PSYC 326 Ch 8 Unit 3 Exam
Selective attention
The ability to concentrate exclusively on relevant stimuli and ignore task-irrelevant stimuli in the environment.
Sustained attention
The ability to maintain a persistent focus of attention over time on unchallenging, uninteresting tasks or activities or when fatigued.
Attentional capacity
The amount of information in short-term memory to which one can attend.
Stimulant medication increase sustained attention, impulse control, and persistent of work effort in __________ of children with ADHD. a. 80% b. 12% c. 60% d. 50%
a. 80%
________ of children with ADHD also meet criteria for having a specific learning disorders by late childhood when learning disorders are assessed as performing below grade level. a. 80% b. 15% c. 75% d. 50%
a. 80%
Which of the following disorders is most likely associated with ADHD that reflects problems with motor coordinating and delays in achieving motor milestones? a. Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) b. Asperger's Disorder c. Tic Disorders d. Reactive Attachment Disorder
a. Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD)
Which of the following health issues are NOT associated with ADHD? a. Diabetes b. Enuresis c. Encopresis d. Sleep disturbances
a. Diabetes
What are the cognitive processes in the brain that underlie a child's capacity for self-regulation functions? a. Executive function (EFs) b. Regulatory controls (RCs) c. Cognitive Distortions (CDs) d. Cognitive Deficits (CDs)
a. Executive function (EFs)
cognitive impulsivity
disorganization, hurried thinking, and need for supervision
Ways to diagnose ADHD
interviews observations rating scales (conners') continuous performance test IQ, achievements, & adaptive behaviors
Impaired academic functioning ADHD
lower grades (50% need tutoring) failure to advance in grade (30% fail or repeat class) special education classes 10-35% fail to graduate high school
IQ in children with ADHD
normal overall intelligence
long term effects are
not well documented
Speech and language impairments
occurs in 30-60% of children ADHD-HI have poor language skills ADHD-PI have weaker receptive and expressive vocab skills problems with pragmatics
Who does the conners' scale
parent teacher child
family characteristics
parents more negative, direct, intrusive stress lower sense of parenting competence increased alcohol increased marital conflict mothers tend to suffer from depression
cognitive processes
working memory hold info in mind can't benefit from hindsight diminished sense of time limited self awareness
genetic factors explain as much as what % of the variance in ADHD symptoms
75%
What % worldwide have ADHD
5%
ADHD is the
most heritable disorder
DZ concordance
.33
MZ concordance
.73
what presentation shows positive/illusory bias
ADHD-C
what % don't respond to medication
10-20%
what % with ADHD also have bipolar
20%
Mood disorders
20-30% experience depression
anxiety disorders
25% with ADHD will experience excessive anxiety display social and academic difficulties experience greater long-term impairments and mental health problems
For older individuals (17+) need how many symptoms to be diagnosed
5 or more
Summer treatment program
6 week program work on social and academic skills evidence based treatment developed in 1980's involve child in real activities provides a foundation learn to control behaviors organization skills learned stepping stone for families
What % of school age children and adolescents in north america
6-7%
what % respond to the medications
60-70% but most continue to have symptoms
what % with bipolar also have ADHD
80%
sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT)
A cluster of symptoms that includes daydreams, sleepy/drowsy, underactive/slow moving, tired/lethargic, easily confused, stares blankly, lost in thoughts, in a fog, slow thinking and responding, spacey/alertness changes from moment to moment, apathetic, unmotivated, or low initiative and persistence.
Hyperactivity-impulsivity
A core feature of ADHD that involves the undercontrol of motor behavior, poor sustained inhibition of behavior, the inability to delay a response or defer gratification, or an inability to inhibit dominant responses in relation to ongoing situational demands.
developmental coordination disorder (DCD)
A disorder characterized by marked motor incoordination (e.g., clumsiness) and delays in achieving motor milestones.
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
A disorder in which the individual consistently and repeatedly shows age-inappropriate behaviors in two general categories of inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity, resulting in significant impairment in life functioning.
positive bias or positive illusory bias
A person's report of higher self-esteem than is warranted by his or her behavior. This exaggeration of one's competence may, for example, cause a child with ADHD to perceive their relationships with their parents no differently than do control children, even though their parents see things in a more negative light.
quality of life
A person's subjective perception of their position in life as evidenced by their physical, psychological, and social functioning.
Combined presentation (ADHD-C)
A presentation of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder characterized by a combination of inattentive symptoms and hyperactive-impulsive symptoms.
Predominantly hyperactive-impulsive presentation (ADHD-HI)
A presentation of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder characterized by predominantly hyperactive-impulsive symptoms.
Predominantly inattentive presentation (ADHD-PI)
A presentation of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder characterized by predominantly inattentive symptoms.
Parent management training (PMT)
A program aimed at teaching parents to cope effectively with their child's difficult behavior and their own reactions to it.
frontostriatal circuitry of the brain
A structure of the brain consisting of the prefrontal cortex and the basal ganglia; associated with attention, executive functions, delayed response, and response organization. Abnormalities within this structure have been linked to ADHD.
response-cost procedures
A technique for managing a subject's behavior that involves the loss of reinforcers such as privileges, activities, points, or tokens in response to inappropriate behavior.
Presentation type
A term used to describe a group of individuals with something in common—symptoms, etiology, problem severity, or likely outcome—that makes them distinct from other groups.
Distractibility
A term used to describe deficits in selective attention.
differences in ADHD and Bipolar disorder
ADHD not agitated when moving ADHD talk a lot, BD not making associations ADHD doesn't suffer mood disorders
Inattention
An inability to sustain attention or stick to tasks or play activities, to remember and follow through on instructions or rules, and to resist distractions.
tic disorders
Disorders characterized by sudden, repetitive, nonrhythmic motor movements or sounds, such as eye blinking, facial grimacing, throat clearing, and grunting or other sounds.
hyperactive
Displaying an unusually high level of energy and an inability to remain still or quiet.
Stimulant medications
Drugs that alter the activity in the frontostriatal region of the brain by impacting three or more neurotransmitters important to the functioning of this region—dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine, and possibly serotonin. Stimulant medications are commonly used for the management of symptoms of ADHD and its associated impairments.
Executive functions (EFs)
Higher-order mental processes that enable a child to maintain a problem-solving orientation in order to attain a future goal. Examples of executive functions include working memory, mental computation, flexibility of thinking, internalization of speech, response inhibition, motor coordination, self-regulation of arousal level, and mature moral reasoning, among others.
inattentive
Lacking the ability to focus or sustain one's attention. Children who are inattentive find it difficult to sustain mental effort during work or play and behave carelessly, as if they are not listening.
impulsive
Prone to acting with little or no consideration of possible consequences. This term is frequently used to describe children who suffer from attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
Alerting
Refers to an initial reaction to a stimulus, and involves the ability to prepare for what is about to happen.
goodness of fit
The extent to which two things are suited. For instance, with respect to child psychopathology, one might use the term to refer to the extent to which the child's early temperament and the parent's style of interaction are suited to each other.
methylphenidate
The stimulant medication most commonly used in treating children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
In addition to individual suffering and stigmatizing attitudes by others, the societal costs of ADHD are estimated at _________________a year and at least ____________________ per individual in the U.S. a. $40 to 70 billion; $14,000 b. $5 to 15 million; $500,000 c. $10 to 20 million; $250,000 d. $100 to 150 million; $50,000
a. $40 to 70 billion; $14,000
Although ADHD is not associated with an intellectual deficit, children with this disorder score ________ lower on IQ tests than control children or siblings. a. 5 to 9 points b. 10 to 15 points c. 15 to 20 points d. 20 to 30 points
a. 5 to 9 points
During the 1940s and 1950s, it was not uncommon for children with behavioral issues to be incorrectly labeled as a person with ____________________, even though they displayed no intellectual disability. a. Minimal Brain Damage and Minimal Brain Dysfunction (MBD) b. Down Syndrome c. Traumatic Brain Injury d. Intellectual disability
a. Minimal Brain Damage and Minimal Brain Dysfunction (MBD)
__________________________ is a treatment that focuses on teaching both effective parenting practices and strategies for coping with challenges of parenting a child with ADHD. a. Parent Management training (PMT) b. Parental Boot camp Training (PBT) c. Parental Educational exchange (PEE) d. Anger management
a. Parent Management training (PMT)
The risk of a child developing ADHD who also has a parent with the same disorder is approximately 60% which strongly suggests that the disorder _____________________. a. Runs in families b. Is related to the mother's side of the family, only. c. Must be related to generations of poor parenting styles. d. Is the result of environmental factors such as low SES.
a. Runs in families
ADHD is more commonly diagnosed among _____ than ________. a. boys; girls b. adults; children c. children; adolescents d. girls; boys
a. boys; girls
selective attention/distractibility
ability to concentrate and ignore irrelevant stimuli more likely to be distracted by highly salient and appealing stimuli no deficits in attentional capacity
What is ADHD-C associated with
aggressiveness defiance peer rejection school suspension placement in sped classes often referred for treatment
psychostimulants
amphetamines methylphenidates SNRIs
psychosocial treatments usually recommended for the following reasons:
are as effective as medication as long as actively used many youths don't respond to medication
Which of the following statements about ADHD is TRUE? a. Symptoms of ADHD are relatively unseen in children before the age of 15 b. Children with overactive and unrestrained behaviors have been documented for more than 200 years. c. Typically children with symptoms of ADHD are untreatable due to their high levels of agitation d. ADHD is a disorder that is rarely seen among children in clinical settings
b. Children with overactive and unrestrained behaviors have been documented for more than 200 years.
Approximately 20% to 30% of children and adolescents with ADHD also experience ___________. a. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder b. Depression c. Tic Disorder d. Delusional Disorder
b. Depression
Dan is often very restless and can be found running around the classroom, bouncing on his chair, and talking excessively. These behaviors best represent which aspect of ADHD? a. Impulsivity b. Hyperactivity c. Distractibility d. Inattention
b. Hyperactivity
Which of the following refers to an inability to sustain attention, to remember and follow through on instructions, and resist distraction? a. Distractible b. Inattention c. Defiance d. Flakey
b. Inattention
Symptoms of ADHD were first described by ________________ in 1775 a. Alexander Crichton b. Melchior Adam Weikard c. Jason Spiegelman d. Thomas Paine
b. Melchior Adam Weikard
Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is categorized in the DSM-5 as a(n)_______________ disorder. a. Mood b. Neurodevelopmental c. Psychotic d. Impulse control
b. Neurodevelopmental
Twin studies have found that ________________ in the family account for only a small amount of the variation in ADHD symptoms. a. Levels of parental education b. Psychosocial factors c. Dysfunction d. Genetic markers
b. Psychosocial factors
___________________ have been used since the 1930s to treat the symptoms of ADHD. a. Lobotomies b. Stimulant medications c. Vegetarian diets d. Anti-depressants
b. Stimulant medications
Which of the following statements best reflects the current view of ADHD treatments? a. There are few treatment options available for children with ADHD which is why the prognosis for them long-term is devastating. b. There's no cure for ADHD, but a wide-variety of effective treatments are available to help children cope with the symptoms and lead productive lives. c. Children with ADHD should only be treated with stimulant medications or dietary management. d. Treatments options for children with ADHD are primarily long-term care facilities similar to institutions.
b. There's no cure for ADHD, but a wide-variety of effective treatments are available to help children cope with the symptoms and lead productive lives.
According to physician, George Sill, symptoms of overactivity and poor attention in the early 1900s were the result of a. problems with prefrontal regulation b. defective moral control c. poor parenting skills d. lack of structured nutrition
b. defective moral control
When is age of onset for ADHD
before age 12
what puts children with ADHD at risk for academic problems?
behavioral impulsivity and cognitive impulsivity
medications that reduce symptoms
block dopamine receptors involved in the reuptake increasing dopamine
What gender is ADHD more common in
boys
______________ are the most effective and most commonly used to treat the symptoms of ADHD. a. Anti-psychotics b. Gluten-free diet c. Stimulant medications d. SSRIs
c. Stimulant medications
Which of the following statements best represents the most current explanation of ADHD? a. Current models focus on the importance of increased physical agitation associated with hyperactivity, as a singular explanation. b. The most accepted models for understanding ADHD focus on inattention and problems with impulse control as the primary symptoms of ADHD c. ADHD is viewed with a multi-pathway model that includes both attention-related and motivation-related theories. d. More focus is currently given to understanding the environmental causes, such as nutrition, that contribute to the development of ADHD.
c. ADHD is viewed with a multi-pathway model that includes both attention-related and motivation-related theories.
Due to the problems with impulsivity, motor inhibition and lack of planning children with ADHD are often described by their parents as _______________. a. Insincere b. Combative c. Accident-prone d. Self-centered
c. Accident-prone
Which of the following children are demonstrating problems with Executive Function (EF)? a. Jesse can get irritated when he doesn't understand a concept in math b. Enrique feels sleepy in class when he is bored with an assignment that he has no interest in learning. c. Gregory often calls out answers without raising his hand despite remarks from his peers or reprimands from the teacher. d. Helen sometimes forgets to write down her homework, but can recall most of the information while she begins working at home.
c. Gregory often calls out answers without raising his hand despite remarks from his peers or reprimands from the teacher.
Dan is often very restless and can be found running around the classroom, bouncing on his chair, and talking excessively. These behaviors best represent which aspect of ADHD? a. Distractibility b. Inattention c. Hyperactivity d. Impulsivity
c. Hyperactivity
Which of the following task would represent the impulsivity associated with ADHD? a. Cristian will often be the last child in the classroom because he will hold the door open for all of his classmates. b. Mark is often "left behind" on classroom instructions because he will stare out the classroom window daydreaming. c. John is often reprimanded by his teacher for blurting out the answers in class without raising his hand. d. Marco will endlessly fidget and squirm in his seat in class which makes him annoying to the students around him.
c. John is often reprimanded by his teacher for blurting out the answers in class without raising his hand.
Symptoms of ADHD were first described by ________________ in 1775 a. Thomas Paine b. Alexander Crichton c. Melchior Adam Weikard d. Jason Spiegelman
c. Melchior Adam Weikard
Which of the following statements about the cause of ADHD is most accurate? a. ADHD is caused by excessive sugar intake that worsens around Halloween. b. The most significant factor associated with the development of ADHD is bad parents who typically overindulge their children which promotes poor impulse control. c. Numerous causes for ADHD have been proposed but none of have been unanimously accepted as fact due to lack adequate testing or support. d. Children develop ADHD after watching more than 200 hours of television.
c. Numerous causes for ADHD have been proposed but none of have been unanimously accepted as fact due to lack adequate testing or support.
Which of the following are NOT correct ADHD presentation-types? a. Predominantly hyperactive (ADHD-HI) b. Combined (ADHD-C) c. Predominately Impulsive (ADHD-I) d. Predominantly inattentive (ADHD-PI)
c. Predominately Impulsive (ADHD-I)
Nearly _________of parents report _______________behaviors other than the core symptoms of ADHD as be the most concerning. a. one-half; defiance b. three-fourths; compulsive c. two-thirds; aggression d. one-sixths; neuro-cognitive
c. two-thirds; aggression
ADHD-C
children who have symptoms of both inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity
mothers use of _________ during pregnancy are associated with ADHD
cigarettes, alcohol, or other drugs (contributing factors)
EF includes
cognitive processes language processes motor processes emotional processes
those who misuse alcohol and other drugs tend to have comorbid...
conduct disorder
boys often show...
conduct problems 50% who meet criteria for ADHD also meet criteria for ODD 30% with ODD will meet criteria for conduct disorders
Although symptoms can improve as a child ages ADHD continues into adolescence for at least ____ or more of elementary school children. a. 70% b. 95% c. 88% d. 50%
d. 50%
ADHD is a difficult disorder to treat because _____ of children with ADHD have a co-occuring psychological disorder. a. 50% b. 10% c. 30% d. 80%
d. 80%
Which of the following statements about ADHD is TRUE? a. ADHD can be easily identified with markers found in the DNA b. ADHD is not a real disorder and is the result of poor parenting and too much sugar in the diet c. ADHD can be easily diagnosed with a simple blood test d. ADHD has no distinct physical symptoms that can be identified on an x-ray or blood test
d. ADHD has no distinct physical symptoms that can be identified on an x-ray or blood test
________________ are used to test neurobiological theories and have revealed a consistent set of neural circuits associated with ADHD. a. Behavioral assessments b. Blood tests c. Intelligence (IQ) tests d. Brain-imaging studies
d. Brain-imaging studies
Children with ADHD often display problems with impulse control and organization. In what way(s) could these behaviors affect the life of the child? a. Children appreciate other children who don't do well in school which increases the number of positive peer relationships they acquire. b. Children with poor organizational skills may receive special services to help with this issue which could help the child succeed tin the long-run. c. Children with ADHD are often the class clown due to their high levels of energy which makes them popular amongst their peers and results in many friendships. d. Children with ADHD may experience frustration for not fitting in with their peers which can impact the child's self-esteem
d. Children with ADHD may experience frustration for not fitting in with their peers which can impact the child's self-esteem
Which of the following behaviors best reflects the features of excessive anxiety in children with ADHD? a. Children with ADHD have poor social awareness which leads to peer problems. b. Children with ADHD report bad dreams. c. Children with ADHD exhibit aggressive behavior. d. Children with ADHD worry about being separated from their parents.
d. Children with ADHD worry about being separated from their parents.
Some children with ADHD may outgrow the disorder or learn to effectively cope with the symptoms if they did not display problems with ______________. a. Depression b. Intelligence c. Hyperactivity d. Conduct
d. Conduct
The economic impact for people with ADHD across the lifespan is: a. Insignificant b. There is no economic impact for people with ADHD c. Marginal d. Considerable
d. Considerable
______________ focus(es) on managing inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive behaviors that interfere with learning. a. Parental management therapy b. Multimodal treatment c. ADHD support groups d. Educational interventions
d. Educational interventions
In an attempt to understand the cause of ADHD, researchers are studying ___________ influences, such as adoption and twin studies. a. Environmental b. Educational c. Nutritional d. Genetic
d. Genetic
_______________ by the age of 7 is the most consistent and strongest predictors of poor academic outcomes by the age of 16. a. Specific Learning Disorder b. Combative behavior c. Distorted self-perceptions d. Inattention
d. Inattention
Which of the following children are LEAST likely to be diagnosed with ADHD due to gender differences? a. Dan is often argumentative with his teachers which results in meetings with his parents. b. Raul cannot sit still for more than 10 seconds and can be found running around the room during class time. c. Albert cannot stop talking during class time even when the teacher reminds her to be quiet and her peers get annoyed with her chatter. d. Jillian is frequently inattentive and distracted in class, but she's not disruptive and doesn't cause trouble.
d. Jillian is frequently inattentive and distracted in class, but she's not disruptive and doesn't cause trouble.
Which of the following psychological disorders is positively correlated with ADHD and likely to co-occur? a. Anxiety disorders like Body Dysmorphic Disorder b. Dissociative disorders like Dissociative amnesia c. Psychotic disorder like Schizophrenia d. Mood disorders like Major Depressive Disorder
d. Mood disorders like Major Depressive Disorder
There is strong evidence that ADHD is a __________________ disorder, but biological and environmental risk factors shape the expression of the symptoms. a. Cognitive b. Genetic c. Biopsychosocial d. Neurodevelopmental
d. Neurodevelopmental
Which of the following statements about the developmental course of ADHD is correct? a. There is no evidence to suggest that temperament in infancy relates to ADHD b. There are no changes in the presentation of the symptoms associated with ADHD as the child gets older. c. Early markers of ADHD in infancy will remain the same as the child ages. d. Symptoms of ADHD change with development of the child across the lifespan.
d. Symptoms of ADHD change with development of the child across the lifespan.
short term effects of medications
decrease classroom disruption improvement in teacher and parent rating behaviors improvement in rule following improvement in peer interactions increase sustained attention persistency of work effort modest effects on academic achievement
blood flow to prefrontal regions and pathways connecting them to the limbic system
decreased blood flow to these regions
psychological measures
diminished arousal and arousability
examples of problems with sustained attention
doesn't stick to tasks or play activities does not remember and follow through has poor planning and organization problems in alerting- preparing for what is about to happen
psychostimulants affects the neurotransmitters
dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE)
tolerable outcomes
have mild problems but constantly work to adapt to their difficulties
Executive functioning
higher order cognitive processes that enable problem-solving to attain future goals occurs in only about half of the children with ADHD
emotional impulsivity
impatience, low frustration tolerance, hot temper, quickness to anger, and irritability
impulsivity
inability to control immediate reactions or to think before acting
Core features in ADHD
inability to sustain attention problems focusing overtime on uninteresting tasks, activities, or when fatigued
hyperactive
inability to voluntarily inhibit dominant or ongoing behavior
What is ADHD characterized by
inattention (6+ for at least 6 months) and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity (6+ or at least 6 months)
Girls are more likely to display what symptoms than boys
inattentive and disorganized symptoms
physical and medical concerns
increase for substance abuse (mainly those w conduct) unique predictor for nicotine use (those only w ADHD) accident-proneness & risky behaviors 30-50% show motor coordination problems 20% have tic disorder
diagnosis of childhood bipolar disorder.....
increases the risk for ADHD, but the diagnosis of ADHD does not increase the risk for BP
behavioral impulsivity
inhibiting responses when situations require it
common side effects of medication
insomnia appetite problems weight loss gastrointestinal problems headaches irritability
sleep problems
insufficient sleep or exercise doesn't cause ADHD symptoms reduction can occur if sleep or exercise levels are improved
emotional processes
lack of emotional control can't see others point of view view themselves as always doing great
ADHD-PI (sluggish cognitive tempo)
less common peer neglect comorbid with learning disorders slow processing speed difficulties with information retrieval anxiety and mood disorders more common in girls
what amount of children with ADHD receive treatment
less than half
summer treatment program (STP)
maximize opportunities to build effective peer relations in normal settings and provide continuity in academic work
combination of medication and psychosocial treatment is....
moderately more effective than medication alone
ADHD is..
neurodevelopmental disorder early age of onset chronic course lasting alterations to neural development
ADHD-I experiences
peer neglect
social problems
peer problems - often disliked & rejected by peers and have few friends unable to apply social understanding in social situations greater peer problems = more likely to drop out
ADHD-HI experiences
peer rejection
Language processes
poor problem solving skills reading comprehension problems problems with self reflection
central impairments in children with ADHD
poor self regulation difficulty inhibiting behaviors (controlling) reward and motivational deficits
what does cross-situational mean
presents in two or more settings
abnormalities in the brain
primarily in the frontostriatal circuitry (prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia) smaller right cerebral volumes (3-4%) smaller cerebellum delayed brain maturation thalamus
ADHD-HI
primarily includes preschoolers and may have limited validity for older children rarest group
moderately poor outcomes
problems in school vocational problems interpersonal problems problems with alcohol
why might some individuals have a lower IQ?
problems with sustaining attention inability to hold information in mind (working memory)
PMT facts
provide parents with variety of skills taught neurobiological basis of ADHD given set of guiding principles taught behavior management techniques do enjoyable activities with child taught how to reduce own levels of arousal
research shows differences on
psychological measures measures of brain activity during vigilance tests blood flow to prefrontal regions and pathways connecting them to the limbic system
dopamine plays a central role in the
psychomotor activity and reward seeking
bad outcome
psychopathology repeated criminal activity
low doses of stimulant medication _______
reduces impulsivity and increases attention in individuals with and without ADHD
similarities in ADHD and Bipolar disorder
repetitiveness sleep disturbances increased energy
limitations of medication therapy
some don't respond discontinuation leads to return of symptoms effectiveness w preschoolers and adolescents not well documented high doses can increase tic families reluctant to use it
hyperactive/impulsive symptoms may predispose
some to develop ODD in childhood
____________ increases blood flow to the brain to increase the efficiency of certain brain parts
stimulant medication
types of treatment
stimulant medication parental management training psychological treatment (contingency management, summer treatment program)
motor processes
stop engaging in activities that are irrelevant
what is observed in an interview for diagnosing ADHD
strengths and weaknesses history family stress and dysfunction school experiences parent-child interactions teacher interview
children with ADHD
suffer from insomnia and excessive motor activity
brain structure implicated in ADHD rich with dopamine activity....
suggesting dysregulation in brain structure
direct contingency management
systematic, reward and punishments to shape behaviors
1/3 have
tolerable outcomes, bad outcomes, and moderately poor outcomes
measures of brain activity during vigilance tests
under responsiveness to stimuli/deficits in response inhibition