantic love condition) were assigned to write a brief essay about a time in which they experienced strong feelings of love for their current partner - Participants assigned to the control condition wrote a brief essay about a time in which they felt extremely happy - Then were shown a series of attractive and unattractive male and female faces. The procedure assessed how quickly the participants could shift their attention away from the photo they were looking at to a different photo • Activating thoughts and feelings of romantic love reduced attention to faces of attractive alternatives. Attention to other social targets remained unaffected

Sociometer hypothesis (leary et al. 1995)

self esteem is a measure of how well we're doing in our social groups

group performance is influenced by

self-concern on the part of the individual group members

stereotypes become

self-fulfilling prophecies, such that our expectations about the group members make the stereotypes come true • Once we believe that men make better leaders than women, we tend to behave toward men in ways that makes it easier for them to lead

we cannot completely rule out the possibility that people help in large part for

selfish reasons

Tajfel

separated boys into groups based on which painting they prefer then asked them to rate boys in their group and the other group - Consistently rated ingroup boys higher than outgroup boys, even if doing so made the ingroup boys receive fewer points overall (i.e. rewarding 8-3 vs. 13-13, simply to give the outgroup fewer points

people tend to like and associate with others who

share their age, education, race, religion, level of intelligence, and socioeconomic status

Relationships are more likely to develop and be maintained to the extent that the partners

share values and beliefs

Langlois and Rodman (1990)

showed college students composite faces of men and women and found that the more faces were averaged into the stimulus, the more attractive it was judged • average faces are more similar to the ones that we have frequently seen, thus are more familiar to us

Groups also tend to recruit new members who are

similar to the current members, in the sense that they have personalities, beliefs, and goals that match those of the existing members • Similarity among group members will likely help the group reach consensus on the best approaches to performing a task and may lead it to make decisions more quickly and effectively

what is probably the most important single determinant of liking

similarity

Studies on the effects of categorizing individuals into social groups have shown which of the following?

simply dividing people into "minimal" groups may result in in-group favoritism.

people with avoidant personality types

simply have trouble creating close relationships at all - difficulty expressing emotions, and experience more negative affect in their interactions - trouble understanding other's emotions - show a relative lack of interest in learning about their romantic partner's thoughts and feelings

Your perception of others is based on a range of such classifications as men versus women, old people versus young people, and Blacks versus Whites. This process of organizing others into groups is called _____.

social categorization

some preferences due to

social factors - thinness in western cultures • not the attractive norm in the 40s and 50s

In a study asking participants to clap or cheer as loudly as they could, Latane and his colleagues found that when performing collectively, the sound pressure generated by each individual decreased as the size of the group increased. These results evidence...

social loafing

Social support

the approval, assistance, advice, and comfort that we receive from those with whom we have developed stable positive relationships

Festinger, Schachter, and Back (1950)

studied friendship formation in people who had recently moved into a large housing complex o found not only that people became friends with those who lived near them but that people who lived nearer the mailboxes and at the foot of the stairway in the building (where they were more likely to come into contact with others) were able to make more friends than those who lived at the ends of the corridors in the building and thus had fewer social encounters with others

McKenna, Green, and Gleason (2002)

studied how relationships developed online using laboratory studies - a previously unacquainted male and female college student met each other for the first time either in what they thought was an Internet chat room or face-to-face • Those who met first on the Internet reported liking each other more than those who met first face-to-face—even when it was the same partner that they had met both times • also report being better able to express their own emotions and experiences to their partners online than in face-to-face meetings

Sherif, Harvey, White, Hood, and Sherif (1961)

studied the group behavior of 11-year-old boys at a summer camp - During the first week of the camp, the boys were divided into two groups that camped at two different campsites -- Friendly relationships formed between the boys in their groups - At the end of this one-week baseline period, it was arranged that the two groups of boys would become aware of each other's presence -- researchers worked to create conditions that led to increases in each group's social identity and at the same time created negative perceptions of the other group -- created ingroup favoritism and prejudice, and discrimination quickly followed - tried to make the groups closer by making them work together to solve a problem -- presented boys with superordinate goals --- superordinate goals → goals that were both very important to them and yet that required the cooperative efforts and resources of both the Eagles and the Rattlers to attain -- As the children worked together to meet these goals, the negative perceptions of the group members gradually improved; there was a reduction of hostility between the groups and an emergence of more positive intergroup attitudes

attracted to faces that are more

symmetrical • perhaps because perceived as healthier and better reproductive mates • seem more familiar and less threatening

Aron et al (1997)

test whether self-disclosure of intimate thoughts to others would increase closeness - paired college students with another student, one whom they did not know and asked them to share some intimate thoughts with each other by asking and answering questions • the students who disclosed more intimate experiences reported feeling significantly closer to each other at the end of the conversation.

Steele and Aronson (1995)

tested whether blacks do more poorly in school because of the activation of negative stereotypes • Black college students performed worse on GRE math when described as "diagnostic of their mathematical ability" (making bad at school stereotype relevant) but not when called "an exercise in problem solving." • when Black students were asked to indicate their race before they took a math test (again activating the stereotype), they performed more poorly than they had on prior exams

Brown v BoEd (1954)

the Supreme Court agreedthat busing Black children to schools attended primarily by White children, and vice versa, would produce positive outcomes on intergroup attitudes, not only because it would provide Black children with access to better schools, but also because the resulting intergroup contact would reduce prejudice between Black and White children - Policy was effective in • Changing school makeup • Improving the education and occupational achievement of Blacks • Increased blacks desire to interact with Whites

Dominant Response

the action that we are most likely to emit in any given situation • Presence of others → arousal → dominant response

Norming and performing stage

the appropriate norms and roles for the group are developed, allowing the group to establish a routine and effectively work together - individual group members may report great satisfaction and identification with the group, as well as strong group identity

social categorization is most powerful and important when

the categorization becomes more emotionally involving and is into liked ingroups and potentially disliked outgrips - evolutionarily functional for ancestors who lived in small groups to view members of other groups as different and potentially dangerous • naturally occurring tendencies may lead us to prefer people who are like us, and in some cases even to unfairly reject people from outgroups

group process

the events that occur while the group is working together on the task

Interdependence

the extent to which the group members are mutually dependent upon each other to reach a goal - When group members are interdependent, they report liking each other more, tend to cooperate and communicate with each other to a greater extent, and may be more productive

Commitment

the feelings and actions that keep partners working together to maintain the relationship • partners who are more committed to the relationship see their mates as more attractive than others, are less able to imagine themselves with another partner, express less interest in other potential mates, are less aggressive toward each other, and are less likely to break up • may lead individuals to stay in relationships that they could leave, even though the costs of remaining in the relationship are very high

Realistic conflict theory

there were limited resources in the evolutionary past and since groups had to fight for these resources outgroups who were also fighting for these researches became enemies

groups can make effective decisions only when

they are able to make use of the advantages that come with group membership

Reciprocal altruism is one example of

the general principle of social exchange - We frequently use each other to gain rewards and to help protect ourselves from harm, and helping is one type of benefit that we can provide to others • Can be direct or indirect

One potential problem associated with setting goals is that

the goals may turn out to be too difficult • If the goals that are set are too high to actually be reached, or if the group perceives that they are too high even if they are not, the group may become demoralized and reduce its effort • Groups that are characterized by a strong social identity and a sense of group efficacy—the belief that they can accomplish the tasks given to them—have been found to perform better

stereotypes become linked to

the group itself in a set of mental representations

Reciprocal altruism

the idea that, if we help other people now, they will return the favor should we need their help in the future • By helping others, we both increase our chances of survival and reproductive success and help others increase their chances of survival too • those who engage in reciprocal altruism should be able to reproduce more often than those who do not, thus enabling this kind of altruism to continue - many animals also engage in reciprocal altruism

Passionate love

the kind of love that we experience when we are first getting to know a romantic partner

I took a picture of Lisa and printed off two versions; one normal photo and one mirror image of the photo. I asked Lisa and her friends which one they liked better. Lisa liked the mirror image, but her friends all liked the normal photo. These results are best explained by:

the mere exposure effect

Social categorization

the natural cognitive process by which we place individuals into social groups • respond to those people more as members of a social group than as individuals • the evolved cognitive system and categorization

Personal Distress

the negative emotions that we may experience when we view another person's suffering • may cause so much discomfort that we may simply leave the scene rather than stopping.

Some westerners believe that all individuals from China, Korea, Taiwan and Vietnam know Kung Fu. This comment illustrates

the out-group homogeneity effect

When partners who have been together for a long time, particularly in a relationship characterized by interdependence and commitment, break-up

the pain is even greater • The pain of a breakup is in part due to the loneliness that results from it • lose a substantial amount of social support, and it takes time to recover and develop new social connections

• Social identity

the part of the self-concept that results from our membership in social groups - because we prefer to remain in groups that we feel good about, the outcome of group membership is a positive social identity • group memberships make us feel good about ourselves

(communal relationships) In intimate close relationships

the partners can become highly attuned to each other's needs, such that the desires and goals of the other become as important as, or more important than, one's own needs → communal relationships

people are strongly influenced, at least in initial encounters, by

the physical attractiveness of their partners

Stereotype

the positive or negative beliefs that we hold about the characteristics of social groups • cognitively accessible • may lead to stereotype threat

Social Identity

the positive self-esteem that we get from our group memberships

member characteristics

the relevant traits, skills, or abilities of the individual group members - people differ in personality factors that relate to group performance

The factors that keep people liking each other in long-term relationships are at least in part

the same as the factors that lead to initial attraction • physical attractiveness, similarity, proximity

One aspect of planning that has been found to be strongly related to positive group performance is

the setting of goals that the group uses to guide its work

The costs of helping are especially high when

the situation is potentially dangerous or when the helping involves a long-term commitment to the person in need, such as when we decide to take care of a very ill person

Group Structure

the stable norms and roles that define the appropriate behaviors for the group as a whole and for each of the members - relevant social norms → customs, traditions, standards, and rules, as well as the general values of the group • norms tell the group members what to do to be good group members and give the group more entitativity - Effective groups also develop and assign social roles (the expected behaviors) to group members

Stereotyping is problematic when

the stereotypes we hold about a social group are inaccurate overall, and particularly when they do not apply to the individual who is being judged

Interpersonal attraction

the strength of our liking or loving for another person • occurs between friends, family members, and other people as well as romantically

passion

the strong feelings that we experience toward another person that are accompanied by increased in arousal and sexual attraction

Reciprocal self-disclosure

the tendency to communicate frequently, without fear of reprisal, and in an accepting and empathetic manner • If you self disclose too much, too quickly decreases relationship strength (Aron et al 1997)

physical attractiveness stereotype

the tendency to perceive attractive people as having positive characteristics, such as sociability and competence

mere exposure

the tendency to prefer stimuli (including, but not limited to, people) that we have seen frequently • People like their reflection more than their regular face because it's what they've been exposed to, whereas friends like the regular face more • mere exposure only applies to the change that occurs when one is completely unfamiliar with another person (or object) and subsequently becomes more familiar with him or her • Later, when we are more familiar with someone, that person may become too familiar and thus boring • People rated Japanese characters more positively after they'd been exposed to them before • Need to start off slightly neutral or positive to form attraction

Ingroup favoritism

the tendency to respond more positively to people from our ingroups than we do to people from outgroups • Tajfel

outgroup homogeneity

the tendency to view members of outgroups as more similar to each other than we see members of in-groups - Linville and Jones (1980) - occurs in part because we don't have as much contact with outgroup members as we do with ingroup members, and any contact is usually more superficial • don't learn about outgroup members individually, become unaware of member differences - routinely categorize outgroup members, thus making them appear more cognitively similar

Group members, like all other people, act at least in part for

themselves - provide rewards for performance -- incentives may increase the effort of the individual group members and thus enhance group performance, they also have some potential disadvantages for group process --- group members will compare their own rewards with those of others ---- upward OR downward social comparison

we like attractive people becaus

they are rewarding • they are enjoyable to look at • being with them makes us feel good about ourselves • we like being around people with implied high status • positive features of attractive people tend to "rub off" on those around them as a result of associational learning

Groups will also be more effective when

they develop appropriate social norms

although groups sometimes do perform better than individuals

this outcome is not guaranteed

A university sends its students to other countries to reduce the impact of prejudices on them. The university's decision is based on the contact hypothesis.

true

Henry speaks openly to his partner, frequently and without fear of reprisal. He communicates with her in an accepting and empathetic manner. This is an example of reciprocal self disclosure.

true

avoidant attachment

unable to relate to the parents at all, becoming distant, fearful, and cold • negative thoughts of partner; positive thoughts of self

An active game like football cannot be split into smaller sub-tasks. Football is played collectively by all members of the team. This means that the game of football is an example of _____ tasks.

unitary

discrimination

unjustified negative behaviors toward members of outgroups based on their group membership - Price and Wolfers

situations can also increase

use of category info (automatic) over individuation (controlled; step 2) • time pressure • cognitive load • stress • low motivation (cognitive effort) (above 4 things lead to increased stereotyping)

Hearold (1980) tv

watching altruism on TV had a larger effect on helping than viewing TV violence had on aggressive behavior

we also may be more likely to help when

we are fearful or sad—again to make ourselves feel better but not as likely as when we feel guilty

We tend to like people more when

we are in good moods and to like them less when we are in bad moods • Positive affect signals that it is safe and desirable to approach the other person • negative affect is more likely to indicate danger and to suggest avoidance

We experience more negative affect (particularly anxiety) when

we are with members of other groups than we do when we are with people from our own groups, and we need to use more cognitive resources to control our behavior because of our anxiety about revealing our stereotypes or prejudices

Leslie Zebrowitz and her colleagues showed that

we like people of our own race in part because they are perceived as familiar to us

if helping can reduce negative feelings we are experiencing, then

we may help in order to get rid of those bad feelings - We feel guilt when we think that we (or others we feel close to) may have caused harm to another person • Guilt increases our desire to create positive relationships with other people

when considering whether to stay or leave

we must consider both the costs and benefits of the current relationship and the costs and benefits of the alternatives to it

Social Responsibility Norm

we should try to help others who need assistance, even without any expectation of future paybacks • involves a sense of duty and obligation, in which people are expected to respond to others by giving help to those in need

Groupthink

when a group that is made up of members who may actually be very competent and thus quite capable of making excellent decisions nevertheless ends up making a poor one as a result of a flawed group process and strong conformity pressures - more likely to occur in groups in which the members are feeling strong social identity—for instance, when there is a powerful and directive leader who creates a positive group feeling, and in times of stress and crisis when the group needs to rise to the occasion and make an important decision - groups suffering from groupthink become unwilling to seek out or discuss discrepant or unsettling information about the topic at hand, and the group members do not express contradictory opinions • group is prevented from making a fully informed decision - mind guards - isolation from outsiders → belief in group process

Group formation stage

when the members of the group come together and begin their existence as a group - Can be quick or slow - the group and the individual will exchange knowledge about appropriate norms, including the existing group structures, procedures, and routines to determine if the individual wants to be in/fits the group

Zajonc (1965)

when we are with others, we experience more arousal than we do when we are alone, and that this arousal increases the likelihood that we will perform the dominant response

Price and Wolfers

white refs give fewer NBA fowls to white players and vice versa for black refs

youth seen as more attractive in

women

groups that are characterized by diversity among members might have some potential advantages

• may reduce tendencies toward conformity and groupthink • Diverse groups may also be able to take advantage of the wider range of resources, ideas, and viewpoints that diversity provides, perhaps by increasing discussion of the issues and therefore improving creative thinking • increase positive attitudes among the group members and may increase group performance and creativity

The hormones that are released during the female menstrual cycle influence

women's attraction to men • Women become more attracted to men, especially to those with symmetrical and particularly masculine characteristics, during the times in their menstrual cycles when they are most likely to become pregnant

Anxious types also tend to

worry about their partner's love and commitment for them, and they interpret their partner's behaviors more negatively

things to do to make relationships last

• Be prepared for squabbles → working through minor conflicts helps make you stronger • Don't be negative • Be fair in how you evaluate behaviors • Don't do something dumb • Do things that please your partner • Have fun • Stop fighting

Brainstorming

• Each group member was to create as many ideas as possible, no matter how silly, unimportant, or unworkable they were thought to be. • As many ideas as possible were to be generated by the group. • No one was allowed to offer opinions about the quality of an idea (even one's own). • The group members were encouraged and expected to modify and expand upon other's ideas.

Stages of Group Development

• Group formation stage • Storming stage • Norming and performing stage • Adjournment stage

Gender x situation interaction (general helping)

• Men → more likely to help when physical strength is needed • Women → more likely to help in community/ with nurturance

Successful close relationships involve (SICIA)

• Similarity with the other • Interdependence • Commitment • Incorporation of other into the self concept • Attachment, intimacy, commitment

the different types of tasks that might be performed by groups and how they might influence performance

• Task Division • Task Combination • Group Member Performance • Task Assessment • Task Clarity

Markus (1978) → gave research participants both an easy task (putting on and tying their shoes) and an unfamiliar and thus more difficult task (putting on and tying a lab coat that tied in the back)

• The research participants were asked to perform both tasks in one of three social situations—alone, with a confederate present who was watching them, or with a confederate present who sat in the corner of the room repairing a piece of equipment without watching

- mortality salience and relationships

• become "more immortal" through reproduction • others will have memories of me/keep it alive

protect self worth after negative outcomes

• blame others

Juries, though, may work better than expected

• deliberation process seems to cancel out many individual juror biases • the importance of the decision leads the jury members to carefully consider the evidence itself

good agreement about what is attractive

• due to shared norms within cultures • evolutionary predispositions to attend to and be influenced by specific characteristics of others

Devine (1989) → Dissociation Model

• explains stereotyping and prejudice 1. When we see a person, our stereotypes are automatically activated - category info 2. Then individuating info is activated - adjust for specific person • Automatic vs. Controlled (Exerting control to individuate person from category info) • A more socially diversified social category reduces stereotyping/prejudice • Common goal-based actions with group • Openness to accommodate

in terms of person variables, there is at least some evidence that the jury member characteristics do matter

• individuals who have already served on juries are more likely to be seen as experts, are more likely to be chosen as jury foreperson, and give more input during the deliberation • jury members with higher-status occupations and education, males rather than females, and those who talk first are more likely be chosen as the foreperson, and these individuals also contribute more to the jury discussion

youthful characteristics

• large, round, widely spaced eyes • small nose and chin • prominent cheekbones • large forehead

reasons internet relationships are successful

• relationships grow to the extent that the partners self-disclose by sharing personal information with each other, and the relative anonymity of Internet interactions may allow people to self-disclose more readily • the relative lack of physical cues to a person's attractiveness. When physical attractiveness is taken out of the picture, people may be more likely to form relationships on the basis of other more important characteristics, such as similarity in values and beliefs • allows people to stay in touch with friends and family who are not nearby and to maintain better long-distance relationships • helpful in finding others with shared interests and values • major purpose of many Internet activities is to make new friends

benefits of acting prosocially (SRED)

• social capital (liked; popular) increased • reciprocity more likely • extends and maintains positive mood • diminishes own negative mood Kurt Gray, UNC social psychologist

There are a number of techniques that we can use to try to improve our attitudes toward outgroups

• students who practiced responding in nonstereotypical ways to members of other groups became better able to avoid activating their negative stereotypes on future occasions • we become less prejudiced when we are exposed to and think about group members who have particularly positive or nonstereotypical characteristics

compensatory or averaging task combination

→ A task in which the group input is combined such that the performance of the individuals is averaged

disjunctive group member performance

→ A task in which the group's performance is determined by its best group member.

conjunctive group member performance

→ A task in which the group's performance is determined by its worst member

additive task combination

→ A task in which the inputs of each group member are added together to create the group performance

divisible task division

→ A task in which the work can be divided up among individuals and different parts can be done separately at the same time

unitary task division

→ A task in which the work cannot be divided up among individuals and has to be done all at once

maximizing task assessment

→ A task that involves performance that is measured by how rapidly the group works or how much of a product they are able to make

intellective task assessment

→ A task that involves the ability of the group to make a decision or a judgment

stage 3 of helping: assume responsibility

→ one single person - Diffusion of responsibility